Postpartum hemorrhage care bundles to improve adherence to guidelines: A WHO technical consultation

Conservative approaches to postpartum haemorrhage

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) and PPH-related deaths are disproportionately higher in low-income countries, with sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia accounting for approximately 85% of the global burden of PPH-related maternal deaths. Although PPH-related mortality is directly related to the amount and duration of bleeding, the high maternal death burden in resource-limited countries suggests that a great majority of these deaths would be avoidable with the appropriate resources and effective use of evidence-based interventions. Non-surgical management is often the first-line approach for PPH, but conservative surgical interventions may be required if bleeding persists or if the underlying cause is not responsive to the initial conservative measures. The appropriate interventions should be selected based on the individual's specific circumstances and clinical condition.

Association between postpartum depression and postpartum hemorrhage: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a growing mental health concern worldwide and has detrimental effects on the social and cognitive health of both mothers and infants. This review was performed to assess the risk of PPD in women with postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) and to identify potential moderators.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The review protocol was registered in the PROSPERO database on June 17, 2023 (registration number: CRD42023432955). Two researchers independently performed a literature search of the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases for articles published before May 25, 2023, with no filters and no language or location restrictions. Study quality was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The primary outcome was the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of PPD in women with vs. without PPH. We performed sensitivity analyses and meta-regression analyses to resolve heterogeneity. Meta-regression analyses included the effects of age, maternal smoking, marital status, preterm labor, maternal education level, preeclampsia, anemia during pregnancy, and cesarean section.

RESULTS

In total, seven studies involving 540 558 participants met the eligibility criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. Women with PPH were at increased risk of PPD compared with women without PPH (OR 1.10; 95% CI 1.03-1.16), and heterogeneity was low (I2 = 23%; τ2 = 0.0007; p = 0.25). Moreover, the results of the sensitivity analyses showed that the I2 value decreased from 23% to 0% after excluding one particular study, which may have been a source of heterogeneity. In the meta-regression analyses, the OR of PPD was greatly affected by maternal smoking (OR -0.26; 95% CI -0.30 to -0.22; p < 0.001). However, we did not observe any effects for maternal age, marital status, preterm labor, maternal education level, preeclampsia, anemia during pregnancy, or cesarean section.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with PPH must be closely monitored because they have a higher risk of PPD than women without PPH. Early recognition and management of these patients will improve treatment outcomes, maternal health, and newborn development.

Effectiveness of care bundles for prevention and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Care bundles are a promising approach to reducing postpartum hemorrhage-related morbidity and mortality. We assessed the effectiveness and safety of care bundles for postpartum hemorrhage prevention and/or treatment.

DATA SOURCES

We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, Maternity and Infant Care Database, and Global Index Medicus (inception to June 9, 2023) and ClinicalTrials.gov and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (last 5 years) using a phased search strategy, combining terms for postpartum hemorrhage and care bundles.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Peer-reviewed studies evaluating postpartum hemorrhage-related care bundles were included. Care bundles were defined as interventions comprising ≥3 components implemented collectively, concurrently, or in rapid succession. Randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials, interrupted time series, and before-after studies (controlled or uncontrolled) were eligible.

METHODS

Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 (randomized trials) and ROBINS-I (nonrandomized studies). For controlled studies, we reported risk ratios for dichotomous outcomes and mean differences for continuous outcomes, with certainty of evidence determined using GRADE. For uncontrolled studies, we used effect direction tables and summarized results narratively.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies were included for analysis. For prevention-only bundles (2 studies), low-certainty evidence suggests possible benefits in reducing blood loss, duration of hospitalization, and intensive care unit stay, and maternal well-being. For treatment-only bundles (9 studies), high-certainty evidence shows that the E-MOTIVE intervention reduced risks of composite severe morbidity (risk ratio, 0.40; 95% confidence interval, 0.32-0.50) and blood transfusion for bleeding, postpartum hemorrhage, severe postpartum hemorrhage, and mean blood loss. One nonrandomized trial and 7 uncontrolled studies suggest that other postpartum hemorrhage treatment bundles might reduce blood loss and severe postpartum hemorrhage, but this is uncertain. For combined prevention/treatment bundles (11 studies), low-certainty evidence shows that the California Maternal Quality Care Collaborative care bundle may reduce severe maternal morbidity (risk ratio, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.57-0.72). Ten uncontrolled studies variably showed possible benefits, no effects, or harms for other bundle types. Nearly all uncontrolled studies did not use suitable statistical methods for single-group pretest-posttest comparisons and should thus be interpreted with caution.

CONCLUSION

The E-MOTIVE intervention improves postpartum hemorrhage-related outcomes among women delivering vaginally, and the California Maternal Quality Care Collaborative bundle may reduce severe maternal morbidity. Other bundle designs warrant further effectiveness research before implementation is contemplated.

A cost-effectiveness analysis of early detection and bundled treatment of postpartum hemorrhage alongside the E-MOTIVE trial

Timely detection and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) are crucial to prevent complications or death. A calibrated blood-collection drape can help provide objective, accurate and early diagnosis of PPH, and a treatment bundle can address delays or inconsistencies in the use of effective interventions. Here we conducted an economic evaluation alongside the E-MOTIVE trial, an international, parallel cluster-randomized trial with a baseline control phase involving 210,132 women undergoing vaginal delivery across 78 secondary-level hospitals in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania. We aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of the E-MOTIVE intervention, which included a calibrated blood-collection drape for early detection of PPH and a bundle of first-response treatments (uterine massage, oxytocic drugs, tranexamic acid, intravenous fluids, examination and escalation), compared with usual care. We used multilevel modeling to estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios from the perspective of the public healthcare system for outcomes of cost per severe PPH (blood loss ≥1,000 ml) avoided and cost per disability-adjusted life-year averted. Our findings suggest that the use of a calibrated blood-collection drape for early detection of PPH and bundled first-response treatment is cost-effective and should be perceived by decision-makers as a worthwhile use of healthcare budgets. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04341662 .

Postpartum Hemorrhage: Enhancing Outcomes for Mothers by Effective Management

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) remains a significant contributor to maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. In India, PPH affects approximately 12% of women. The prevention and management of PPH are the significant challenges in obstetrics, with accurate assessment of blood loss and timely intervention being critical. Active Management of the Third Stage of Labor is a gold standard strategy for prevention. Recent advancements in PPH management include the use of recombinant activated factor VIIa, which has shown promise in decreasing the need for invasive procedures and second-line therapies. Additionally, surgical and radiological interventions have been effective in cases of refractory PPH. Overall, ongoing research and advancements in PPH management continue to enhance the quality of care and maternal outcomes experiencing this potentially life-threatening complication of childbirth. This editorial explores prevention and management of Atonic PPH with encompassing medical and surgical strategies, to enhance understanding and optimize clinical care for mothers at risk of this obstetric emergency.

Strategies for optimising early detection and obstetric first response management of postpartum haemorrhage at caesarean birth: a modified Delphi-based international expert consensus

OBJECTIVE

There are no globally agreed on strategies on early detection and first response management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) during and after caesarean birth. Our study aimed to develop an international expert's consensus on evidence-based approaches for early detection and obstetric first response management of PPH intraoperatively and postoperatively in caesarean birth.

DESIGN

Systematic review and three-stage modified Delphi expert consensus.

SETTING

International.

POPULATION

Panel of 22 global experts in PPH with diverse backgrounds, and gender, professional and geographic balance.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Agreement or disagreement on strategies for early detection and first response management of PPH at caesarean birth.

RESULTS

Experts agreed that the same PPH definition should apply to both vaginal and caesarean birth. For the intraoperative phase, the experts agreed that early detection should be accomplished via quantitative blood loss measurement, complemented by monitoring the woman's haemodynamic status; and that first response should be triggered once the woman loses at least 500 mL of blood with continued bleeding or when she exhibits clinical signs of haemodynamic instability, whichever occurs first. For the first response, experts agreed on immediate administration of uterotonics and tranexamic acid, examination to determine aetiology and rapid initiation of cause-specific responses. In the postoperative phase, the experts agreed that caesarean birth-related PPH should be detected primarily via frequently monitoring the woman's haemodynamic status and clinical signs and symptoms of internal bleeding, supplemented by cumulative blood loss assessment performed quantitatively or by visual estimation. Postoperative first response was determined to require an individualised approach.

CONCLUSION

These agreed on proposed approaches could help improve the detection of PPH in the intraoperative and postoperative phases of caesarean birth and the first response management of intraoperative PPH. Determining how best to implement these strategies is a critical next step.

Evaluating tranexamic acid for the prevention and treatment of obstetric hemorrhage

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Tranexamic acid (TXA) has emerged as a promising pharmacological adjunct to treat and prevent postpartum hemorrhage (PPH). We provide an overview of TXA, including its pharmacology, key findings of randomized trials and observational studies, and critical patient safety information.

RECENT FINDINGS

Pharmacokinetic data indicate that TXA infusions result in peak plasma concentration within 3 min (range: 1-6.6 min). Ex-vivo pharmacodynamic data suggest that low-dose TXA (5 mg/kg) inhibits maximum lysis for at least 1 h. In predominantly developing countries, TXA has demonstrated a 19% reduction in the risk of bleeding-related death among patients with PPH. Based on high-quality randomized trials, TXA prophylaxis does not effectively reduce the risk of PPH during vaginal delivery and is likely ineffective in reducing the PPH risk during cesarean delivery. TXA exposure does not increase the risk of maternal thrombotic events. Maternal deaths have occurred from accidental intrathecal TXA injection from look-alike medication errors.

SUMMARY

TXA has shown promise as an important adjunct for PPH treatment, especially in low-resource settings. However, TXA is not recommended as PPH prophylaxis during vaginal or cesarean delivery. Patient safety initiatives should be prioritized to prevent maternal death from accidental intrathecal TXA injection.

Intrauterine devices in the management of postpartum hemorrhage

Obstetrical hemorrhage is a relatively frequent obstetrical complication and a common cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. The majority of maternal deaths attributable to hemorrhage are preventable, thus, developing rapid and effective means of treating postpartum hemorrhage is of critical public health importance. Intrauterine devices are one option for managing refractory hemorrhage, with rapid expansion of available devices in recent years. Intrauterine packing was historically used for this purpose, with historical cohorts documenting high rates of success. Modern packing materials, including chitosan-covered gauze, have recently been explored with success rates comparable to uterine balloon tamponade in small trials. There are a variety of balloon tamponade devices, both commercial and improvised, available for use. Efficacy of 85.9% was cited in a recent meta-analysis in resolution of hemorrhage with the use of uterine balloon devices, with greatest success in the setting of atony. However, recent randomized trials have demonstrated potential harm associated with improvised balloon tamponade use In low resource settings and the World Health Organization recommends use be restricted to settings where monitoring is available and care escalation is possible. Recently, intrauterine vacuum devices have been introduced, which offer a new mechanism for achieving hemorrhage control by mechanically restoring uterine tone via vacuum suction. The Jada device, which is is FDA-cleared and commercially available in the US, found successful bleeding control in 94% of cases in an initial single-arm trial, with recent post marketing registry study described treatment success following hemorrhage in 95.8% of vaginal and 88.2% of cesarean births. Successful use of improvised vacuum devices has been described in several studies, including suction tube uterine tamponade via Levin tubing, and use of a modified Bakri balloon. Further research is needed with head-to-head comparisons of efficacy of devices and assessment of cost within the context of both device pricing and overall healthcare resource utilization.

Third stage of labor: evidence-based practice for prevention of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes

The third stage of labor is defined as the time period between delivery of the fetus through delivery of the placenta. During a normal third stage, uterine contractions lead to separation and expulsion of the placenta from the uterus. Postpartum hemorrhage is a relatively common complication of the third stage of labor. Strategies have been studied to mitigate the risk of postpartum hemorrhage, leading to the widespread implementation of active management of the third stage of labor. Initially, active management of the third stage of labor consisted of a bundle of interventions including administration of a uterotonic agent, early cord clamping, controlled cord traction, and external uterine massage. However, the effectiveness of these interventions as a bundle has been questioned, leading to abandonment of some components in recent years. Despite this, upon review of selected international guidelines, we found that the term "active management of the third stage of labor" was still used, but recommendations for and against individual interventions were variable and not necessarily supported by current evidence. In this review, we: (1) examine the physiology of the third stage of labor, (2) present evidence related to interventions that prevent postpartum hemorrhage and promote maternal and neonatal health, (3) review current global guidelines and recommendations for practice, and (4) propose future areas of investigation. The interventions in this review include pharmacologic agents to prevent postpartum hemorrhage, cord clamping, cord milking, cord traction, cord drainage, early skin-to-skin contact, and nipple stimulation. Treatment of complications of the third stage of labor is outside of the scope of this review. We conclude that current evidence supports the use of effective pharmacologic postpartum hemorrhage prophylaxis, delayed cord clamping, early skin-to-skin contact, and controlled cord traction at delivery when feasible. The most effective uterotonic regimens for preventing postpartum hemorrhage after vaginal delivery include oxytocin plus ergometrine; oxytocin plus misoprostol; or carbetocin. After cesarean delivery, carbetocin or oxytocin as a bolus are the most effective regimens. There is inconsistent evidence regarding the use of tranexamic acid in addition to a uterotonic compared with a uterotonic alone for postpartum hemorrhage prevention after all deliveries. Because of differences in patient comorbidities, costs, and availability of resources and staff, decisions to use specific prevention strategies are dependent on patient- and system-level factors. We recommend that the term "active management of the third stage of labor" as a combined intervention no longer be used. Instead, we recommend that "third stage care" be adopted, which promotes the implementation of evidence-based interventions that incorporate practices that are safe and beneficial for both the woman and neonate.

Perceptions and experiences of the prevention, detection, and management of postpartum haemorrhage: a qualitative evidence synthesis

BACKGROUND

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH), defined as blood loss of 500 mL or more after childbirth, is the leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide. It is possible to prevent complications of PPH with timely and appropriate detection and management. However, implementing the best methods of PPH prevention, detection and management can be challenging, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVES

Our overall objective was to explore the perceptions and experiences of women, community members, lay health workers, and skilled healthcare providers who have experience with PPH or with preventing, detecting, and managing PPH, in community or health facility settings.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, Scopus, and grey literature on 13 November 2022 with no language restrictions. We then performed reference checking and forward citation searching of the included studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included qualitative studies and mixed-methods studies with an identifiable qualitative component. We included studies that explored perceptions and experiences of PPH prevention, detection, and management among women, community members, traditional birth attendants, healthcare providers, and managers.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used three-stage maximum variation sampling to ensure diversity in terms of relevance of the study to the review objectives, richness of data, and coverage of critical contextual elements: setting (region, country income level), perspective (type of participant), and topic (prevention, detection, management). We extracted data using a data extraction form designed for this review. We used thematic synthesis to analyse and synthesise the evidence, and we used the GRADE-CERQual (Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative research) approach to assess our confidence in each finding. To identify factors that may influence intervention implementation, we mapped each review finding to the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) and the Capability, Motivation, and Opportunity model of Behaviour change (COM-B). We used the Behaviour Change Wheel to explore implications for practice.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 67 studies and sampled 43 studies for our analysis. Most were from low- or middle-income countries (33 studies), and most included the perspectives of women and health workers. We downgraded our confidence in several findings from high confidence to moderate, low, or very-low confidence, mainly due to concerns about how the studies were conducted (methodological limitations) or concerns about missing important perspectives from some types of participants or in some settings (relevance). In many communities, bleeding during and after childbirth is considered "normal" and necessary to expel "impurities" and restore and cleanse the woman's body after pregnancy and birth (moderate confidence). In some communities, people have misconceptions about causes of PPH or believe that PPH is caused by supernatural powers or evil spirits that punish women for ignoring or disobeying social rules or for past mistakes (high confidence). For women who give birth at home or in the community, female family members or traditional birth attendants are the first to recognise excess bleeding after birth (high confidence). Family members typically take the decision of whether and when to seek care if PPH is suspected, and these family members are often influenced by trusted traditional birth attendants or community midwives (high confidence). If PPH is identified for women birthing at home or in the community, decision-making about the subsequent referral and care pathway can be multifaceted and complex (high confidence). First responders to PPH are not always skilled or trained healthcare providers (high confidence). In health facilities, midwives may consider it easy to implement visual estimation of blood loss with a kidney dish or under-pad, but difficult to accurately interpret the amount of blood loss (very low confidence). Quantifying (rather than estimating) blood loss may be a complex and contentious change of practice for health workers (low confidence). Women who gave birth in health facilities and experienced PPH described it as painful, embarrassing, and traumatic. Partners or other family members also found the experience stressful. While some women were dissatisfied with their level of involvement in decision-making for PPH management, others felt health workers were best placed to make decisions (moderate confidence). Inconsistent availability of resources (drugs, medical supplies, blood) causes delays in the timely management of PPH (high confidence). There is limited availability of misoprostol in the community owing to stockouts, poor supply systems, and the difficulty of navigating misoprostol procurement for community health workers (moderate confidence). Health workers described working on the maternity ward as stressful and intense due to short staffing, long shifts, and the unpredictability of emergencies. Exhausted and overwhelmed staff may be unable to appropriately monitor all women, particularly when multiple women are giving birth simultaneously or on the floor of the health facility; this could lead to delays in detecting PPH (moderate confidence). Inadequate staffing, high turnover of skilled health workers, and appointment of lower-level cadres of health workers are key challenges to the provision of quality PPH care (high confidence). Through team-based simulation training, health workers of different cadres (doctors, midwives, lay health workers) can develop a shared mental model to help them work quickly, efficiently, and amicably as a team when managing women with PPH (moderate confidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight how improving PPH prevention, detection, and management is underpinned by a complex system of interacting roles and behaviours (community, women, health workers of different types and with different experiences). Multiple individual, sociocultural, and environmental factors influence the decisions and behaviours of women, families, communities, health workers, and managers. It is crucial to consider the broader health and social systems when designing and implementing PPH interventions to change or influence these behaviours. We have developed a set of prompts that may help programme managers, policymakers, researchers, and other key stakeholders to identify and address factors that affect implementation and scale-up of interventions to improve PPH prevention, detection, and management.

Novel concepts and improvisation for treating postpartum haemorrhage: a narrative review of emerging techniques

BACKGROUND

Most treatments for postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) lack evidence of effectiveness. New innovations are ubiquitous but have not been synthesized for ready access.

NARRATIVE REVIEW

Pubmed 2020 to 2021 was searched on 'postpartum haemorrhage treatment', and novel reports among 755 citations were catalogued. New health care strategies included early diagnosis with a bundled first response and home-based treatment of PPH. A calibrated postpartum blood monitoring tray has been described. Oxytocin is more effective than misoprostol; addition of misoprostol to oxytocin does not improve treatment. Heat stable carbetocin has not been assessed for treatment. A thermostable microneedle oxytocin patch has been developed. Intravenous tranexamic acid reduces mortality but deaths have been reported from inadvertent intrathecal injection. New transvaginal uterine artery clamps have been described. Novel approaches to uterine balloon tamponade include improvised and purpose-designed free-flow (as opposed to fixed volume) devices and vaginal balloon tamponade. Uterine suction tamponade methods include purpose-designed and improvised devices. Restrictive fluid resuscitation, massive transfusion protocols, fibrinogen use, early cryopreciptate transfusion and point-of-care viscoelastic haemostatic assay-guided blood product transfusion have been reported. Pelvic artery embolization and endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta and pelvic arteries are used where available. External aortic compression and direct compression of the aorta during laparotomy or aortic clamping (such as with the Paily clamp) are alternatives. Transvaginal haemostatic ligation and compression sutures, placental site sutures and a variety of novel compression sutures have been reported. These include Esike's technique, three vertical compression sutures, vertical plus horizontal compression sutures, parallel loop binding compression sutures, uterine isthmus vertical compression sutures, isthmic circumferential suture, circumferential compression sutures with intrauterine balloon, King's combined uterine suture and removable retropubic uterine compression suture. Innovative measures for placenta accreta spectrum include a lower uterine folding suture, a modified cervical inversion technique, bilateral uterine artery ligation with myometrial excision of the adherent placenta and cervico-isthmic sutures or a T-shaped lower segment repair. Technological advances include cell salvage, high frequency focussed ultrasound for placenta increta and extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge of innovative methods can equip clinicians with last-resort options when faced with haemorrhage unresponsive to conventional methods.

Randomized Trial of Early Detection and Treatment of Postpartum Hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Delays in the detection or treatment of postpartum hemorrhage can result in complications or death. A blood-collection drape can help provide objective, accurate, and early diagnosis of postpartum hemorrhage, and delayed or inconsistent use of effective interventions may be able to be addressed by a treatment bundle.

METHODS

We conducted an international, cluster-randomized trial to assess a multicomponent clinical intervention for postpartum hemorrhage in patients having vaginal delivery. The intervention included a calibrated blood-collection drape for early detection of postpartum hemorrhage and a bundle of first-response treatments (uterine massage, oxytocic drugs, tranexamic acid, intravenous fluids, examination, and escalation), supported by an implementation strategy (intervention group). Hospitals in the control group provided usual care. The primary outcome was a composite of severe postpartum hemorrhage (blood loss, ≥1000 ml), laparotomy for bleeding, or maternal death from bleeding. Key secondary implementation outcomes were the detection of postpartum hemorrhage and adherence to the treatment bundle.

RESULTS

A total of 80 secondary-level hospitals across Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and Tanzania, in which 210,132 patients underwent vaginal delivery, were randomly assigned to the intervention group or the usual-care group. Among hospitals and patients with data, a primary-outcome event occurred in 1.6% of the patients in the intervention group, as compared with 4.3% of those in the usual-care group (risk ratio, 0.40; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.32 to 0.50; P<0.001). Postpartum hemorrhage was detected in 93.1% of the patients in the intervention group and in 51.1% of those in the usual-care group (rate ratio, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.41 to 1.76), and the treatment bundle was used in 91.2% and 19.4%, respectively (rate ratio, 4.94; 95% CI, 3.88 to 6.28).

CONCLUSIONS

Early detection of postpartum hemorrhage and use of bundled treatment led to a lower risk of the primary outcome, a composite of severe postpartum hemorrhage, laparotomy for bleeding, or death from bleeding, than usual care among patients having vaginal delivery. (Funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; E-MOTIVE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04341662.).

Review of Current Insights and Therapeutic Approaches for the Treatment of Refractory Postpartum Hemorrhage

Refractory postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) affects 10-20% of patients with PPH when they do not respond adequately to first-line treatments. These patients require second-line interventions, including three or more uterotonics, additional medications, transfusions, non-surgical treatments, and/or surgical intervention. Multiple studies have suggested that patients with refractory PPH have different clinical characteristics and causes of PPH when compared to patients who respond to first-line agents. This review highlights current insights into therapeutic approaches for the management of refractory PPH. Early management of refractory PPH relies on both hypovolemic resuscitation and achievement of hemostasis, with an emphasis on early blood product replacement and massive transfusion protocols. Transfusion needs can be more rapidly and accurately identified through point-of-care tests such as thromboelastography. Medical therapies for the treatment of refractory PPH involve treatment of both uterine atony as well as the underlying coagulopathy, with the use of tranexamic acid and adjunct therapies such as factor replacement. The principles guiding the management of refractory PPH include restoring normal uterine and pelvic anatomy, through the evaluation and management of retained products of conception, uterine inversion, and obstetric lacerations. Intrauterine vacuum-induced hemorrhage control devices are novel methods for the treatment of refractory PPH secondary to uterine atony, in addition to other uterine-sparing surgical procedures that are under investigation. Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta can be considered for cases of critical refractory PPH, to prevent or decrease ongoing blood loss while definitive surgical interventions are performed. Finally, for patients with critical hemorrhage resulting in hemorrhagic shock, damage control resuscitation (a staged surgical approach focused on restoring normal physiologic recovery and maximizing tissue oxygenation prior to proceeding with definitive surgical management) has been shown to successfully control refractory PPH, with an overall mortality decrease for obstetric patients.

Introduction of the Ellavi uterine balloon tamponade into the Kenyan and Ghanaian maternal healthcare package for improved postpartum haemorrhage management: an implementation research study

OBJECTIVES

Use of intrauterine balloon tamponades for refractory postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) management has triggered recent debate since effectiveness studies have yielded conflicting results. Implementation research is needed to identify factors influencing successful integration into maternal healthcare packages. The Ellavi uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) (Ellavi) is a new low-cost, preassembled device for treating refractory PPH.

DESIGN

A mixed-methods, prospective, implementation research study examining the adoption, sustainability, fidelity, acceptability and feasibility of introducing a newly registered UBT. Cross-sectional surveys were administered post-training and post-use over 10 months.

SETTING

Three Ghanaian (district, regional) and three Kenyan (levels 4-6) healthcare facilities.

PARTICIPANTS

Obstetric staff (n=451) working within participating facilities.

INTERVENTION

PPH management training courses were conducted with obstetric staff.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Facility measures of adoption, sustainability and fidelity and individual measures of acceptability and feasibility.

RESULTS

All participating hospitals adopted the device during the study period and the majority (52%-62%) of the employed obstetric staff were trained on the Ellavi; sustainability and fidelity to training content were moderate. The Ellavi was suited for this context due to high delivery and PPH burden. Dynamic training curriculums led by local UBT champions and clear instructions on the packaging yielded positive attitudes and perceptions, and high user confidence, resulting in overall high acceptability. Post-training and post-use, ≥79% of the trainees reported that the Ellavi was easy to use. Potential barriers to use included the lack of adjustable drip stands and difficulties calculating bag height according to blood pressure. Overall, the Ellavi can be feasibly integrated into PPH care and was preferred over condom catheters.

CONCLUSIONS

The training package and time saving Ellavi design facilitated its adoption, acceptability and feasibility. The Ellavi is appropriate and feasible for use among obstetric staff and can be successfully integrated into the Kenyan and Ghanaian maternal healthcare package.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS

NCT04502173; NCT05340777.

The effects of a peripartum strategy to prevent and treat primary postpartum haemorrhage at health facilities in Niger: a longitudinal, 72-month study

BACKGROUND

Primary postpartum haemorrhage is the principal cause of birth-related maternal mortality in most settings and has remained persistently high in severely resource-constrained countries. We evaluate the impact of an intervention that aims to halve maternal mortality caused by primary postpartum haemorrhage within 2 years, nationwide in Niger.

METHODS

In this 72-month longitudinal study, we analysed the effects of a primary postpartum haemorrhage intervention in hospitals and health centres in Niger, using data on maternal birth outcomes assessed and recorded by the facilities' health professionals and reported once per month at the national level. Reported data were monitored, compiled, and analysed by a non-governmental organisation collaborating with the Ministry of Health. All births in all health facilities in which births occurred, nationwide, were included, with no exclusion criteria. After a preintervention survey, brief training, and supplies distribution, Niger implemented a nationwide primary postpartum haemorrhage prevention and three-step treatment strategy using misoprostol, followed if needed by an intrauterine condom tamponade, and a non-inflatable anti-shock garment, with a specific set of organisational public health tools, aiming to reduce primary postpartum haemorrhage mortality.

FINDINGS

Among 5 382 488 expected births, 2 254 885 (41·9%) occurred in health facilities, of which information was available on 1 380 779 births from Jan 1, 2015, to Dec 31, 2020, with reporting increasing considerably over time. Primary postpartum mortality decreased from 82 (32·16%; 95% CI 25·58-39·92) of 255 health facility maternal deaths in the 2013 preintervention survey to 146 (9·53%; 8·05-11·21) of 1532 deaths among 343 668 births in 2020. Primary postpartum haemorrhage incidence varied between 1900 (2·10%; 2·01-2·20) of 90 453 births and 4758 (1·47%; 1·43-1·52) of 322 859 births during 2015-20, an annual trend of 0·98 (95% CI 0·97-0·99; p<0·0001).

INTERPRETATION

Primary postpartum haemorrhage morbidity and mortality declined rapidly nationwide. Because each treatment technology that was used has shown some efficacy when used alone, a strategic combination of these treatments can reasonably attain outcomes of this magnitude. Niger's strategy warrants testing in other low-income and perhaps some middle-income settings.

FUNDING

The Government of Norway, the Government of Niger, the Kavli Trust (Kavlifondet), the InFiL Foundation, and individuals in Norway, the UK, and the USA.

TRANSLATION

For the French translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

The compatibility of oxytocin and tranexamic acid injection products when mixed for co-administration by infusion for the treatment of postpartum haemorrhage: An in vitro investigation

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the compatibility of oxytocin and tranexamic acid injection products when mixed for the purpose of co-administration by intravenous infusion.

DESIGN

Compatibility testing.

SETTING

Hospitals taking part in a multicentre postpartum haemorrhage treatment (E-MOTIVE) trial in Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania and South Africa.

SAMPLE

Oxytocin and tranexamic acid products.

METHODS

The compatibility of two sentinel products of oxytocin injection and tranexamic acid injection in 200-mL infusion bags of both 0.9% w/v saline and Ringer's lactate solution was assessed. We analysed all tranexamic acid-oxytocin combinations, and each evaluation was conducted for up to 3 h. Subsequently, the compatibility of multiple tranexamic acid products with reference oxytocin products when mixed in 0.9% w/v saline over a period of 1 h was investigated.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Concentration of oxytocin over time after mixing with tranexamic acid products.

RESULTS

We found significant interaction between certain oxytocin and tranexamic acid products after mixing them in vitro and observing for 1 h. The interaction substantially impacted oxytocin content leading to reduction in concentration (14.8%-29.0%) immediately on mixing (t = 0 min). In some combinations, the concentration continued to decline throughout the stability assessment period. Oxytocin loss was observed in 7 out of 22 (32%) of combinations tested.

CONCLUSIONS

In a clinical setting, mixing certain oxytocin and tranexamic acid products before administration may result in an underdosing of oxytocin, compromising care in an emergency life-threatening situation. The mixing of oxytocin and tranexamic acid injection products for co-administration with intravenous infusion fluids should be avoided until the exact nature of the observed interaction and its implications are understood.

Factors influencing postpartum haemorrhage detection and management and the implementation of a new postpartum haemorrhage care bundle (E-MOTIVE) in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa

BACKGROUND

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of global maternal deaths, accounting for 30-50% of maternal deaths in sub-Saharan Africa. Most PPH-related deaths are preventable with timely detection and initiation of care, which may be facilitated by using a clinical care bundle. We explore influences on current PPH detection and management and on the future implementation of a new PPH bundle (E-MOTIVE) in low-resource, high-burden settings.

METHODS

Semi-structured qualitative interviews based on the Theoretical Domains Framework were conducted with 45 healthcare providers across nine hospitals in Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa, to identify barriers and enablers to current PPH detection and management and future implementation of a new PPH care bundle. Data were analysed using thematic and framework analysis. The Behaviour Change Wheel was used to identify potential interventions to address identified barriers and enablers.

RESULTS

Influences on current PPH detection and management fell under 12 domains: Environmental Context and Resources (drug and staff shortages), Skills (limited in-service training), Knowledge (variable understanding of the recommended practice), Behaviour Regulation (limited quality improvement culture), Beliefs about Consequences (drawbacks from inaccurate detection), Emotion (stress from the unpredictability of PPH), Social Influence (teamwork), Memory, Attention and Decision-making (limited guideline use), Social/Professional Role and Identity (role clarity), Beliefs about Capabilities (confidence in managing PPH), Reinforcement (disciplinary procedures) and Goals (PPH as a priority). Influences on bundle uptake included: Beliefs about Consequences (perceived benefits of new blood loss measurement tool), Environmental Context and Resources (high cost of drugs and new tools), Memory, Attention and Decision-making (concerns about whether bundle fits current practice), Knowledge (not understanding 'bundled' approach), Social Influence (acceptance by women and staff) and Intention (limited acceptance of 'bundled' approach over existing practice). These influences were consistent across countries. Proposed interventions included: Education, Training, Modelling (core and new skills), Enablement (monitoring uptake), Persuasion (leadership role) and Environmental Restructuring (PPH emergency trolley/kit).

CONCLUSIONS

A wide range of individual, socio-cultural and environmental barriers and enablers to improving PPH detection and management exist in these settings. We identified a range of interventions that could improve PPH care and the implementation of new care bundles in this context.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT04341662.

Utilization of non-pneumatic anti-shock garment for the management of obstetric hemorrhage among healthcare providers in north Shewa zone, Ethiopia

Background

Global maternal deaths have either increased or stagnated tragically. Obstetric hemorrhage (OH) remains the major cause of maternal deaths. Non-Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG) has several positive results in the management of obstetric hemorrhage in resource-limited settings where getting definitive treatments are difficult and limited. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the proportion and factors associated with the utilization of NASG for the management of obstetric hemorrhage among healthcare providers in the North Shewa zone, Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted at health facilities of the north Shewa zone, Ethiopia from June 10th-30th/2021. A simple random sampling (SRS) technique was employed among 360 healthcare providers. Data were collected using a pretested self-administered questionnaire. EpiData version 4.6 and SPSS 25 were used for data entry and analysis, respectively. Binary logistic regression analyses were undertaken to identify associated factors with the outcome variable. The level of significance was decided at a value of p of <0.05.

Results

The utilization of NASG for the management of obstetric hemorrhage among healthcare providers was 39% (95%CI: 34-45). Healthcare providers who received training on NASG (AOR = 3.3; 95%CI: 1.46-7.48), availability of NASG in the health facility (AOR = 9.17; 95%CI: 5.10-16.46), diploma (AOR = 2.63; 95%CI: 1.39-3.68), bachelor degree (AOR = 7.89; 95%CI: 3.1-16.29) and those healthcare providers who have a positive attitude toward utilization of NASG (AOR = 1.63; 95%CI: 1.14-2.82) were variables positively associated with the utilization of NASG.

Conclusion

In this study, almost two-fifths of healthcare providers used NASG for the management of obstetrics hemorrhage. Arranging educational opportunities and continuous professional development training for healthcare providers, providing in-service and refresher training, and making it available at health facilities may help healthcare providers to effectively use the device, thereby reducing maternal morbidity and mortality.

Quality of care for postpartum hemorrhage: A direct observation study in referral hospitals in Kenya

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality in Kenya. The aim of this study was to measure quality and timeliness of care for PPH in a sample of deliveries in referral hospitals in Kenya. We conducted direct observations of 907 vaginal deliveries in three Kenyan hospitals from October 2018 through February 2019, observing the care women received from admission for labor and delivery through hospital discharge. We identified cases of "suspected PPH", defined as cases in which providers indicated suspicion of and/or took an action to manage abnormal bleeding. We measured adherence to World Health Organization and Kenyan guidelines for PPH risk assessment, prevention, identification, and management and the timeliness of care in each domain. The rate of suspected PPH among the observed vaginal deliveries was 9% (95% Confidence Interval: 7% - 11%). Health care providers followed all guidelines for PPH risk assessment in 7% (5% - 10%) of observed deliveries and all guidelines for PPH prevention in 4% (3% - 6%) of observed deliveries. Lowest adherence was observed for taking vital signs and for timely administration of a prophylactic uterotonic. Providers did not follow guidelines for postpartum monitoring in any of the observed deliveries. When suspected PPH occurred, providers performed all recommended actions in 23% (6% - 40%) of cases. Many of the critical actions for suspected PPH were performed in a timely manner, but, in some cases, substantial delays were observed. In conclusion, we found significant gaps in the quality of risk assessment, prevention, identification, and management of PPH after vaginal deliveries in referral hospitals in Kenya. Efforts to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality from PPH should emphasize improvements in the quality of care, with a particular focus on postpartum monitoring and timely emergency response.

Feasibility and impact of a postpartum hemorrhage emergency care package using a bundle approach in Migori County, Kenya

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of the PPH Emergency Care package (PPH EmC)-a holistic intervention that uses a bundle approach that has been implemented in Kenya, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Central America-in a low-resource setting.

METHODS

The feasibility and impact of PPH EmC implementation in Migori County, Kenya was studied using a qualitative research design. In March and April 2022 key informants were identified using purposive sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted over Zoom from March to May 2022 until thematic saturation was reached. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed for emerging themes.

RESULTS

PPH EmC has positively impacted facility and health system preparedness, referral coordination, teamwork and communication, and overall capacity to provide quality PPH emergency care. Participants reported that PPH EmC is sustainable because of its low cost and support from local partners.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of PPH EmC in Migori County, Kenya was feasible and positively impacted PPH emergency care.

Every Second Matters - uterine balloon tamponade implementation across ten medical colleges in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh in India: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

To understand facilitators, barriers, and perceptions of the Every Second Matters uterine balloon tamponade (ESM-UBT) package implemented across 10 medical colleges in India, 3 years after the program was introduced.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted until thematic saturation in March 2020. Multiple provider cadres, including nurses, Obstetrics/Gynecology residents, professors, and program leads, were eligible. Interviews were transcribed and thematically coded using an inductive method.

RESULTS

Sixty-two obstetric providers were interviewed. Facilitators of implementation included recurrent training, improved teamwork and communication, strong program leadership, and involvement of lower-level facilities. Barriers to implementation included administrative hurdles, high staff turnover, language barriers, and resources required to reach and train lower-level facilities. Overall, the majority of clinicians viewed the ESM-UBT package as a useful intervention in aiding efforts to reduce maternal deaths from postpartum hemorrhage.

CONCLUSIONS

Among 10 medical colleges in India the ESM-UBT package is seen as a beneficial intervention for managing refractory atonic postpartum hemorrhage, and for reducing maternal morbidity and mortality. Identified facilitators of and barriers to implementation of the ESM-UBT package in India should be used to guide future implementation efforts.

Detection and management of postpartum haemorrhage: Qualitative evidence on healthcare providers' knowledge and practices in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa

Background

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death globally. Most PPH deaths can be avoided with timely detection and management; however, critical challenges persist. A multi-country cluster-randomised trial (E-MOTIVE) will introduce a clinical care bundle for early detection and first-response PPH management in hospital settings. This formative qualitative study aimed to explore healthcare providers' knowledge and practices of PPH detection and management after vaginal birth, to inform design and implementation of E-MOTIVE.

Methods

Between July 2020-June 2021, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 45 maternity healthcare providers (midwives, nurses, doctors, managers) of nine hospitals in Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa. A thematic analysis approach was used.

Results

Four key themes were identified, which varied across contexts: in-service training on emergency obstetric care; limited knowledge about PPH; current approaches to PPH detection; and current PPH management and associated challenges. PPH was recognised as an emergency but understanding of PPH varied. Early PPH detection was limited by the subjective nature of visual estimation of blood loss. Lack of expertise on PPH detection and using visual estimation can result in delays in initiation of PPH management. Shortages of trained staff and essential resources, and late inter-hospital referrals were common barriers to PPH management.

Conclusion

There are critical needs to address context-specific barriers to early and timely detection and management of PPH in hospital settings. These findings will be used to develop evidence-informed implementation strategies, such as improved in-service training, and objective measurement of blood loss, which are key components of the E-MOTIVE trial (Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04341662).

Evaluating the quality of care for postpartum hemorrhage with a new quantitative tool: a population-based study

To develop a new tool to assess the global quality of care for post-partum hemorrhage (PPH)-the leading preventable cause of maternal mortality worldwide-and to identify characteristics of maternity units associated with inadequate PPH management. This is a secondary analysis of the EPIMOMS population-based study conducted in 2012-2013 in 119 french maternity units (182,309 women who gave birth). We included women with severe PPH. We first developed a score to quantify the quality of care for PPH. Then, we identified characteristics of the maternity units associated with "inadequate care" defined by a score below the 25th percentile, with multi-level logistic regression adjusted for individual characteristics. The score combined 8 key components of care and took into account delivery mode and PPH cause. For PPH after vaginal delivery, the risk of inadequate care was increased in low versus high-volume maternity units (< 1000 deliveries/year: aOR-2.20 [1.12-4.32], [1000-2000 [deliveries/year: aOR-1.90 [1.02-3.56] compared to ≥ 3500 deliveries/year), in private versus public units (aOR-1.72 [1.00-2.97]), and in low versus high-level of care units (aOR-2.04 [1.24-3.35]). For PPH after cesarean, the only characteristic associated with an increased risk of inadequate care was the absence of 24/24-onsite anesthesiologist (aOR-4.34 [1.41-13.31]). These results indicate where opportunities for improvement are the greatest.

A Retrospective Study of Diaphragmatic Breathing Training Combined with Discharge Care Bundles in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Objective. Both physical exercise and discharge care bundles can improve patient outcomes and reduce hospitalization rates among subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The retrospective analysis aims to determine the advantages of care bundles combined with diaphragmatic breathing training (DBT) in COPD patients after discharge. Methods. Of the 110 COPD patients, 55 patients received DBT alone (DBT group) and 55 participants received the combined intervention (care bundle + DBT group). Three months after discharge, we assessed the outcomes of patients using Bristol COPD Knowledge Questionnaire (BCKQ), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), COPD Assessment Test (CAT), and St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ). Meanwhile, COPD-related hospital readmissions were also recorded. Results. The BCKQ score for assessing the disease knowledge level was increased in patients at 3 months after the combined interventions as compared to the baseline values, which was higher in the care bundle + DBT group than the DBT group at 3 months. Moreover, improvements in negative emotion and clinical symptoms from baseline to 3-month follow-up were seen in both the two groups. Besides, the care bundle + DBT group showed the mitigation of depression and anxiety and the alleviation of clinical symptoms in comparison with the DBT group at 3 months. Participants who received combined interventions had lower SGRQ scores than those who received DBT alone. The time to first COPD-related readmission was shorter for patients in the care bundle + DBT group compared with the DBT group. Conclusions. DBT combined with discharge care bundles for COPD patients resulted in improvements in disease-specific knowledge, negative emotions, and clinical symptoms with better HRQOL and lower readmission rate.

Identifying interventions to reduce peripartum haemorrhage associated with caesarean delivery in Africa: A Delphi consensus study

Women in Africa are fifty times more likely than in high-income settings to die following caesarean delivery, and peripartum haemorrhage is most strongly associated with mortality. We aimed to establish consensus on which interventions are considered most feasible to implement and most effective at reducing haemorrhage associated with caesarean delivery across Africa. We conducted a Delphi consensus study, including obstetric and anaesthesia providers from across Africa. In round one the expert group proposed key interventions for consideration. In rounds two and three the interventions were ranked on a 9-point Likert scale for effectiveness and feasibility. Round four was an online discussion to establish consensus on effectiveness and feasibility of interventions for which this had not been reached in round three. Twenty-eight interventions were considered both highly effective and feasible in Africa. Interventions covered a range of fields, categorised into direct- or indirect interventions. Direct interventions included: risk assessment and screening; checklists and protocols; monitoring and surveillance; availability of resources; ability to perform technical skills. Indirect interventions included: community and maternal education; contraception and family planning; minimum training standards; referral patterns and delays; advocacy to key stakeholders; simulation and team training; and 24-hour access to safe emergency caesarean delivery. Interventions considered both effective and feasible in reducing peripartum haemorrhage associated with caesarean delivery in Africa were identified. A multi-layered implementation strategy, including immediately developing a perioperative caesarean delivery bundle of care, in addition to longer-term public health measures may have a profound impact on maternal mortality in Africa.

Implementation of Postpartum Hemorrhage Emergency Care Using a Bundle Approach at a Tertiary Care Hospital in North India

Background

The major cause of maternal death globally is postpartum hemorrhage (PPH). When PPH develops, early detection of bleeding and rapid treatment with evidence-based guidelines can prevent most PPH-related severe morbidity and mortality. The bundle care approach for PPH management could be a potential solution to inefficient and uneven evidence-based practice implementation worldwide. Bundle care is a collection of discrete, evidence-based interventions given to every eligible person simultaneously or in quick succession and requires teamwork, communication, and cooperation. The primary objective of this study was to analyze whether implementing a PPH bundle of care may reduce maternal morbidity and mortality in our institution.

Methods

This was a single-center retrospective pre-post case-control study was carried out at a tertiary care center and teaching hospital in Varanasi, eastern Uttar Pradesh state, India. From January 2021 to June 2021, pretraining data (PRE) were collected retrospectively on all births from the department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Sunderlal Hospital, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University. Subsequently, medical and paramedical personnel of our hospital were trained in Postpartum Hemorrhage Emergency Care Using a Bundle Approach (PPH EmC) as per the guidelines laid down by the World Health Organization (WHO) for PPH management and implemented in July 2021. Post-training data (POST) were then collected retrospectively on all deliveries at our hospital from August 2021 to January 2022. All the data within two periods were computed and analyzed. The results were then compared for any significant changes in the incidences of maternal mortality and morbidity in terms of the rates of blood transfusion required and the type of management used (medical or medical-surgical), use of tranexamic acid, and additional uterotonics. The results were expressed as proportions, and p≤0.05 was considered statistically significant using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 24.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

Results

A total of 1304 women gave birth from January 2021 to January 2022, of whom 107 patients (61 in the PRE and 57 in the POST group) were diagnosed and treated for PPH. There was no significant difference in the incidence of PPH in the PRE and POST groups (p=0.581). There was a significant increase in the use of tranexamic acid (p=0.041) and a significant reduction in blood transfusion rates (p=0.032) after the implementation of bundled care in the POST group. The odds of PPH non-occurrence after pre- and post-test was 1.103 (95% CI=0.747 to 1.635). No significant difference was observed in maternal mortality in the PRE and POST groups (p=0.96). The requirement for radical surgical treatment of PPH, which included hysterectomies, was also significantly reduced, from 27.27% in the PRE group to 11.54% in the POST group (p=0.032).

Conclusions

PPH care bundles might improve the morbidity of PPH with the use of fewer resources and fewer interventions required. While these data are promising, further studies are needed to analyze bundle care's long-term effects.

Postpartum Hemorrhage: Emergency Management for Uncontrolled Vaginal Bleeding

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) represents total cumulative blood loss in excess of 1,000 ml or blood loss accompanied by signs and/or symptoms of hypovolemia within 24 hr following birth (The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists [ACOG], 2017). As a large number of PPHs occur in low-risk women (ACOG, 2019), the emergency nurse practitioner must be prepared to identify and manage this uncommon but life-threatening condition. The etiology, pharmacological management strategies, and other interventions are reviewed in an algorithmic approach. This organized approach not only supports maternal survival during PPH but is also applicable to postprocedural bleeding of obstetric and gynecological etiologies.

Impact of efforts to prevent maternal deaths due to obstetric hemorrhage on trends in epidemiology and management of severe postpartum hemorrhage in Japan: a nationwide retrospective study

Background

The Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Japan Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists have issued the guidelines and recommendations on postpartum hemorrhage since 2010 and have been conducted widespread educational activities from 2012. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of these efforts by the Societies to prevent maternal deaths due to obstetric hemorrhage on trends in epidemiology and management of severe postpartum hemorrhage in Japan.

Methods

A national retrospective cohort study was conducted using the national database of health insurance claims for the period 2012 and 2018. The subjects were all insured women who received a blood transfusion for postpartum hemorrhage. The primary endpoints of this study were hysterectomy and maternal mortality. The etiology of hemorrhage, treatment facility, type of procedure, and blood transfusion volume were tabulated.

Results

Women with postpartum hemorrhage that underwent transfusion increased from 3.5 to 5.5 per 1000 deliveries between 2012 and 2018. The most common cause of postpartum hemorrhage was atonic hemorrhage. After insurance coverage in 2013, the intrauterine balloon tamponade use increased to 20.3% of postpartum hemorrhages treated with transfusion in 2018, while the proportion of hysterectomy was decreased from 7.6% (2013–2015) to 6.4% (2016–2018) (p < 0.0001). The proportion of postpartum hemorrhage in maternal deaths decreased from 21.1% (2013–2015) to 14.1% (2016–2018) per all maternal deaths cases (p = 0.14). Cases with postpartum hemorrhage managed in large referral hospitals was increased (65.9% in 2012 to 70.4% in 2018) during the study period (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

The efforts by the Societies to prevent maternal mortality due to obstetric hemorrhage resulted in a significant decrease in the frequency of hysterectomies and a downward trend in maternal mortality due to obstetric hemorrhage.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-022-04824-7.

Renal cyst mimicking hydronephrosis after uterine artery ligation for postpartum haemorrhage

BACKGROUND

The proximity of the uterus and the cervix to the urinary tract predisposes the latter to injury during obstetrical and gynaecological surgical procedures. Following a difficult surgical procedure on the lower uterine segment and or adnexa, urinary tract injury should be excluded.

METHODS

A booked 39-year-old G3P2 lady who suffered an ischaemic stroke in the index pregnancy had a caesarean delivery at 39 weeks of gestation and sustained an extensive tear that extended inferiorly on the left lateral aspect of the uterus and this resulted in postpartum haemorrhage. Following the repair of the tear, uterine artery ligation was performed to achieve haemostasis.

RESULTS

Postoperatively, conventional ultrasonography which was performed to exclude ureteric injury suggested left hydronephrosis and a preliminary report of computerized tomography (CT) showed the same finding. The patient subsequently had left ureteric stenting. The final report of the CT scan was delayed but showed a simple left renal cyst and no hydronephrosis.

CONCLUSION

Renal cyst is a differential diagnosis of hydronephrosis. Delayed availability of the final result of medical investigations jeopardises patients' safety. A preliminary imaging report is prone to error and its use to determine the indication for an invasive procedure should be limited to emergencies.

Quality of oxytocin and tranexamic acid for the prevention and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and Tanzania

OBJECTIVE

To check the quality of oxytocin and tranexamic acid-two recommended products for prevention and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH)-used in facilities taking part in an implementation research project to improve PPH diagnosis and management.

METHODS

Between September 2020 and August 2021, oxytocin and tranexamic acid products used in the study facilities in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and Tanzania were collected and transported in cold storage for analysis. Samples were analyzed according to the International (oxytocin) and British Pharmacopeia (tranexamic acid) standards.

RESULTS

Of the 17 unique oxytocin products, 33 individual measurements were made. Only six unique products had adequate content and no related substances exceeding the recommended limits. Of 14 tranexamic acid samples, 10 showed adequate content. One product in Kenya and two products in Nigeria from different manufacturers had a high content of related substances, which classified them as substandard.

CONCLUSION

While we were unable to investigate the origin regarding poor manufacturing or poor storage or both, the high number of substandard oxytocin samples is of great concern. Most of the tranexamic acid samples had adequate content but the presence of impurities in multiple products is worrying and requires further study.

Latest advances in postpartum hemorrhage management

Hemorrhage is the leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide. A maternal health priority is improving how healthcare providers prevent and manage postpartum hemorrhage (PPH). Because anesthesiologists can help facilitate how hospitals develop approaches for PPH prevention and anticipatory planning, we review the potential utility of PPH risk-assessment tools, bundles, and protocols. Anesthesiologists rely on clinical and diagnostic information for initiating and evaluating medical management. Therefore, we review modalities for measuring blood loss after delivery, which includes visual, volumetric, gravimetric, and colorimetric approaches. Point-of-care technologies for assessing changes in central hemodynamics (ultrasonography) and coagulation profiles (rotational thromboelastometry and thromboelastography) are also discussed. Anesthesiologists play a critical role in the medical and transfusion management of PPH. Therefore, we review blood ordering and massive transfusion protocols, fixed-ratio vs. goal-directed transfusion approaches, coagulation changes during PPH, and the potential clinical utility of the pharmacological adjuncts, tranexamic acid, and fibrinogen concentrate.

Comparison of Clinical Efficacy and Safety between Misoprostol and Oxytocin in the Prevention of Postpartum Hemorrhage: A Meta-Analysis

In order to systematically evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of misoprostol versus oxytocin in the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage, this paper provides evidence-based reference for clinical medication, computerized retrieval of Chinese biomedical literature database (CBM), PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and clinical trials. The retrieval period is from the establishment of each database to October 1, 2021. Published randomized controlled trials (RCTS) are included in this study. The literature is screened and evaluated according to inclusion and exclusion criteria, and meta-analysis is performed using RevMan 5.3 software. A total of 13 RCTS are included, with a total of 24754 parturients. The meta-analysis shows the average blood loss (SMD = 0.10, 95% CI (-0.11, 0.32), P=0.35), the time of the third stage of labor (SMD = 0, 95% CI (-0.07, 0.08), P=0.95), and blood transfusion rate (RR = 0.80, 95% CI (0.63, 1.02), P=0.07). However, the incidences of shivering (RR = 2.61, 95% CI (1.79, 0.81), P < 0.00001) and vomiting (RR = 2.78, 95% CI (1.85, 4.18), P < 0.00001) are significantly higher than those in oxytocin group. The effect of misoprostol on preventing postpartum hemorrhage is similar to that of oxytocin, but the incidence of adverse reactions is high, and the occurrence of adverse reactions should be closely watched in the use process. Due to the limitations of the included studies, multicenter, large-sample, and high-quality RCTS are still needed in the future to further verify this conclusion.

Impact of the introduction of a low-cost uterine balloon tamponade (ESM-UBT) device for managing severe postpartum hemorrhage in India: A comparative before-and-after study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of introducing a uterine balloon tamponade (ESM-UBT) device for managing severe postpartum hemorrhage (PPH), mainly due to uterine atony, in health facilities in India on the rates of PPH-related maternal death and invasive procedures for PPH control.

METHODS

We used a quasi-experimental, difference-in-difference (DID) design to compare changes in the rates of a composite outcome (PPH-related maternal death and/or artery ligation, uterine compression sutures, or hysterectomy) among women delivering in nine intervention facilities compared with those delivering in two control facilities, before and after the introduction of ESM-UBT.

RESULTS

The study sample included 214 123 deliveries (n = 78 509 before ESM-UBT introduction; n = 47 211 during ESM-UBT introduction; and n = 88 403 after ESM-UBT introduction). After introduction of ESM-UBT, there was a significant decline in the rate of the primary composite outcome in intervention facilities (21.0-11.4 per 10 000 deliveries; difference -9.6, 95% confidence interval -14.0 to -5.4). Change in the rate of the primary composite outcome was not significant in control facilities (11.7-17.2 per 10 000 deliveries; difference 5.4, 95% confidence interval -3.9 to 14.9). DID analyses showed there was a significant reduction in the rate of the primary composite outcome in intervention facilities relative to control facilities (adjusted DID estimate -15.0 per 10 000 points, 95% confidence interval -23.3 to -6.8; P = 0.005).

CONCLUSION

Introduction of the ESM-UBT in health facilities in India was associated with a significant reduction in PPH-related maternal death and/or invasive procedures for PPH control.

World Health Organization Recommendation for Using Uterine Balloon Tamponade to Treat Postpartum Hemorrhage

The World Health Organization recommends that balloon tamponade should be used only where other supportive interventions are available if needed.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recently published a new recommendation on the use of the uterine balloon tamponade for the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage. The recommendation that uterine balloon tamponade should be used only where there is already access to other postpartum hemorrhage treatments (including immediate recourse to surgery) has proved controversial. It is especially problematic for those working in low-level health care facilities in under-resourced settings, where there are already programs that have introduced low-cost uterine balloon tamponade devices for use, even in settings where recourse to surgical interventions is not possible. However, there are now two separate randomized trials that both unexpectedly show unfavorable outcomes in these settings when a condom catheter uterine balloon tamponade device was introduced. Considering the balance of potential benefits and these safety concerns, the WHO postpartum hemorrhage guideline panel therefore recommends that uterine balloon tamponade should be used only in contexts where other supportive postpartum hemorrhage interventions are available if needed.

The cost-effectiveness of tranexamic acid for treatment of postpartum hemorrhage: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is responsible for nearly one quarter of maternal deaths. A 2017 multicountry trial found that incorporating tranexamic acid (TXA) into the PPH management package was effective in reducing maternal death due to bleeding.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review studies assessing the cost-effectiveness of tranexamic acid for PPH treatment.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Nine databases were searched using variations of keywords 'tranexamic acid', 'postpartum hemorrhage' and 'cost effectiveness'.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Eligible studies were any type of economic or effectiveness evaluation studies on tranexamic acid for treating women with PPH.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently screened citations and extracted data on cost effectiveness measures. Quality was assessed using the Consensus on Health Economic Criteria list.

MAIN RESULTS

Four studies were included, of which two were abstracts. Three studies concluded that early administration of TXA was cost-saving or cost-effective. One abstract reported TXA was not cost-effective in the USA unless the probability of death due to hemorrhage is higher.

CONCLUSION

Available evidence (four studies in three countries) suggests that this life-saving intervention may be below willingness to pay thresholds (cost-effective) or cost saving. Further studies conducted in different populations and settings are needed to inform health policy decision-making to reduce PPH-associated morbidity and mortality.

Understanding How Health Providers Identify Women with Postpartum Hemorrhage: A Qualitative Study

OBJECTIVE

 To identify how health providers recognize postpartum hemorrhage early and the difficulties involved in it.

METHODS

 An exploratory, descriptive study using a qualitative approach through a semi-structured interview technique. In total, 27 health professionals (nursing technicians, nurses, medical residents in Gynecology and Obstetrics, hired medical doctors, and medicine professors) working in a tertiary-level hospital of reference in women's health care in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, participated in the study through an invitation. After they accepted the invitation, they signed the free and informed consent form. All interviews were recorded and transcribed, and a thematic analysis was conducted. We found three analysis categories: a) perception of the severity: "there is something wrong with the women"; b) difficulties in the early diagnosis of postpartum hemorrhage; and c) the process to improve obstetrical care.

RESULTS

 Caregivers believe teamwork and communication should be improved. Besides the visual estimation of blood loss, the nursing team is attentive to behavioral symptoms like irritability, while the medical staff follow protocols and look for objective signs, such as altered vital signs.

CONCLUSION

 Besides the objective evaluations, the subjective perceptions of the providers are involved in the clinical judgement regarding the diagnosis of postpartum hemorrhage, and this should be included in a broader diagnosis strategy.

"Suction Tube Uterine Tamponade" for treatment of refractory postpartum hemorrhage: Internal feasibility and acceptability pilot of a randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

To assess feasibility and acceptability of a novel, low-cost "Suction Tube Uterine Tamponade" (STUT) treatment for refractory postpartum hemorrhage (PPH).

METHODS

We allocated patients with refractory PPH by randomly ordered envelopes to STUT or routine uterine balloon tamponade (UBT, Ellavi free-flow system) in 10 hospitals in South Africa. In the STUT group, a 24FG Levin stomach tube was inserted into the uterine cavity and vacuum created with a vacuum pump or manual vacuum aspiration syringe.

RESULTS

For this internal pilot study, 12 participants were allocated to STUT and 12 to UBT. Insertion failed in one of each group and was recorded as difficult in 3/10 STUT and 4/9 UBT insertions respectively (five missing data). There were two laparotomies and one intensive care unit admission in the UBT group. Pain during STUT insertion was graded as none/mild in 9/10 and severe in 1/10. The experience of the STUT procedure was graded as fine in 4/11 and "uncomfortable but acceptable" in 7/11.

CONCLUSION

STUT is feasible and acceptable, justifying continuation of our trial. These data will also inform a large World Health Organization trial to test effectiveness of uterine tamponade methods. The numbers are too small to support any clinical recommendation.

Formative research to design an implementation strategy for a postpartum hemorrhage initial response treatment bundle (E-MOTIVE): study protocol

BACKGROUND

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. When PPH occurs, early identification of bleeding and prompt management using evidence-based guidelines, can avert most PPH-related severe morbidities and deaths. However, adherence to the World Health Organization recommended practices remains a critical challenge. A potential solution to inefficient and inconsistent implementation of evidence-based practices is the application of a 'clinical care bundle' for PPH management. A clinical care bundle is a set of discrete, evidence-based interventions, administered concurrently, or in rapid succession, to every eligible person, along with teamwork, communication, and cooperation. Once triggered, all bundle components must be delivered. The E-MOTIVE project aims to improve the detection and first response management of PPH through the implementation of the "E-MOTIVE" bundle, which consists of (1) Early PPH detection using a calibrated drape, (2) uterine Massage, (3) Oxytocic drugs, (4) Tranexamic acid, (5) Intra Venous fluids, and (6) genital tract Examination and escalation when necessary. The objective of this paper is to describe the protocol for the formative phase of the E-MOTIVE project, which aims to design an implementation strategy to support the uptake of this bundle into practice.

METHODS

We will use behavior change and implementation science frameworks [e.g. capability, opportunity, motivation and behavior (COM-B) and theoretical domains framework (TDF)] to guide data collection and analysis, in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania. There are four methodological components: qualitative interviews; surveys; systematic reviews; and design workshops. We will triangulate findings across data sources, participant groups, and countries to explore factors influencing current PPH detection and management, and potentially influencing E-MOTIVE bundle implementation. We will use these findings to develop potential strategies to improve implementation, which will be discussed and agreed with key stakeholders from each country in intervention design workshops.

DISCUSSION

This formative protocol outlines our strategy for the systematic development of the E-MOTIVE implementation strategy. This focus on implementation considers what it would take to support roll-out and implementation of the E-MOTIVE bundle. Our approach therefore aims to maximize internal validity in the trial alongside future scalability, and implementation of the E-MOTIVE bundle in routine practice, if proven to be effective.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04341662.

Tranexamic acid and obstetric hemorrhage: give empirically or selectively?

Antifibrinolytic agents such as tranexamic acid (TXA) inhibit the fibrinolytic pathway and protect blood clots from being degraded, thereby promoting hemostasis. They have been used to reduce blood loss in various settings including obstetrics. Based on current evidence, TXA can be considered as a therapeutic adjunct to control postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) after vaginal and cesarean deliveries, with earlier administration preferred. This strategy has been demonstrated to reduce mortality due to bleeding (but not the incidence of transfusion) in developing countries. On the other hand, the benefit-risk ratio of TXA has not been fully assessed in developed countries which have much lower PPH-related mortality rates and better access to other management modalities. As a proposed prophylactic agent to prevent PPH, the level of evidence is currently insufficient to recommend the routine use of TXA to prevent blood loss after vaginal and cesarean deliveries. The results of large new multicenter studies assessing the impact of TXA on maternal blood loss-related outcomes after cesarean delivery are awaited. While most studies to date have focused on empirical and one-size-fit-all dosing of TXA, more selective and individualized treatment protocols (possibly guided by functional coagulation assays) are needed to pave the way for safer and more effective use of this inexpensive and widely used medication.

Resource use decrease after implementation of care bundles for treatment of postpartum hemorrhage

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether the implementation of care bundles has an impact on resource utilization in the care of patients with postpartum hemorrhage (PPH).

METHODS

Retrospective, cross-sectional, observational study of 404 patients with stage II or greater PPH. Periods 2011-2014 and 2015-2017, before and after the introduction of care bundles, were compared. Billing reports were analyzed, and all services provided to treat these events were extracted. Use of resources within the two periods was computed.

RESULTS

The amount billed per episode decreased 18.66% from the first to the second period. Most PPH cases used fewer resources after introduction of care bundles. The greatest reduction was in the use of medications, with a decrease of charges by 56.3%. Diagnostic procedure charges decreased by 47.6% and consultation charges decreased by (37.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of PPH care bundles may be associated with lower resource use and fewer interventions.

OASI2: a cluster randomised hybrid evaluation of strategies for sustainable implementation of the Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury Care Bundle in maternity units in Great Britain

BACKGROUND

The Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury (OASI) Care Bundle comprises four primary and secondary prevention practices that target the rising rates of severe perineal tearing during childbirth, which can have severe debilitating consequences for women. The OASI Care Bundle was implemented in 16 maternity units in Britain in the OASI1 project (2017-2018), which demonstrated the care bundle's effectiveness in reducing OASI rates. In OASI2, the care bundle will be scaled up to 20 additional National Health Service (NHS) maternity units in a hybrid effectiveness-implementation study that will examine the effectiveness of strategies used to introduce, implement and sustain the care bundle.

METHODS

OASI2 is a two-arm cluster-randomised control trial (C-RCT) of maternity units in England, Scotland and Wales, with an additional non-randomised study arm. C-RCT arm 1 (peer support, n = 10 units) will be supported by 'buddy' units to implement the OASI Care Bundle. C-RCT arm 2 (lean implementation, n = 10 units) will implement without external support. The additional study arm (sustainability, n = 10 units) will include some original OASI1 units to evaluate the care bundle's sustainability and OASI rates over time, from before OASI1 and through the end of OASI2. Units in all three study arms will receive an Implementation Toolkit with training resources and implementation support. The C-RCT arms will be compared in terms of OASI rate reduction (primary effectiveness outcome) and clinicians' adoption of the care bundle (primary implementation outcome). Clinical data will be collated from maternity information systems; implementation data will be collected through validated surveys with women and clinicians, supplemented by qualitative methods. Descriptive statistics and regression modelling will be used for analysis. Emergent themes from the qualitative data will be assessed using framework analysis.

DISCUSSION

OASI2 will study the impact of various implementation strategies used to introduce and sustain the OASI Care Bundle, and how these strategies affect the bundle's clinical effectiveness. The study will generate insights into how to effectively scale-up and sustain uptake and coverage of similar interventions in maternity units. A locally adaptable 'implementation blueprint' will be produced to inform development of future guidelines to prevent perineal trauma.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN26523605.

Healthcare providers experiences of using uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) devices for the treatment of post-partum haemorrhage: A meta-synthesis of qualitative studies

BACKGROUND

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a leading cause of maternal mortality and severe morbidity globally. When PPH cannot be controlled using standard medical treatments, uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) may be used to arrest bleeding. While UBT is used by healthcare providers in hospital settings internationally, their views and experiences have not been systematically explored. The aim of this review is to identify, appraise and synthesize available evidence about the views and experiences of healthcare providers using UBT to treat PPH.

METHODS

Using a pre-determined search strategy, we searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, EMBASE, LILACS, AJOL, and reference lists of eligible studies published 1996-2019, reporting qualitative data on the views and experiences of health professionals using UBT to treat PPH. Author findings were extracted and synthesised using techniques derived from thematic synthesis and confidence in the findings was assessed using GRADE-CERQual.

RESULTS

Out of 89 studies we identified 5 that met our inclusion criteria. The studies were conducted in five low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in Africa and reported on the use of simple UBT devices for the treatment of PPH. A variety of cadres (including midwives, medical officers and clinical officers) had experience with using UBTs and found them to be effective, convenient, easy to assemble and relatively inexpensive. Providers also suggested regular, hands-on training was necessary to maintain skills and highlighted the importance of community engagement in successful implementation.

CONCLUSIONS

Providers felt that administration of a simple UBT device offered a practical and cost-effective approach to the treatment of uncontrolled PPH, especially in contexts where uterotonics were ineffective or unavailable or where access to surgery was not possible. The findings are limited by the relatively small number of studies contributing to the review and further research in other contexts is required to address wider acceptability and feasibility issues.

Audit of Early and Late Maternal Deaths in Georgia: Potential for Improving Substandard Obstetric Care

Introduction

Quality of care is an important factor in reducing preventable maternal deaths, yet it is a significant challenge in many countries. Substandard and poor quality of care is the leading factor in two-thirds of maternal deaths in European countries. Our study investigated the deaths of all women of reproductive age in 2012 in Georgia. The aim was to define the underlying causes of maternal deaths and to identify the factors in women’s care which contributed to the fatal outcomes.

Methods

A national Reproductive Age Mortality Survey was conducted in Georgia in 2014–15. Data from multiple sources was triangulated to identify all deaths of women of reproductive age. This was followed by verbal autopsy diagnoses. Each case of early and late maternal death was investigated through interviews and medical record reviews at the last medical facility providing care for the deceased woman. A specialist panel reviewed and assigned underlying causes of death, assessed the management of each woman’s condition, and identified elements of suboptimal care.

Results

We identified a total of 23 maternal deaths, including 15 (65%) early and eight (35%) late deaths. The maternal mortality ratio was 26.3 per 100 000 live births. The four leading causes of early maternal deaths were: sepsis, hemorrhage, embolism, and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Embolism and sepsis were the direct causes of the eight late maternal deaths. Cancer, tuberculosis, and postpartum suicide constituted the indirect causes of death. Improvements in care which would have made a difference to the outcomes were identified in 87% of early maternal deaths and 67% of late maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes.

Discussion

Delayed recognition and inappropriate management of maternal complications were common across almost all cases studied. The findings from Georgia highlight the conclusion that most maternal deaths were preventable and that improvement in obstetric care is urgently required.