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Different types of adjuvants in prophylactic and therapeutic human papillomavirus vaccines in laboratory animals: a systematic review. Arch Virol 2019; 165:263-284. [PMID: 31802228 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04479-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) causes cervical carcinoma, which and is the third most common cancer, accounting for 275,000 deaths annually worldwide. Adjuvants have a key role in promotion of vaccine efficacy; therefore, using prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines combined with adjuvant could be of great benefit in prevention and treatment of cervical cancer. There are different types of adjuvants, including MF59TM adjuvants, RNA-based, JY (interleukin2/chitosan), cholera toxin (CT), heat-labile enterotoxin (LT), Freund's adjuvant, alum, SA-4-1BBL, λ-carrageenan (λ-CGN), heat shock proteins (HSPs), juzen-taiho-to (JTT) and hochu-ekki-to (HET), ISCOM and ISCOMATRIX™, very small size proteoliposomes (VSSPs), granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Adjuvants have various functions, especially in therapeutic vaccines, and they lead to an increase in cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), so they are important in the design of vaccines. Here, we review the currently used adjuvants and their combinations with HPV protein vaccines in order to introduce an appropriate adjuvant for HPV vaccines.
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Lei J, Osen W, Gardyan A, Hotz-Wagenblatt A, Wei G, Gissmann L, Eichmüller S, Löchelt M. Replication-Competent Foamy Virus Vaccine Vectors as Novel Epitope Scaffolds for Immunotherapy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138458. [PMID: 26397953 PMCID: PMC4580568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of whole viruses as antigen scaffolds is a recent development in vaccination that improves immunogenicity without the need for additional adjuvants. Previous studies highlighted the potential of foamy viruses (FVs) in prophylactic vaccination and gene therapy. Replication-competent FVs can trigger immune signaling and integrate into the host genome, resulting in persistent antigen expression and a robust immune response. Here, we explored feline foamy virus (FFV) proteins as scaffolds for therapeutic B and T cell epitope delivery in vitro. Infection- and cancer-related B and T cell epitopes were grafted into FFV Gag, Env, or Bet by residue replacement, either at sites of high local sequence homology between the epitope and the host protein or in regions known to tolerate sequence alterations. Modified proviruses were evaluated in vitro for protein steady state levels, particle release, and virus titer in permissive cells. Modification of Gag and Env was mostly detrimental to their function. As anticipated, modification of Bet had no impact on virion release and affected virus titers of only some recombinants. Further evaluation of Bet as an epitope carrier was performed using T cell epitopes from the model antigen chicken ovalbumin (OVA), human tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TRP-2), and oncoprotein E7 of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16E7). Transfection of murine cells with constructs encoding Bet-epitope chimeric proteins led to efficient MHC-I-restricted epitope presentation as confirmed by interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot assays using epitope-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) lines. FFV infection-mediated transduction of cells with epitope-carrying Bet also induced T-cell responses, albeit with reduced efficacy, in a process independent from the presence of free peptides. We show that primate FV Bet is also a promising T cell epitope carrier for clinical translation. The data demonstrate the utility of replication-competent and -attenuated FVs as antigen carriers in immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Lei
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfram Osen
- Division of Translational Immunology, Research Program Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Adriane Gardyan
- Division of Translational Immunology, Research Program Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Agnes Hotz-Wagenblatt
- Bioinformatics Core Facility, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Guochao Wei
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lutz Gissmann
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Eichmüller
- Division of Translational Immunology, Research Program Tumor Immunology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Löchelt
- Division of Molecular Diagnostics of Oncogenic Infections, Research Program Infection and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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Duluc D, Gannevat J, Joo H, Ni L, Upchurch K, Boreham M, Carley M, Stecher J, Zurawski G, Oh S. Dendritic cells and vaccine design for sexually-transmitted diseases. Microb Pathog 2012. [PMID: 23201532 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2012.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are major antigen presenting cells (APCs) that can initiate and control host immune responses toward either immunity or tolerance. These features of DCs, as immune orchestrators, are well characterized by their tissue localizations as well as by their subset-dependent functional specialties and plasticity. Thus, the level of protective immunity to invading microbial pathogens can be dependent on the subsets of DCs taking up microbial antigens and their functional plasticity in response to microbial products, host cellular components and the cytokine milieu in the microenvironment. Vaccines are the most efficient and cost-effective preventive medicine against infectious diseases. However, major challenges still remain for the diseases caused by sexually-transmitted pathogens, including HIV, HPV, HSV and Chlamydia. We surmise that the establishment of protective immunity in the female genital mucosa, the major entry and transfer site of these pathogens, will bring significant benefit for the protection against sexually-transmitted diseases. Recent progresses made in DC biology suggest that vaccines designed to target proper DC subsets may permit us to establish protective immunity in the female genital mucosa against sexually-transmitted pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Duluc
- Baylor Institute for Immunology Research, 3434 Live Oak, Dallas, TX 75204, USA
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Karande P, Mitragotri S. Transcutaneous immunization: an overview of advantages, disease targets, vaccines, and delivery technologies. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 2012; 1:175-201. [PMID: 22432578 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-073009-100948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Skin is an immunologically active tissue composed of specialized cells and agents that capture and process antigens to confer immune protection. Transcutaneous immunization takes advantage of the skin immune network by inducing a protective immune response against topically applied antigens. This mode of vaccination presents a novel and attractive approach for needle-free immunization that is safe, noninvasive, and overcomes many of the limitations associated with needle-based administrations. In this review we will discuss the developments in the field of transcutaneous immunization in the past decade with special emphasis on disease targets and vaccine delivery technologies. We will also briefly discuss the challenges that need to be overcome to translate early laboratory successes in transcutaneous immunization into the development of effective clinical prophylactics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Karande
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA.
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5
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Abstract
Cancer is the second most common cause of death in the world. Treatment of cancer is very challenging and immunotherapy has been developed as a potential way to fight cancer. The main obstacle with immunotherapy is that cancer cells evolve from healthy body cells in response to an accumulation of genetic mutations. As a consequence, the immune system struggles to detect the abnormal cells as they are mainly recognized as self. This implies that equipping the immune system to eliminate cancer cells is tricky, yet represents a very efficient way to constrain the growth of tumors. We became interested in developing immunotherapeutical strategies against skin cancer in the context of our observations that Langerhans cells (LC) are very potent antigen presenting cells and are able to incorporate protein antigens and present them to CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the skin-draining lymph nodes. As a consequence, we developed an immunization strategy through the skin, termed epicutaneous immunization. Protein antigen applied onto barrier-disrupted skin induces long-lasting cytotoxic T-cell responses, potent enough to control and inhibit tumor growth. In this review, we suggest that immunization strategies through the skin could be a promising new approach for the treatment of skin cancer.
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Jin CY, Han MH, Lee SS, Choi YH. Mass producible and biocompatible microneedle patch and functional verification of its usefulness for transdermal drug delivery. Biomed Microdevices 2009; 11:1195-203. [DOI: 10.1007/s10544-009-9337-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Hagn M, Schwesinger E, Ebel V, Sontheimer K, Maier J, Beyer T, Syrovets T, Laumonnier Y, Fabricius D, Simmet T, Jahrsdörfer B. Human B cells secrete granzyme B when recognizing viral antigens in the context of the acute phase cytokine IL-21. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:1838-45. [PMID: 19592644 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human B cells are currently not known to produce the proapoptotic protease granzyme B (GrB) in physiological settings. We have discovered that BCR stimulation with either viral Ags or activating Abs in the context of the acute phase cytokine IL-21 can induce the secretion of substantial amounts of GrB by human B cells. Importantly, GrB response to viral Ags was significantly stronger in B cells from subjects recently vaccinated against the corresponding viruses as compared with unvaccinated subjects. GrB-secreting B cells featured a homogeneous CD19(+)CD20(+)CD27(-)CD38(-)IgD(-) phenotype, improved survival, and enhanced expression of costimulatory, Ag-presenting and cell-adhesion molecules. B cell-derived GrB was enzymatically active and its induction required the activation of similar signaling pathways as those in CTLs. Our findings suggest that GrB-secreting B cells support the early antiviral immune response against viruses with endosomal entry pathways, thereby counteracting overwhelming viral replication at the beginning of an infection until virus-specific T cells from draining lymph nodes arrive at the site of infection. Our data may also explain the elevated serum GrB levels found in the early phase of various viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Hagn
- Laboratory of Tumor and B Cell Immunology, Institute of Pharmacology of Natural Products and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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Pokorná D, Poláková I, Kindlová M, Dusková M, Ludvíková V, Gabriel P, Kutinová L, Müller M, Smahel M. Vaccination with human papillomavirus type 16-derived peptides using a tattoo device. Vaccine 2009; 27:3519-29. [PMID: 19464530 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2009] [Revised: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Tattooing has been shown to be very efficient at inducing immunity by vaccination with DNA vaccines. In this study, we examined the usability of tattooing for delivery of peptide vaccines. We compared tattooing with subcutaneous (s.c.) needle injection using peptides derived from human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) proteins. We observed that higher peptide-specific immune responses were elicited after vaccination with the simple peptides (E7(44-62) and E7(49-57)) and keyhole limpet hemocyanin-(KLH)-conjugated peptides (E7(49-57), L2(18-38) and L2(108-120)) with a tattoo device compared to s.c. inoculation. The administration of the synthetic oligonucleotide containing immunostimulatory CpG motifs (ODN1826) enhanced the immune responses developed after s.c. injection of some peptides (E7(44-62), KLH-conjugated L2(18-38) and L2(108-120)) to levels close to or even comparable to those after tattoo delivery of identical peptides with ODN1826. The highest efficacy of tattooing was observed in combination with ODN1826 for the vaccination with the less immunogenic E6(48-57) peptide and KLH-conjugated and non-conjugated E7(49-57) peptides which form the visible aggregates that could negatively influence the development of immune responses after s.c. injection but probably not after tattooing. In summary, we first evidenced that tattoo administration of peptide vaccines that might be useful in some cases efficiently induced both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana Pokorná
- Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Department of Experimental Virology, U Nemocnice 1, 12820 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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Skountzou I, Kang SM. Transcutaneous Immunization with Influenza Vaccines. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2009; 333:347-68. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-92165-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Abstract
Advances in the engineering of peptides, adjuvants and delivery systems have renewed the enthusiasm for peptide-based vaccination regimens in the setting of cancer, and there are a variety of clinical trials being conducted by pharmaceutical companies based on the use of peptides. The challenges to successful cancer immunotherapy are common to all immunotherapeutic strategies and not unique to peptide-based vaccination regimens. This review will describe the advances in the identification, design and delivery of peptides, the challenges to successful immunotherapy and will discuss potential options for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreya Kanodia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, NRT 7517, University of Southern California, 1450 Biggy Street, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Dell K, Klein C, Gissmann L. Comparison of DNA- and mRNA-Transfected Mouse Dendritic Cells as Potential Vaccines against the Human Papillomavirus Type 16 associated Oncoprotein E7. Antivir Ther 2008. [DOI: 10.1177/135965350801300409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background Dendritic cells (DCs) mediate the generation of strong cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses by functioning in antigen presentation and exerting adjuvant properties. We compared several activation markers and parameters of biological activity of DNA- and mRNA-transfected DCs in vitro and in vivo. Methods CpG-matured, bone marrow derived C57BL/6 mouse DCs were electroporated either with enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) or human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) E7 expression plasmids or in vitro transcribed mRNAs encoding for the codon-optimized E7 or a shuffled version thereof. Activation marker expression and antigen presentation was analysed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. The migratory behaviour of transfected DCs were investigated by in vitro chemotaxis experiments and cytokine expression by ELISA. CTL-priming capacity of transfected DCs were determined by vaccination of mice. Results mRNA transfection produced a two- to fourfold increase of the activation markers CD40, CD80, CD86 and MHC I and MHC II molecules. Predominately antigen-expressing DCs migrated after mRNA transfection. Furthermore, mRNA-transfected DCs were capable of inducing a chemokine gradient. After maturation, electroporation and activation with soluble CD40 ligand and interferon-γ, DCs displayed a T-helper cell type 2 cytokine expression pattern. Nevertheless, E7-transfected DCs were able to prime E7-specific CTL responses in vivo. The highest E7-specific CTL frequencies were found in mice immunized with mRNA-transfected DCs. The in vitro expanded CTLs exerted functional E7-specific cytotoxic activity. Conclusions Genetically modified DCs are suitable vehicles for the induction of E7-specific CTL responses in mice and hence could help to eradicate HPV-associated lesions in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Dell
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Corinna Klein
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lutz Gissmann
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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12
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Glenn GM, Flyer DC, Ellingsworth LR, Frech SA, Frerichs DM, Seid RC, Yu J. Transcutaneous immunization with heat-labile enterotoxin: development of a needle-free vaccine patch. Expert Rev Vaccines 2007; 6:809-19. [PMID: 17931160 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.6.5.809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The skin is an attractive target for vaccine delivery. Adjuvants and antigens delivered into the skin can result in potent immune responses and an unmatched safety profile. The heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) from Escherichia coli, which acts both as antigen and adjuvant, has been shown to be delivered to human skin efficiently when used in a patch, resulting in strong immune responses. Iomai scientists have capitalized on these observations to develop late-stage products based on LT. This has encouraged commercial-level product development of a delivery system that is efficient, user-friendly and designed to address important medical needs. Over the past 2 years, extensive clinical testing and optimization has allowed the patch to evolve to a late-stage product. As a strategy for approval of a revolutionary vaccine-delivery system, the singular focus on optimization of LT delivery has enabled technical progress to extend patch-vaccine product development beyond LT. The field efficacy of the LT-based travelers' diarrhea vaccine has validated this approach. The discussion of transcutaneous immunization is unique, in that any consideration of the adjuvant must also include delivery, and the significant advances in a commercial patch application system are described. In this review, we integrate these concepts, update the clinical data and look to the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory M Glenn
- Iomai Corporation, 20 Firstfield Road, Suite 250, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA.
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Najar HM, Dutz JP. Topical TLR9 agonists induce more efficient cross-presentation of injected protein antigen than parenteral TLR9 agonists do. Eur J Immunol 2007; 37:2242-56. [PMID: 17634951 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200636212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Topical application of adjuvant to the skin promotes the generation of immune responses to co-administered peptide or protein antigen. We demonstrate that topical administration of CpG adjuvant (a TLR9 agonist) induces the cross-presentation of, and antigen-specific CTL induction to, locally injected soluble protein antigen. C57BL/6 mice were immunized by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection with ovalbumin (OVA) protein as model antigen. Application of CpG to the local skin induced more efficient cross-presentation of the injected antigen than co-injected adjuvant. Robust antigen-specific CTL responses were generated, as determined by antigen-specific CTL enumeration using tetramers, IFN-gamma ELISPOT analysis and cytotoxicity assays. Long-term memory CTL responses were induced. Topical administration of adjuvant induced Langerhans cell migration, local type 1 IFN-dependent myxovirus-resistance protein A expression and bystander dendritic cell (DC) activation. Soluble antigen-bearing DC within the skin draining lymph nodes were mainly CD11chiCD11bhilangerinloDEC205lo. Topical administration did not result in the splenomegaly or systemic cytokine induction (including TNF-alpha, IL-12, IFN-gamma and MCP-1) noted with parenteral administration. Topical TLR9 family agonists may be used to modulate the immune response to soluble protein vaccines administered by standard percutaneous route. Topical adjuvant administration increases efficacy of CTL induction and reduces toxicity when compared to parenteral adjuvant administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossain M Najar
- Department of Dermatology, and Child and Family Research Institute, University British Colombia, Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada
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McCormick AA, Corbo TA, Wykoff-Clary S, Palmer KE, Pogue GP. Chemical conjugate TMV-peptide bivalent fusion vaccines improve cellular immunity and tumor protection. Bioconjug Chem 2007; 17:1330-8. [PMID: 16984144 DOI: 10.1021/bc060124m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Chemical conjugation of CTL peptides to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) has shown promise as a molecular adjuvant scaffold for augmentation of cellular immune responses to peptide vaccines. This study demonstrates the ease of generating complex multipeptide vaccine formulations using chemical conjugation to TMV for improved vaccine efficacy. We have tested a model foreign antigen target-the chicken ovalbumin-derived CTL peptide (Ova peptide), as well as mouse melanoma-associated CTL epitopes p15e and tyrosinase-related protein 2 (Trp2) peptides that are self-antigen targets. Ova peptide fusions to TMV, as bivalent formulations with peptides encoding additional T-help or cellular uptake via the integrin-receptor binding RGD peptide, showed improved vaccine potency evidenced by significantly enhanced numbers of antigen-reactive T cells measured by in vitro IFNgamma cellular analysis. We measured the biologically relevant outcome of vaccination in protection of mice from EG.7-Ova tumor challenge, which was achieved with only two doses of vaccine ( approximately 600 ng peptide) given without adjuvant. The p15e peptide alone or Trp2 peptide alone, or as a bivalent formulation with T-help or RGD uptake epitopes, was unable to stimulate effective tumor protection. However, a vaccine with both CTL peptides fused together onto TMV generated significantly improved survival. Interestingly, different bivalent vaccine formulations were required to improve vaccine efficacy for Ova or melanoma tumor model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A McCormick
- Large Scale Biology Corporation, 3333 Vacavalley Parkway, Suite 1000, Vacaville, California 95688, USA.
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Ghose C, Kalsy A, Sheikh A, Rollenhagen J, John M, Young J, Rollins SM, Qadri F, Calderwood SB, Kelly CP, Ryan ET. Transcutaneous immunization with Clostridium difficile toxoid A induces systemic and mucosal immune responses and toxin A-neutralizing antibodies in mice. Infect Immun 2007; 75:2826-32. [PMID: 17371854 PMCID: PMC1932889 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00127-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea. C. difficile produces two toxins (A and B), and systemic and mucosal anti-toxin A antibodies prevent or limit C. difficile-associated diarrhea. To evaluate whether transcutaneous immunization with formalin-treated C. difficile toxin A (CDA) induces systemic and mucosal anti-CDA immune responses, we transcutaneously immunized three cohorts of mice with CDA with or without immunoadjuvantative cholera toxin (CT) on days 0, 14, 28, and 42. Mice transcutaneously immunized with CDA and CT developed prominent anti-CDA and anti-CT immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA responses in serum and anti-CDA and anti-CT IgA responses in stool. Sera from immunized mice were able to neutralize C. difficile toxin A activity in an in vitro cell culture assay. CDA itself demonstrated adjuvant activity and enhanced both serum and stool anti-CT IgA responses. Our results suggest that transcutaneous immunization with CDA toxoid may be a feasible immunization strategy against C. difficile, an important cause of morbidity and mortality against which current preventative strategies are failing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrabali Ghose
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Jackson 504, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Warger T, Schild H, Rechtsteiner G. Initiation of adaptive immune responses by transcutaneous immunization. Immunol Lett 2007; 109:13-20. [PMID: 17320194 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2007.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of new, effective, easy-to-use and lower-cost vaccination approaches for the combat against malignant and infectious diseases is a pre-eminent need: cancer is a leading cause of morbidity in the Western World; there are numerous pathogenic diseases for which we still have no protective or therapeutic cure; and the financial limitations of developing countries to fight these diseases. In this mini-review we focus on transcutaneous immunization (TCI), a relatively new route for antigen delivery. TCI protocols appear to be particularly promising by gaining access to skin resident APC, which are highly efficient for the initiation of humoral and/or cellular immune responses. Consisting of an adjuvant as a stimulus in combination with an antigen which defines the target, TCI offers a most attractive immunization strategy to mount highly specific full-blown adaptive immune responses. As a topically applicable cell-free adjuvant/antigen mixture, TCI might be suitable to improve patient compliance, as well as feasible economically for the use in Third World countries. In addition, this non-invasive procedure might increase the safety of vaccinations by eliminating the risk of infections related to the recycling and improper disposal of needles. The dissection of antigen and adjuvant is important because it allows "free" combinations in contrast to classical immunizations which are based on application of the pathogen of interest. The most relevant ways and means to find new, effective pathogenic target antigens are "reverse vaccinology" and the direct peptide-epitope identification from MHC molecules with mass-spectrometry. Due to these efficient approaches the variety of antigenic epitopes for potential protective/therapeutic use is perpetually expanding. The most studied adjuvants in TCI approaches are cholera toxin (CT) and its less toxic relative, the heat-labile enterotoxin (LT). Both CT and LT can serve as antigen as well. In contrast to these large proteins, which can only penetrate "pre-treated" skin barrier, the immune response modifier, TLR7 agonist R-837 (Imiquimod) is a small compound adjuvant that easily passages non-disrupted epidermis. It remains currently elusive which cells of the complex-structured "skin-associated lymphoid tissue" (SALT) respond to the adjuvant and which APC carries the antigen to the draining lymphnodes for subsequent initiation of adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Warger
- Institute for Immunology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Obere Zahlbacher Str. 67, D-55131 Mainz, Germany
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