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Chan KI, Zhang S, Li G, Xu Y, Cui L, Wang Y, Su H, Tan W, Zhong Z. MYC Oncogene: A Druggable Target for Treating Cancers with Natural Products. Aging Dis 2024; 15:640-697. [PMID: 37450923 PMCID: PMC10917530 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Various diseases, including cancers, age-associated disorders, and acute liver failure, have been linked to the oncogene, MYC. Animal testing and clinical trials have shown that sustained tumor volume reduction can be achieved when MYC is inactivated, and different combinations of therapeutic agents including MYC inhibitors are currently being developed. In this review, we first provide a summary of the multiple biological functions of the MYC oncoprotein in cancer treatment, highlighting that the equilibrium points of the MYC/MAX, MIZ1/MYC/MAX, and MAD (MNT)/MAX complexes have further potential in cancer treatment that could be used to restrain MYC oncogene expression and its functions in tumorigenesis. We also discuss the multifunctional capacity of MYC in various cellular cancer processes, including its influences on immune response, metabolism, cell cycle, apoptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, multidrug resistance, and intestinal flora. Moreover, we summarize the MYC therapy patent landscape and emphasize the potential of MYC as a druggable target, using herbal medicine modulators. Finally, we describe pending challenges and future perspectives in biomedical research, involving the development of therapeutic approaches to modulate MYC or its targeted genes. Patients with cancers driven by MYC signaling may benefit from therapies targeting these pathways, which could delay cancerous growth and recover antitumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ka Iong Chan
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Siyuan Zhang
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Guodong Li
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Yida Xu
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Liao Cui
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Research and Development of Natural Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang 524000, China
| | - Yitao Wang
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Huanxing Su
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
| | - Wen Tan
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhangfeng Zhong
- Macao Centre for Research and Development in Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
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Papadimitropoulou A, Makri M, Zoidis G. MYC the oncogene from hell: Novel opportunities for cancer therapy. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116194. [PMID: 38340508 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Cancer comprises a heterogeneous disease, characterized by diverse features such as constitutive expression of oncogenes and/or downregulation of tumor suppressor genes. MYC constitutes a master transcriptional regulator, involved in many cellular functions and is aberrantly expressed in more than 70 % of human cancers. The Myc protein belongs to a family of transcription factors whose structural pattern is referred to as basic helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper. Myc binds to its partner, a smaller protein called Max, forming an Myc:Max heterodimeric complex that interacts with specific DNA recognition sequences (E-boxes) and regulates the expression of downstream target genes. Myc protein plays a fundamental role for the life of a cell, as it is involved in many physiological functions such as proliferation, growth and development since it controls the expression of a very large percentage of genes (∼15 %). However, despite the strict control of MYC expression in normal cells, MYC is often deregulated in cancer, exhibiting a key role in stimulating oncogenic process affecting features such as aberrant proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, genomic instability and oncogenic transformation. In this review we aim to meticulously describe the fundamental role of MYC in tumorigenesis and highlight its importance as an anticancer drug target. We focus mainly on the different categories of novel small molecules that act as inhibitors of Myc function in diverse ways hence offering great opportunities for an efficient cancer therapy. This knowledge will provide significant information for the development of novel Myc inhibitors and assist to the design of treatments that would effectively act against Myc-dependent cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Papadimitropoulou
- Center for Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, 11527, Greece
| | - Maria Makri
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771, Athens, Greece
| | - Grigoris Zoidis
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771, Athens, Greece.
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3
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Morosi L, Miotto M, Timo S, Carloni S, Bruno E, Meroni M, Menna E, Lodato S, Rescigno M, Martano G. MSIpixel: a fully automated pipeline for compound annotation and quantitation in mass spectrometry imaging experiments. Brief Bioinform 2023; 25:bbad463. [PMID: 38102070 PMCID: PMC10753532 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbad463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is commonly used to map the spatial distribution of small molecules within complex biological matrices. One of the major challenges in imaging MS-based spatial metabolomics is molecular identification and metabolite annotation, to address this limitation, annotation is often complemented with parallel bulk LC-MS2-based metabolomics to confirm and validate identifications. Here we applied MSI method, utilizing data-dependent acquisition, to visualize and identify unknown molecules in a single instrument run. To reach this aim we developed MSIpixel, a fully automated pipeline for compound annotation and quantitation in MSI experiments. It overcomes challenges in molecular identification, and improving reliability and comprehensiveness in MSI-based spatial metabolomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia Morosi
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| | - Matteo Miotto
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| | - Sara Timo
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| | - Sara Carloni
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via R. Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele (MI), Italy
| | - Eleonora Bruno
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei tumori di Milano. Via Venezian 1, Milan, Italy
| | - Marina Meroni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Department of Oncology, via Mario Negri 2, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Menna
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council of Italy (CNR) c/o Humanitas Mirasole S.p.A, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| | - Simona Lodato
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via R. Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele (MI), Italy
| | - Maria Rescigno
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via R. Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele (MI), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Martano
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council of Italy (CNR) c/o Humanitas Mirasole S.p.A, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano (MI), Italy
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4
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Tisza A, Klikovits T, Benej M, Torok S, Szeitz B, Valko Z, Hoda MA, Hegedus B, Bonta M, Nischkauer W, Hoetzenecker K, Limbeck A, Schelch K, Laszlo V, Megyesfalvi Z, Dome B. Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry analysis reveals differences in chemotherapeutic drug distribution in surgically resected pleural mesothelioma. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2023; 89:3364-3374. [PMID: 37272312 PMCID: PMC10952999 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS Pleural mesothelioma (PM) is a highly aggressive thoracic tumour with poor prognosis. Although reduced tissue drug accumulation is one of the key features of platinum (Pt) resistance, little is known about Pt distribution in human PM. METHODS We assessed Pt levels of blood samples and surgically resected specimens from 25 PM patients who had received neoadjuvant Pt-based chemotherapy (CHT). Pt levels and tissue distributions were measured by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and correlated with clinicopathological features. RESULTS In surgically resected PM specimens, mean Pt levels of nontumourous (fibrotic) areas were significantly higher (vs tumourous regions, P = 0.0031). No major heterogeneity of Pt distribution was seen within the tumourous areas. Pt levels correlated neither with the microvessel area nor with apoptosis rate in the tumourous or nontumourous regions. A significant positive correlation was found between serum and both full tissue section and tumourous area mean Pt levels (r = 0.532, P = 0.006, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.161-0.771 and r = 0.415, P = 0.039, 95% CI 0.011-0.702, respectively). Furthermore, a significant negative correlation was detected between serum Pt concentrations and elapsed time from the last cycle of CHT (r = -0.474, P = 0.017, 95% CI -0.738--0.084). Serum Pt levels correlated negatively with overall survival (OS) (P = 0.029). CONCLUSIONS There are major differences in drug distribution between tumourous and nontumourous areas of PM specimens. Serum Pt levels significantly correlate with full section and tumourous area average Pt levels, elapsed time from the last CHT cycle, and OS. Further studies investigating clinicopathological factors that modulate tissue Pt concentration and distribution are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Tisza
- Department of Tumor BiologyNational Korányi Institute of PulmonologyBudapestHungary
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer ResearchSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Thomas Klikovits
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
- Karl‐Landsteiner‐Institute for Clinical and Translational Thoracic Surgery Research, Clinic FloridsdorfViennaAustria
| | - Michal Benej
- Karl‐Landsteiner‐Institute for Clinical and Translational Thoracic Surgery Research, Clinic FloridsdorfViennaAustria
| | - Szilvia Torok
- Department of Tumor BiologyNational Korányi Institute of PulmonologyBudapestHungary
| | - Beata Szeitz
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine and OncologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Valko
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Mir Alireza Hoda
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Balazs Hegedus
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, University Medicine Essen – RuhrlandklinikUniversity Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
- Department of Pathology, Forensic and Insurance MedicineSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Maximilian Bonta
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Division of Instrumental Analytical ChemistryTU WienViennaAustria
| | - Winfried Nischkauer
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Division of Instrumental Analytical ChemistryTU WienViennaAustria
| | - Konrad Hoetzenecker
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Andreas Limbeck
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Division of Instrumental Analytical ChemistryTU WienViennaAustria
| | - Karin Schelch
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
- Center for Cancer ResearchMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Viktoria Laszlo
- Department of Tumor BiologyNational Korányi Institute of PulmonologyBudapestHungary
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Zsolt Megyesfalvi
- Department of Tumor BiologyNational Korányi Institute of PulmonologyBudapestHungary
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
- Department of Thoracic SurgeryNational Institute of Oncology‐Semmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Balazs Dome
- Department of Tumor BiologyNational Korányi Institute of PulmonologyBudapestHungary
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer CenterMedical University of ViennaViennaAustria
- Department of Thoracic SurgeryNational Institute of Oncology‐Semmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- Department of Translational MedicineLund UniversityLundSweden
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5
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Digifico E, Erreni M, Mannarino L, Marchini S, Ummarino A, Anfray C, Bertola L, Recordati C, Pistillo D, Roncalli M, Bossi P, Zucali PA, D’Incalci M, Belgiovine C, Allavena P. Important functional role of the protein osteopontin in the progression of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1116430. [PMID: 37398648 PMCID: PMC10312076 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1116430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM) is an aggressive cancer of the mesothelial lining associated with exposure to airborne non-degradable asbestos fibers. Its poor response to currently available treatments prompted us to explore the biological mechanisms involved in its progression. MPM is characterized by chronic non-resolving inflammation; in this study we investigated which inflammatory mediators are mostly expressed in biological tumor samples from MPM patients, with a focus on inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and matrix components. Methods Expression and quantification of Osteopontin (OPN) was detected in tumor and plasma samples of MPM patients by mRNA, immunohistochemistry and ELISA. The functional role of OPN was investigated in mouse MPM cell lines in vivo using an orthotopic syngeneic mouse model. Results In patients with MPM, the protein OPN was significantly more expressed in tumors than in normal pleural tissues and predominantly produced by mesothelioma cells; plasma levels were elevated in patients and associated with poor prognosis. However, modulation of OPN levels was not significantly different in a series of 18 MPM patients receiving immunotherapy with durvalumab alone or with pembrolizumab in combination with chemotherapy, some of whom achieved a partial clinical response. Two established murine mesothelioma cell lines: AB1 and AB22 of sarcomatoid and epithelioid histology, respectively, spontaneously produced high levels of OPN. Silencing of the OPN gene (Spp1) dramatically inhibited tumor growth in vivo in an orthotopic model, indicating that OPN has an important promoting role in the proliferation of MPM cells. Treatment of mice with anti-CD44 mAb, blocking a major OPN receptor, significantly reduced tumor growth in vivo. Conclusion These results demonstrate that OPN is an endogenous growth factor for mesothelial cells and inhibition of its signaling may be helpful to restrain tumor progression in vivo. These findings have translational potential to improve the therapeutic response of human MPM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marco Erreni
- Unit of Advanced Optical Microscopy, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Mannarino
- Lab. Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
- Department Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
| | - Sergio Marchini
- Lab. Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
| | - Aldo Ummarino
- Department Immunology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milan, Italy
- Department Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
| | - Clément Anfray
- Department Immunology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Bertola
- Mouse and Animal Pathology Lab., Fondazione Unimi, and Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milano, Lodi, Italy
| | - Camilla Recordati
- Mouse and Animal Pathology Lab., Fondazione Unimi, and Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milano, Lodi, Italy
| | - Daniela Pistillo
- Biobank, Humanitas IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
| | - Massimo Roncalli
- Department Pathology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Bossi
- Department Pathology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Andrea Zucali
- Department Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
- Department Oncology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
| | - Maurizio D’Incalci
- Lab. Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milano, Italy
- Department Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Paola Allavena
- Department Immunology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Milan, Italy
- Department Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milano, Italy
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Pan Z, Zhao Y, Wang X, Xie X, Liu M, Zhang K, Wang L, Bai D, Foster LJ, Shu R, He G. Targeting bromodomain-containing proteins: research advances of drug discovery. MOLECULAR BIOMEDICINE 2023; 4:13. [PMID: 37142850 PMCID: PMC10159834 DOI: 10.1186/s43556-023-00127-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bromodomain (BD) is an evolutionarily conserved protein module found in 46 different BD-containing proteins (BCPs). BD acts as a specific reader for acetylated lysine residues (KAc) and serves an essential role in transcriptional regulation, chromatin remodeling, DNA damage repair, and cell proliferation. On the other hand, BCPs have been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases, including cancers, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and viral infections. Over the past decade, researchers have brought new therapeutic strategies to relevant diseases by inhibiting the activity or downregulating the expression of BCPs to interfere with the transcription of pathogenic genes. An increasing number of potent inhibitors and degraders of BCPs have been developed, some of which are already in clinical trials. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of recent advances in the study of drugs that inhibit or down-regulate BCPs, focusing on the development history, molecular structure, biological activity, interaction with BCPs and therapeutic potentials of these drugs. In addition, we discuss current challenges, issues to be addressed and future research directions for the development of BCPs inhibitors. Lessons learned from the successful or unsuccessful development experiences of these inhibitors or degraders will facilitate the further development of efficient, selective and less toxic inhibitors of BCPs and eventually achieve drug application in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoping Pan
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
- Laboratory of Dermatology, Clinical Institute of Inflammation and Immunology (CIII), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yuxi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Disease, Department of Orthodontics and Pediatrics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaoyun Wang
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
- Laboratory of Dermatology, Clinical Institute of Inflammation and Immunology (CIII), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xin Xie
- College of Medical Technology and School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Mingxia Liu
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Kaiyao Zhang
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Lian Wang
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Ding Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Disease, Department of Orthodontics and Pediatrics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Leonard J Foster
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Rui Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Disease, Department of Orthodontics and Pediatrics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Gu He
- Department of Dermatology & Venerology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.
- Laboratory of Dermatology, Clinical Institute of Inflammation and Immunology (CIII), Frontiers Science Center for Disease-Related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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To KKW, Xing E, Larue RC, Li PK. BET Bromodomain Inhibitors: Novel Design Strategies and Therapeutic Applications. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28073043. [PMID: 37049806 PMCID: PMC10096006 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28073043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) family of proteins consists of four conserved members (Brd2, Brd3, Brd4, and Brdt) that regulate numerous cancer-related and immunity-associated genes. They are epigenetic readers of histone acetylation with broad specificity. BET proteins are linked to cancer progression due to their interaction with numerous cellular proteins including chromatin-modifying factors, transcription factors, and histone modification enzymes. The spectacular growth in the clinical development of small-molecule BET inhibitors underscores the interest and importance of this protein family as an anticancer target. Current approaches targeting BET proteins for cancer therapy rely on acetylation mimics to block the bromodomains from binding chromatin. However, bromodomain-targeted agents are suffering from dose-limiting toxicities because of their effects on other bromodomain-containing proteins. In this review, we provided an updated summary about the evolution of small-molecule BET inhibitors. The design of bivalent BET inhibitors, kinase and BET dual inhibitors, BET protein proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), and Brd4-selective inhibitors are discussed. The novel strategy of targeting the unique C-terminal extra-terminal (ET) domain of BET proteins and its therapeutic significance will also be highlighted. Apart from single agent treatment alone, BET inhibitors have also been combined with other chemotherapeutic modalities for cancer treatment demonstrating favorable clinical outcomes. The investigation of specific biomarkers for predicting the efficacy and resistance of BET inhibitors is needed to fully realize their therapeutic potential in the clinical setting.
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8
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Graziani V, Garcia AR, Alcolado LS, Le Guennec A, Henriksson MA, Conte MR. Metabolic rewiring in MYC-driven medulloblastoma by BET-bromodomain inhibition. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1273. [PMID: 36690651 PMCID: PMC9870962 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27375-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumour in children. High-risk MB patients harbouring MYC amplification or overexpression exhibit a very poor prognosis. Aberrant activation of MYC markedly reprograms cell metabolism to sustain tumorigenesis, yet how metabolism is dysregulated in MYC-driven MB is not well understood. Growing evidence unveiled the potential of BET-bromodomain inhibitors (BETis) as next generation agents for treating MYC-driven MB, but whether and how BETis may affect tumour cell metabolism to exert their anticancer activities remains unknown. In this study, we explore the metabolic features characterising MYC-driven MB and examine how these are altered by BET-bromodomain inhibition. To this end, we employed an NMR-based metabolomics approach applied to the MYC-driven MB D283 and D458 cell lines before and after the treatment with the BETi OTX-015. We found that OTX-015 triggers a metabolic shift in both cell lines resulting in increased levels of myo-inositol, glycerophosphocholine, UDP-N-acetylglucosamine, glycine, serine, pantothenate and phosphocholine. Moreover, we show that OTX-015 alters ascorbate and aldarate metabolism, inositol phosphate metabolism, phosphatidylinositol signalling system, glycerophospholipid metabolism, ether lipid metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, and glycine, serine and threonine metabolism pathways in both cell lines. These insights provide a metabolic characterisation of MYC-driven childhood MB cell lines, which could pave the way for the discovery of novel druggable pathways. Importantly, these findings will also contribute to understand the downstream effects of BETis on MYC-driven MB, potentially aiding the development of new therapeutic strategies to combat medulloblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittoria Graziani
- Department of Microbiology and Tumor Biology, Biomedicum B7, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65, Stockholm, Sweden
- Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, John Vane Science Building, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Aida Rodriguez Garcia
- Department of Microbiology and Tumor Biology, Biomedicum B7, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lourdes Sainero Alcolado
- Department of Microbiology and Tumor Biology, Biomedicum B7, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Adrien Le Guennec
- Centre for Biomolecular Spectroscopy, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Marie Arsenian Henriksson
- Department of Microbiology and Tumor Biology, Biomedicum B7, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Maria R Conte
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London, SE1 1UL, UK.
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9
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Mannarino L, Mirimao F, Panini N, Paracchini L, Marchini S, Beltrame L, Amodeo R, Grosso F, Libener R, De Simone I, Ceresoli GL, Zucali PA, Lupi M, D’Incalci M. Tumor treating fields affect mesothelioma cell proliferation by exerting histotype-dependent cell cycle checkpoint activations and transcriptional modulations. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:612. [PMID: 35840560 PMCID: PMC9287343 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-05073-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Although clinical antitumor activity of Tumor Treating Fields (TTFields) has been reported in malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) patients, the mechanisms behind the different selectivity displayed by the various MPM histotypes to this physical therapy has not been elucidated yet. Taking advantage of the development of well characterized human MPM cell lines derived from pleural effusion and/or lavages of patients' thoracic cavity, we investigated the biological effects of TTFields against these cells, representative of epithelioid, biphasic, and sarcomatoid histotypes. Growth inhibition and cell cycle perturbations caused by TTFields were investigated side by side with RNA-Seq analyses at different exposure times to identify pathways involved in cell response to treatment. We observed significant differences of response to TTFields among the cell lines. Cell cycle analysis revealed that the most sensitive cells (epithelioid CD473) were blocked in G2M phase followed by formation of polyploid cells. The least sensitive cells (sarcomatoid CD60) were only slightly affected by TTFields with a general delay in all cell cycle phases. Apoptosis was present in all samples, but while epithelioid cell death was already observed during the first 24 h of treatment, sarcomatoid cells needed longer times before they engaged apoptotic pathways. RNA-Seq experiments demonstrated that TTFields induced a transcriptional response already detectable at early time points (8 h). The number of differentially expressed genes was higher in CD473 than in CD60 cells, involving several pathways, such as those pertinent to cell cycle checkpoints, DNA repair, and histone modifications. Our data provide further support to the notion that the antitumor effects of TTFields are not simply related to a non-specific reaction to a physical stimulus, but are dependent on the biological background of the cells and the particular sensitivity to TTFields observed in epithelioid MPM cells is associated with a higher transcriptional activity than that observed in sarcomatoid models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mannarino
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy ,grid.452490.eDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Milano, Italy
| | - Federica Mirimao
- grid.4527.40000000106678902Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milano, Italy
| | - Nicolò Panini
- grid.4527.40000000106678902Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milano, Italy
| | - Lara Paracchini
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy ,grid.452490.eDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Milano, Italy
| | - Sergio Marchini
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy
| | - Luca Beltrame
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy
| | - Rosy Amodeo
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy ,grid.452490.eDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Milano, Italy
| | - Federica Grosso
- Oncology Division, Azienda Ospedaliera SS Antonio e Biagio e Cesare Arrigo, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Roberta Libener
- Department of Integrated Activities Research and Innovation, Azienda Ospedaliera SS Antonio e Biagio e Cesare Arrigo, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Irene De Simone
- grid.4527.40000000106678902Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milano, Italy
| | - Giovanni L. Ceresoli
- Medical Oncology Unit, Saronno Hospital, ASST Valle Olona, Saronno, Varese, Italy
| | - Paolo A. Zucali
- grid.452490.eDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Milano, Italy ,grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Department of Oncology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy
| | - Monica Lupi
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy
| | - Maurizio D’Incalci
- grid.417728.f0000 0004 1756 8807Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milano, Italy ,grid.452490.eDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Milano, Italy
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10
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Adhikari S, Bhattacharya A, Adhikary S, Singh V, Gadad S, Roy S, Das C. The paradigm of drug resistance in cancer: an epigenetic perspective. Biosci Rep 2022; 42:BSR20211812. [PMID: 35438143 PMCID: PMC9069444 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20211812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate and acquired resistance towards the conventional therapeutic regimen imposes a significant challenge for the successful management of cancer for decades. In patients with advanced carcinomas, acquisition of drug resistance often leads to tumor recurrence and poor prognosis after the first therapeutic cycle. In this context, cancer stem cells (CSCs) are considered as the prime drivers of therapy resistance in cancer due to their 'non-targetable' nature. Drug resistance in cancer is immensely influenced by different properties of CSCs such as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a profound expression of drug efflux pump genes, detoxification genes, quiescence, and evasion of apoptosis, has been highlighted in this review article. The crucial epigenetic alterations that are intricately associated with regulating different mechanisms of drug resistance, have been discussed thoroughly. Additionally, special attention is drawn towards the epigenetic mechanisms behind the interaction between the cancer cells and their microenvironment which assists in tumor progression and therapy resistance. Finally, we have provided a cumulative overview of the alternative treatment strategies and epigenome-modifying therapies that show the potential of sensitizing the resistant cells towards the conventional treatment strategies. Thus, this review summarizes the epigenetic and molecular background behind therapy resistance, the prime hindrance of present day anti-cancer therapies, and provides an account of the novel complementary epi-drug-based therapeutic strategies to combat drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swagata Adhikari
- Biophysics and Structural Genomics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF Bidhannagar, Kolkata 700064, India
- Homi Bhaba National Institute, Mumbai 400094, India
| | - Apoorva Bhattacharya
- Biophysics and Structural Genomics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF Bidhannagar, Kolkata 700064, India
| | - Santanu Adhikary
- Biophysics and Structural Genomics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF Bidhannagar, Kolkata 700064, India
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4 Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Vipin Singh
- Biophysics and Structural Genomics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF Bidhannagar, Kolkata 700064, India
- Homi Bhaba National Institute, Mumbai 400094, India
| | - Shrikanth S. Gadad
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Center of Emphasis in Cancer, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso, El Paso, TX, U.S.A
- Mays Cancer Center, UT Health San Antonio MD Anderson Cancer Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, U.S.A
| | - Siddhartha Roy
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4 Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Chandrima Das
- Biophysics and Structural Genomics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, 1/AF Bidhannagar, Kolkata 700064, India
- Homi Bhaba National Institute, Mumbai 400094, India
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11
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Discovery of 1-(5-(1H-benzo[d]imidazole-2-yl)-2,4-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl)ethan-1-one derivatives as novel and potent bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) inhibitors with anticancer efficacy. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 227:113953. [PMID: 34731760 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
As epigenetic readers, bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) family proteins bind to acetylated-lysine residues in histones and recruit protein complexes to promote transcription initiation and elongation. Inhibition of BET bromodomains by small molecule inhibitors has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer. Herein, we describe our efforts toward the discovery of a novel series of 1-(5-(1H-benzo[d]imidazole-2-yl)-2,4-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl)ethan-1-one derivatives as BET inhibitors. Intensive structural modifications led to the identification of compound 35f as the most active inhibitor of BET BRD4 with selectivity against BET family proteins. Further biological studies revealed that compound 35f can arrest the cell cycle in G0/G1 phase and induce apoptosis via decreasing the expression of c-Myc and other proteins related to cell cycle and apoptosis. More importantly, compound 35f showed favorable pharmacokinetic properties and antitumor efficacy in MV4-11 mouse xenograft model with acceptable tolerability. These results indicated that BET inhibitors could be potentially used to treat hematologic malignancies and some solid tumors.
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12
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Dallavalle S, Musso L, Cincinelli R, Darwiche N, Gervasoni S, Vistoli G, Guglielmi MB, La Porta I, Pizzulo M, Modica E, Prosperi F, Signorino G, Colelli F, Cardile F, Fucci A, D'Andrea EL, Riccio A, Pisano C. Antitumor activity of novel POLA1-HDAC11 dual inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 228:113971. [PMID: 34772529 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hybrid molecules targeting simultaneously DNA polymerase α (POLA1) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) were designed and synthesized to exploit a potential synergy of action. Among a library of screened molecules, MIR002 and GEM144 showed antiproliferative activity at nanomolar concentrations on a panel of human solid and haematological cancer cell lines. In vitro functional assays confirmed that these molecules inhibited POLA1 primer extension activity, as well as HDAC11. Molecular docking studies also supported these findings. Mechanistically, MIR002 and GEM144 induced acetylation of p53, activation of p21, G1/S cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Oral administration of these inhibitors confirmed their antitumor activity in in vivo models. In human non-small cancer cell (H460) xenografted in nude mice MIR002 at 50 mg/kg, Bid (qd × 5 × 3w) inhibited tumor growth (TGI = 61%). More interestingly, in POLA1 inhibitor resistant cells (H460-R9A), the in vivo combination of MIR002 with cisplatin showed an additive antitumor effect with complete disappearance of tumor masses in two animals at the end of the treatment. Moreover, in two human orthotopic malignant pleural mesothelioma xenografts (MM473 and MM487), oral treatments with MIR002 and GEM144 confirmed their significant antitumor activity (TGI = 72-77%). Consistently with recent results that have shown an inverse correlation between POLA1 expression and type I interferon levels, MIR002 significantly upregulated interferon-α in immunocompetent mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Dallavalle
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Loana Musso
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Raffaella Cincinelli
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Nadine Darwiche
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Silvia Gervasoni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Mangiagalli 25, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Giulio Vistoli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Mangiagalli 25, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Mario B Guglielmi
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Ilaria La Porta
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Maddalena Pizzulo
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Elisa Modica
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Federica Prosperi
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Giacomo Signorino
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Fabiana Colelli
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Francesco Cardile
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Alessandra Fucci
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Egildo Luca D'Andrea
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Assunta Riccio
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy
| | - Claudio Pisano
- Biogem, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Via Camporeale, 83031 Ariano Irpino(AV), Italy.
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13
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Lu J, Cannizzaro E, Meier-Abt F, Scheinost S, Bruch PM, Giles HAR, Lütge A, Hüllein J, Wagner L, Giacopelli B, Nadeu F, Delgado J, Campo E, Mangolini M, Ringshausen I, Böttcher M, Mougiakakos D, Jacobs A, Bodenmiller B, Dietrich S, Oakes CC, Zenz T, Huber W. Multi-omics reveals clinically relevant proliferative drive associated with mTOR-MYC-OXPHOS activity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. NATURE CANCER 2021; 2:853-864. [PMID: 34423310 PMCID: PMC7611543 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-021-00216-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) has a complex pattern of driver mutations and much of its clinical diversity remains unexplained. We devised a method for simultaneous subgroup discovery across multiple data types and applied it to genomic, transcriptomic, DNA methylation and ex-vivo drug response data from 217 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) cases. We uncovered a biological axis of heterogeneity strongly associated with clinical behavior and orthogonal to the known biomarkers. We validated its presence and clinical relevance in four independent cohorts (n=547 patients). We find that this axis captures the proliferative drive (PD) of CLL cells, as it associates with lymphocyte doubling rate, global hypomethylation, accumulation of driver aberrations and response to pro-proliferative stimuli. CLL-PD was linked to the activation of mTOR-MYC-oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) through transcriptomic, proteomic and single cell resolution analysis. CLL-PD is a key determinant of disease outcome in CLL. Our multi-table integration approach may be applicable to other tumors whose inter-individual differences are currently unexplained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Lu
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
- Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ester Cannizzaro
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital Zürich and University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Fabienne Meier-Abt
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital Zürich and University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Scheinost
- Molecular Therapy in Hematology and Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases and German Cancer Research Centre, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Peter-Martin Bruch
- Molecular Therapy in Hematology and Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases and German Cancer Research Centre, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Holly AR Giles
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
- Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Almut Lütge
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer Hüllein
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
- Molecular Therapy in Hematology and Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases and German Cancer Research Centre, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lena Wagner
- Molecular Therapy in Hematology and Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases and German Cancer Research Centre, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Brian Giacopelli
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Ferran Nadeu
- Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Julio Delgado
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
- Hematopathology Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elías Campo
- Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
- Hematopathology Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maurizio Mangolini
- Wellcome Trust/MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute & Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK
| | - Ingo Ringshausen
- Wellcome Trust/MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute & Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK
| | - Martin Böttcher
- Department of Internal Medicine 5, Hematology and Oncology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Mougiakakos
- Department of Internal Medicine 5, Hematology and Oncology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andrea Jacobs
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bernd Bodenmiller
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Dietrich
- Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Translational Oncology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christopher C. Oakes
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Thorsten Zenz
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital Zürich and University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Molecular Therapy in Hematology and Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases and German Cancer Research Centre, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Huber
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Heidelberg, Germany
- Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU), Heidelberg, Germany
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14
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Shorstova T, Foulkes WD, Witcher M. Achieving clinical success with BET inhibitors as anti-cancer agents. Br J Cancer 2021; 124:1478-1490. [PMID: 33723398 PMCID: PMC8076232 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-021-01321-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The transcriptional upregulation of oncogenes is a driving force behind the progression of many tumours. However, until a decade ago, the concept of 'switching off' these oncogenic pathways represented a formidable challenge. Research has revealed that members of the bromo- and extra-terminal domain (BET) motif family are key activators of oncogenic networks in a spectrum of cancers; their function depends on their recruitment to chromatin through two bromodomains (BD1 and BD2). The advent of potent inhibitors of BET proteins (BETi), which target either one or both bromodomains, represents an important step towards the goal of suppressing oncogenic networks within tumours. Here, we discuss the biology of BET proteins, advances in BETi design and highlight potential biomarkers predicting their activity. We also outline the logic of incorporating BETi into combination therapies to enhance its efficacy. We suggest that understanding mechanisms of activity, defining predictive biomarkers and identifying potent synergies represents a roadmap for clinical success using BETi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Shorstova
- grid.414980.00000 0000 9401 2774Departments of Oncology and Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Lady Davis Institute and Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - William D. Foulkes
- grid.414980.00000 0000 9401 2774Departments of Oncology and Human Genetics, McGill University, Lady Davis Institute and Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Michael Witcher
- grid.414980.00000 0000 9401 2774Departments of Oncology and Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Lady Davis Institute and Segal Cancer Centre, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC Canada
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15
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Megiorni F, Camero S, Pontecorvi P, Camicia L, Marampon F, Ceccarelli S, Anastasiadou E, Bernabò N, Perniola G, Pizzuti A, Benedetti Panici P, Tombolini V, Marchese C. OTX015 Epi-Drug Exerts Antitumor Effects in Ovarian Cancer Cells by Blocking GNL3-Mediated Radioresistance Mechanisms: Cellular, Molecular and Computational Evidence. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13071519. [PMID: 33806232 PMCID: PMC8059141 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13071519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The outcome for women diagnosed with ovarian cancer (OC), the most aggressive gynecological tumor worldwide, remains very poor. Encouraging therapeutic impact of epigenetic drugs has been suggested in a wide range of human solid tumors, including OC. The present study assessed the in vitro cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of OTX015, a pan Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal motif inhibitor, in human OC cells, both as single treatment and in combination with radiotherapy. Cellular, molecular and computational network analyses indicated the centrality of GNL3 downregulation in mediating the OTX015-related antitumor efficacy that blocks disease progression/maintenance and radioresistance acquisition. Our preclinical results confirm that targeted and combinatorial treatments represent effective anticancer strategies to be translated in the clinical research for improving OC patient care. Abstract Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most aggressive gynecological tumor worldwide and, notwithstanding the increment in conventional treatments, many resistance mechanisms arise, this leading to cure failure and patient death. So, the use of novel adjuvant drugs able to counteract these pathways is urgently needed to improve patient overall survival. A growing interest is focused on epigenetic drugs for cancer therapy, such as Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal motif inhibitors (BETi). Here, we investigate the antitumor effects of OTX015, a novel BETi, as a single agent or in combination with ionizing radiation (IR) in OC cellular models. OTX015 treatment significantly reduced tumor cell proliferation by triggering cell cycle arrest and apoptosis that were linked to nucleolar stress and DNA damage. OTX015 impaired migration capacity and potentiated IR effects by reducing the expression of different drivers of cancer resistance mechanisms, including GNL3 gene, whose expression was found to be significantly higher in OC biopsies than in normal ovarian tissues. Gene specific knocking down and computational network analysis confirmed the centrality of GNL3 in OTX015-mediated OC antitumor effects. Altogether, our findings suggest OTX015 as an effective option to improve therapeutic strategies and overcome the development of resistant cancer cells in patients with OC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Megiorni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-06-4997-8272
| | - Simona Camero
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (S.C.); (L.C.); (G.P.); (P.B.P.)
| | - Paola Pontecorvi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
| | - Lucrezia Camicia
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (S.C.); (L.C.); (G.P.); (P.B.P.)
| | - Francesco Marampon
- Department of Radiological, Oncological and Pathological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (F.M.); (V.T.)
| | - Simona Ceccarelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
| | - Eleni Anastasiadou
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
| | - Nicola Bernabò
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Giorgia Perniola
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (S.C.); (L.C.); (G.P.); (P.B.P.)
| | - Antonio Pizzuti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
| | - Pierluigi Benedetti Panici
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (S.C.); (L.C.); (G.P.); (P.B.P.)
| | - Vincenzo Tombolini
- Department of Radiological, Oncological and Pathological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (F.M.); (V.T.)
| | - Cinzia Marchese
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena 324, 00161 Rome, Italy; (P.P.); (S.C.); (E.A.); (A.P.); (C.M.)
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16
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Seastedt KP, Pruett N, Hoang CD. Mouse models for mesothelioma drug discovery and development. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 16:697-708. [PMID: 33380218 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2021.1867530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mesothelioma is an aggressive mesothelial lining tumor. Available drug therapies include chemotherapeutic agents, targeted molecular therapies, and immune system modulators. Mouse models were instrumental in the discovery and evaluation of such therapies, but there is need for improved understanding of the role of inflammation, tumor heterogeneity, mechanisms of carcinogenesis, and the tumor microenvironment. Novel mouse models may provide new insights and drive drug therapy discovery that improves efficacy. AREAS COVERED This review concerns available mouse models for mesothelioma drug discovery and development including the advantages and disadvantages of each. Gaps in current knowledge of mesothelioma are highlighted, and future directions for mouse model research are considered. EXPERT OPINION Soon, CRISPR-Cas gene-editing will improve understanding of mesothelioma mechanisms foundational to the discovery and testing of efficacious therapeutic targets. There are at least two likely areas of upcoming methodology development. One is concerned with precise modeling of inflammation - is it a causal process whereby inflammatory signals contribute to tumor initiation, or is it a secondary passenger process driven by asbestos exposure effects? The other area of methods improvement regards the availability of humanized immunocompromised mice harboring patient-derived xenografts. Combining human tumors in an environment with human immune cells will enable rapid innovation in immuno-oncology therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth P Seastedt
- Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Nathanael Pruett
- Thoracic Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Chuong D Hoang
- Thoracic Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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17
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Li Z, Lim SL, Tao Y, Li X, Xie Y, Yang C, Zhang Z, Jiang Y, Zhang X, Cao X, Wang H, Qian G, Wu Y, Li M, Fang F, Liu Y, Fu M, Ding X, Zhu Z, Lv H, Lu J, Xiao S, Hu S, Pan J. PROTAC Bromodomain Inhibitor ARV-825 Displays Anti-Tumor Activity in Neuroblastoma by Repressing Expression of MYCN or c-Myc. Front Oncol 2020; 10:574525. [PMID: 33324552 PMCID: PMC7726414 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.574525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common solid tumors in childhood. To date, targeting MYCN, a well-established driver gene in high-risk neuroblastoma, is still challenging. In recent years, inhibition of bromodomain and extra terminal (BET) proteins shows great potential in multiple of Myc-driven tumors. ARV-825 is a novel BET inhibitor using proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology which degrades target proteins by the proteasome. In this study, we investigated the effect of ARV-825 in neuroblastoma in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that ARV-825 treatment robustly induced proliferative suppression, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in NB cells. Moreover, ARV-825 efficiently depleted BET protein expression, subsequently repressing the expression of MYCN or c-Myc. In the NB xenograft model, ARV-825 profoundly reduced tumor growth and led to the downregulation of BRD4 and MYCN expression in mice. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that PROTAC BET inhibitor is an efficient way to achieve MYCN/c-Myc manipulation, and ARV-825 can be used as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiheng Li
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Su Lin Lim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Michael's Medical Center, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Yanfang Tao
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaolu Li
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yi Xie
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chun Yang
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zimu Zhang
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - You Jiang
- Department of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xianbing Zhang
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Kunshan, Suzhou, China
| | - Xu Cao
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Hairong Wang
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Guanghui Qian
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yi Wu
- Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Mei Li
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Fang Fang
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Mingcui Fu
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xin Ding
- Department of Neonatology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhenghong Zhu
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Haitao Lv
- Department of Cardiology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Jun Lu
- Department of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Sheng Xiao
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Shaoyan Hu
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Department of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Jian Pan
- Institute of Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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18
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Batra N, De Souza C, Batra J, Raetz AG, Yu AM. The HMOX1 Pathway as a Promising Target for the Treatment and Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 of 2019 (COVID-19). Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6412. [PMID: 32899231 PMCID: PMC7503392 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is a global pandemic with increasing incidence and mortality rates. Recent evidence based on the cytokine profiles of severe COVID-19 cases suggests an overstimulation of macrophages and monocytes associated with reduced T-cell abundance (lymphopenia) in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. The SARS-CoV-2 open reading frame 3 a (ORF3a) protein was found to bind to the human HMOX1 protein at a high confidence through high-throughput screening experiments. The HMOX1 pathway can inhibit platelet aggregation, and can have anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory properties, amongst others, all of which are critical medical conditions observed in COVID-19 patients. Here, we review the potential of modulating the HMOX1-ORF3a nexus to regulate the innate immune response for therapeutic benefits in COVID-19 patients. We also review other potential treatment strategies and suggest novel synthetic and natural compounds that may have the potential for future development in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelu Batra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, UC Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (N.B.); (C.D.S.); (A.G.R.)
| | - Cristabelle De Souza
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, UC Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (N.B.); (C.D.S.); (A.G.R.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico Cancer Center, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Jyoti Batra
- Gladstone Institute, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA;
| | - Alan G. Raetz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, UC Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (N.B.); (C.D.S.); (A.G.R.)
| | - Ai-Ming Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, UC Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; (N.B.); (C.D.S.); (A.G.R.)
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19
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Camero S, Camicia L, Marampon F, Ceccarelli S, Shukla R, Mannarino O, Pizer B, Schiavetti A, Pizzuti A, Tombolini V, Marchese C, Dominici C, Megiorni F. BET inhibition therapy counteracts cancer cell survival, clonogenic potential and radioresistance mechanisms in rhabdomyosarcoma cells. Cancer Lett 2020; 479:71-88. [PMID: 32200036 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The antitumour effects of OTX015, a first-in-class BET inhibitor (BETi), were investigated as a single agent or in combination with ionizing radiation (IR) in preclinical in vitro models of rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common childhood soft tissue sarcoma. Herein, we demonstrated the upregulation of BET Bromodomain gene expression in RMS tumour biopsies and cell lines compared to normal skeletal muscle. In vitro experiments showed that OTX015 significantly reduced RMS cell proliferation by altering cell cycle modulators and apoptotic related proteins due to the accumulation of DNA breaks that cells are unable to repair. Interestingly, OTX015 also impaired migration capacity and tumour-sphere architecture by downregulating pro-stemness genes and was able to potentiate ionizing radiation effects by reducing the expression of different drivers of tumour dissemination and resistance mechanisms, including the GNL3 gene, that we correlated for the first time with the RMS phenotype. In conclusion, our research sheds further light on the molecular events of OTX015 action against RMS cells and indicates this novel BETi as an effective option to improve therapeutic strategies and overcome the development of resistant cancer cells in patients with RMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Camero
- Department of Maternal, Infantile, and Urological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Lucrezia Camicia
- Department of Maternal, Infantile, and Urological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Marampon
- Department of Radiological, Oncological and Pathological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Simona Ceccarelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Rajeev Shukla
- Department of Perinatal and Paediatric Pathology, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK.
| | - Olga Mannarino
- Department of Maternal, Infantile, and Urological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Barry Pizer
- Department of Oncology, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Eaton Road, Liverpool, L12 2AP, UK.
| | - Amalia Schiavetti
- Department of Maternal, Infantile, and Urological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Antonio Pizzuti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Vincenzo Tombolini
- Department of Radiological, Oncological and Pathological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Cinzia Marchese
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Carlo Dominici
- Department of Maternal, Infantile, and Urological Sciences, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesca Megiorni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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20
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Abstract
MYC is a master transcriptional regulator that controls almost all cellular processes. Over the last several decades, researchers have strived to define the context-dependent transcriptional gene programs that are controlled by MYC, as well as the mechanisms that regulate MYC function, in an effort to better understand the contribution of this oncoprotein to cancer progression. There are a wealth of data indicating that deregulation of MYC activity occurs in a large number of cancers and significantly contributes to disease progression, metastatic potential, and therapeutic resistance. Although the therapeutic targeting of MYC in cancer is highly desirable, there remain substantial structural and functional challenges that have impeded direct MYC-targeted drug development and efficacy. While efforts to drug the ‘undruggable’ may seem futile given these challenges and considering the broad reach of MYC, significant strides have been made to identify points of regulation that can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. These include targeting the deregulation of MYC transcription in cancer through small-molecule inhibitors that induce epigenetic silencing or that regulate the G-quadruplex structures within the MYC promoter. Alternatively, compounds that disrupt the DNA-binding activities of MYC have been the long-standing focus of many research groups, since this method would prevent downstream MYC oncogenic activities regardless of upstream alterations. Finally, proteins involved in the post-translational regulation of MYC have been identified as important surrogate targets to reduce MYC activity downstream of aberrant cell stimulatory signals. Given the complex regulation of the MYC signaling pathway, a combination of these approaches may provide the most durable response, but this has yet to be shown. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the different therapeutic strategies being employed to target oncogenic MYC function, with a focus on post-translational mechanisms.
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21
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Frapolli R, Bello E, Ponzo M, Craparotta I, Mannarino L, Ballabio S, Marchini S, Carrassa L, Ubezio P, Porcu L, Brich S, Sanfilippo R, Casali PG, Gronchi A, Pilotti S, D'Incalci M. Combination of PPARγ Agonist Pioglitazone and Trabectedin Induce Adipocyte Differentiation to Overcome Trabectedin Resistance in Myxoid Liposarcomas. Clin Cancer Res 2019; 25:7565-7575. [PMID: 31481505 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-19-0976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study was aimed at investigating whether the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone-given in combination with trabectedin-is able to reactivate adipocytic differentiation in myxoid liposarcoma (MLS) patient-derived xenografts, overcoming resistance to trabectedin. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The antitumor and biological effects of trabectedin, pioglitazone, and the combination of the two drugs were investigated in nude mice bearing well-characterized MLS xenografts representative of innate or acquired resistance against trabectedin. Pioglitazone and trabectedin were given by daily oral and weekly i.v. administrations, respectively. Molecular studies were performed by using microarrays approach, real-time PCR, and Western blotting. RESULTS We found that the resistance of MLS against trabectedin is associated with the lack of activation of adipogenesis. The PPARγ agonist pioglitazone reactivated adipogenesis, assessed by histologic and gene pathway analyses. Pioglitazone was well tolerated and did not increase the toxicity of trabectedin. The ability of pioglitazone to reactivate adipocytic differentiation was observed by morphologic examination, and it is consistent with the increased expression of genes such as ADIPOQ implicated in the adipogenesis process. The determination of adiponectin by Western blotting constitutes a good and reliable biomarker related to MLS adipocytic differentiation. CONCLUSIONS The finding that the combination of pioglitazone and trabectedin induces terminal adipocytic differentiation of some MLSs with the complete pathologic response and cure of tumor-bearing mice provides a strong rationale to test the combination of trabectedin and pioglitazone in patients with MLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Frapolli
- Unit of Preclinical Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Ezia Bello
- Unit of Preclinical Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Marianna Ponzo
- Unit of Preclinical Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Craparotta
- Unit of Translational Genomic, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Mannarino
- Unit of Translational Genomic, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Ballabio
- Unit of Translational Genomic, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Sergio Marchini
- Unit of Translational Genomic, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Carrassa
- Unit of DNA repair, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Ubezio
- Unit of Biophysics, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Porcu
- Unit of Methodological Research, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Brich
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberta Sanfilippo
- Medical Oncology Unit 2, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Giovanni Casali
- Medical Oncology Unit 2, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Gronchi
- Department of Surgery, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Silvana Pilotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Maurizio D'Incalci
- Department of Oncology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy.
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22
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Civenni G, Bosotti R, Timpanaro A, Vàzquez R, Merulla J, Pandit S, Rossi S, Albino D, Allegrini S, Mitra A, Mapelli SN, Vierling L, Giurdanella M, Marchetti M, Paganoni A, Rinaldi A, Losa M, Mira-Catò E, D'Antuono R, Morone D, Rezai K, D'Ambrosio G, Ouafik L, Mackenzie S, Riveiro ME, Cvitkovic E, Carbone GM, Catapano CV. Epigenetic Control of Mitochondrial Fission Enables Self-Renewal of Stem-like Tumor Cells in Human Prostate Cancer. Cell Metab 2019; 30:303-318.e6. [PMID: 31130467 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) contribute to disease progression and treatment failure in human cancers. The balance among self-renewal, differentiation, and senescence determines the expansion or progressive exhaustion of CSCs. Targeting these processes might lead to novel anticancer therapies. Here, we uncover a novel link between BRD4, mitochondrial dynamics, and self-renewal of prostate CSCs. Targeting BRD4 by genetic knockdown or chemical inhibitors blocked mitochondrial fission and caused CSC exhaustion and loss of tumorigenic capability. Depletion of CSCs occurred in multiple prostate cancer models, indicating a common vulnerability and dependency on mitochondrial dynamics. These effects depended on rewiring of the BRD4-driven transcription and repression of mitochondrial fission factor (Mff). Knockdown of Mff reproduced the effects of BRD4 inhibition, whereas ectopic Mff expression rescued prostate CSCs from exhaustion. This novel concept of targeting mitochondrial plasticity in CSCs through BRD4 inhibition provides a new paradigm for developing more effective treatment strategies for prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Civenni
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Roberto Bosotti
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Timpanaro
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Ramiro Vàzquez
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Jessica Merulla
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Shusil Pandit
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Simona Rossi
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Domenico Albino
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Sara Allegrini
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Abhishek Mitra
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Sarah N Mapelli
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland; Institute of Computational Science, Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Lugano 6900, Switzerland; Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Luca Vierling
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Martina Giurdanella
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Martina Marchetti
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Alyssa Paganoni
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Rinaldi
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Marco Losa
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Enrica Mira-Catò
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Rocco D'Antuono
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Diego Morone
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Keyvan Rezai
- Institute Curie-Hospital René Huguenin, Saint Cloud 92210, France
| | | | | | - Sarah Mackenzie
- Oncology Therapeutic Development (OTD), Clichy 92110, France
| | - Maria E Riveiro
- Oncology Therapeutic Development (OTD), Clichy 92110, France
| | - Esteban Cvitkovic
- Oncology Therapeutic Development (OTD), Clichy 92110, France; Oncoethix GmbH, Merck Sharp and Dohme Corp., Lucerne 6006, Switzerland
| | - Giuseppina M Carbone
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Carlo V Catapano
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland; Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland; Department of Oncology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne 1005, Switzerland.
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23
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Astorgues-Xerri L, Vázquez R, Odore E, Rezai K, Kahatt C, Mackenzie S, Bekradda M, Coudé MM, Dombret H, Gardin C, Lokiec F, Raymond E, Noel K, Cvitkovic E, Herait P, Bertoni F, Riveiro ME. Insights into the cellular pharmacological properties of the BET-inhibitor OTX015/MK-8628 (birabresib), alone and in combination, in leukemia models. Leuk Lymphoma 2019; 60:3067-3070. [DOI: 10.1080/10428194.2019.1617860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ramiro Vázquez
- Institute of Oncology Research, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Elodie Odore
- RadioPharmacology Department, Curie Institute–Rene Huguenin Hospital, Saint Cloud, France
| | - Keyvan Rezai
- RadioPharmacology Department, Curie Institute–Rene Huguenin Hospital, Saint Cloud, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Herve Dombret
- Laboratoire de Transfert des Leucémies, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Claude Gardin
- Laboratoire de Transfert des Leucémies, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Francois Lokiec
- RadioPharmacology Department, Curie Institute–Rene Huguenin Hospital, Saint Cloud, France
| | - Eric Raymond
- Medical Oncology Department, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kay Noel
- Oncoethix SA, Lucerne, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Francesco Bertoni
- Institute of Oncology Research, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Bellinzona, Switzerland
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24
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Riganti C, Lingua MF, Salaroglio IC, Falcomatà C, Righi L, Morena D, Picca F, Oddo D, Kopecka J, Pradotto M, Libener R, Orecchia S, Bironzo P, Comunanza V, Bussolino F, Novello S, Scagliotti GV, Di Nicolantonio F, Taulli R. Bromodomain inhibition exerts its therapeutic potential in malignant pleural mesothelioma by promoting immunogenic cell death and changing the tumor immune-environment. Oncoimmunology 2017; 7:e1398874. [PMID: 29399399 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2017.1398874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic treatment of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is moderately active for the intrinsic pharmacological resistance of MPM cell and its ability to induce an immune suppressive environment. Here we showed that the expression of bromodomain (BRD) proteins BRD2, BRD4 and BRD9 was significantly higher in human primary MPM cells compared to normal mesothelial cells (HMC). Nanomolar concentrations of bromodomain inhibitors (BBIs) JQ1 or OTX015 impaired patient-derived MPM cell proliferation and induced cell-cycle arrest without affecting apoptosis. Importantly, BBIs primed MPM cells for immunogenic cell death, by increasing extracellular release of ATP and HMGB1, and by promoting membrane exposure of calreticulin and ERp57. Accordingly, BBIs activated dendritic cell (DC)-mediated phagocytosis and expansion of CD8+ T-lymphocyte clones endorsed with antitumor cytotoxic activity. BBIs reduced the expression of the immune checkpoint ligand PD-L1 in MPM cells; while both CD8+ and CD4+ T-lymphocytes co-cultured with JQ1-treated MPM cells decreased PD-1 expression, suggesting a disruption of the immune-suppressive PD-L1/PD-1 axis. Additionally, BBIs reduced the expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) induced by MPM cells. Finally, a preclinical model of MPM confirmed that the anti-tumor efficacy of JQ1 was largely due to its ability to restore an immune-active environment, by increasing intra-tumor DC and CD8+ T-lymphocytes, and decreasing MDSC. Thereby, we propose that, among novel drugs, BBIs should be investigated for MPM treatment for their combined activity on both tumor cells and surrounding immune-environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Riganti
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | | | | | - Chiara Falcomatà
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.,Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Luisella Righi
- Pathology Unit, Department of Oncology at San Luigi Hospital, University of Torino, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Deborah Morena
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | | | - Daniele Oddo
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.,Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Joanna Kopecka
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Monica Pradotto
- Thoracic Unit and Medical Oncology Division, Department of Oncology at San Luigi Hospital, University of Torino, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Roberta Libener
- Pathology Division, S. Antonio and Biagio Hospital, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Sara Orecchia
- Pathology Division, S. Antonio and Biagio Hospital, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Paolo Bironzo
- Thoracic Unit and Medical Oncology Division, Department of Oncology at San Luigi Hospital, University of Torino, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Valentina Comunanza
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.,Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Federico Bussolino
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.,Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Silvia Novello
- Thoracic Unit and Medical Oncology Division, Department of Oncology at San Luigi Hospital, University of Torino, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vittorio Scagliotti
- Thoracic Unit and Medical Oncology Division, Department of Oncology at San Luigi Hospital, University of Torino, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Federica Di Nicolantonio
- Department of Oncology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy.,Candiolo Cancer Institute - FPO, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
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25
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Morosi L, Giordano S, Falcetta F, Frapolli R, Licandro SA, Matteo C, Zucchetti M, Ubezio P, Erba E, Visentin S, D'Incalci M, Davoli E. Application of 3D Mass Spectrometry Imaging to TKIs. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2017; 102:748-751. [DOI: 10.1002/cpt.786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia Morosi
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Silvia Giordano
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mass Spectrometry Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Francesca Falcetta
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Roberta Frapolli
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Simonetta A. Licandro
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Cristina Matteo
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Massimo Zucchetti
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Paolo Ubezio
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Eugenio Erba
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Sonja Visentin
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Science; University of Torino; Torino Italy
| | - Maurizio D'Incalci
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
| | - Enrico Davoli
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mass Spectrometry Laboratory; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milano Italy
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26
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Heterogeneity of paclitaxel distribution in different tumor models assessed by MALDI mass spectrometry imaging. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39284. [PMID: 28000726 PMCID: PMC5175283 DOI: 10.1038/srep39284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The penetration of anticancer drugs in solid tumors is important to ensure the therapeutic effect, so methods are needed to understand drug distribution in different parts of the tumor. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) has great potential in this field to visualize drug distribution in organs and tumor tissues with good spatial resolution and superior specificity. We present an accurate and reproducible imaging method to investigate the variation of drug distribution in different parts of solid tumors. The method was applied to study the distribution of paclitaxel in three ovarian cancer models with different histopathological characteristics and in colon cancer (HCT116), breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) and malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM487). The heterogeneous drug penetration in the tumors is evident from the MALDI imaging results and from the images analysis. The differences between the various models do not always relate to significant changes in drug content in tumor homogenate examined by classical HPLC analysis. The specificity of the method clarifies the heterogeneity of the drug distribution that is analyzed from a quantitative point of view too, highlighting how marked are the variations of paclitaxel amounts in different part of solid tumors.
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27
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3D Mass Spectrometry Imaging Reveals a Very Heterogeneous Drug Distribution in Tumors. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37027. [PMID: 27841316 PMCID: PMC5107992 DOI: 10.1038/srep37027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mass Spectrometry Imaging (MSI) is a widespread technique used to qualitatively describe in two dimensions the distribution of endogenous or exogenous compounds within tissue sections. Absolute quantification of drugs using MSI is a recent challenge that just in the last years has started to be addressed. Starting from a two dimensional MSI protocol, we developed a three-dimensional pipeline to study drug penetration in tumors and to develop a new drug quantification method by MALDI MSI. Paclitaxel distribution and concentration in different tumors were measured in a 3D model of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM), which is known to be a very heterogeneous neoplasm, highly resistant to different drugs. The 3D computational reconstruction allows an accurate description of tumor PTX penetration, adding information about the heterogeneity of tumor drug distribution due to the complex microenvironment. The use of an internal standard, homogenously sprayed on tissue slices, ensures quantitative results that are similar to those obtained using HPLC. The 3D model gives important information about the drug concentration in different tumor sub-volumes and shows that the great part of each tumor is not reached by the drug, suggesting the concept of pseudo-resistance as a further explanation for ineffective therapies and tumors relapse.
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