Bioelectric pharmacology of cancer: A systematic review of ion channel drugs affecting the cancer phenotype

Cancer is a pernicious and pressing medical problem; moreover, it is a failure of multicellular morphogenesis that sheds much light on evolutionary developmental biology. Numerous classes of pharmacological agents have been considered as cancer therapeutics and evaluated as potential carcinogenic agents; however, these are spread throughout the primary literature. Here, we briefly review recent work on ion channel drugs as promising anti-cancer treatments and present a systematic review of the known cancer-relevant effects of 109 drugs targeting ion channels. The roles of ion channels in cancer are consistent with the importance of bioelectrical parameters in cell regulation and with the functions of bioelectric signaling in morphogenetic signals that act as cancer suppressors. We find that compounds that are well-known for having targets in the nervous system, such as voltage-gated ion channels, ligand-gated ion channels, proton pumps, and gap junctions are especially relevant to cancer. Our review suggests further opportunities for the repurposing of numerous promising candidates in the field of cancer electroceuticals.

Imiquimod-Loaded Nanosystem for Treatment Human Papillomavirus-Induced Lesions

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cervical cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide. The treatment options are strongly related to increased infertility in women. Imiquimod (IQ) is an imidazoquinoline, which has proven antiviral effects against persistent HPV infection by activating immune cells via Toll-like receptors 7/8 when formulated in carriers, like nanogels, for topical use. An effective alternative to conventional therapies is the nanoparticle drug delivery system. We studied lipidic nanoparticles with IQ (Lipo IQ) and functionalized them with a DNA aptamer, AT11 (Lipo IQ AT11), to improve the selectivity for cervical cancer cells combined with the efficacy of essential oils. The formulations showed that the physicochemical properties are adequate for vaginal drug delivery and have antimicrobial activity at higher concentrations (with MIC50 starting from 0.625%). The final formulations exhibited cytotoxicity in cancer cells, enhanced by essential oils without affecting healthy cells, resulting in less than 10% cell viability in HeLa cells and over 60% in NHDF cells. Essential oils potentiate Lipo IQ's effectiveness, while AT11 increases the selectivity for cervical cancer cells. As suggested by the results of the permeation assay, the formulations were internalized by the cancer cells. Overall, the obtained results suggested that the synergistic effect of the essential oils and the nanosystem potentiate the cytotoxic effect of Lipo IQ and that Lipo IQ AT11 promotes selectivity towards cancer cells.

Anti-inflammatory effects of thymol: an emphasis on the molecular interactions through in vivo approach and molecular dynamic simulations

Thymol (THY), as the natural monoterpene phenol, acts against oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects and possible molecular mechanisms of THY via formalin-induced mouse and egg albumin-induced chick models alongside molecular docking and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. THY (7.5, 15, and 30 mg/kg) was investigated, compared to celecoxib and ketoprofen (42 mg/kg), as anti-inflammatory standards. THY dose-dependently and significantly (p < 0.05) decreased paw-licking and edema diameter parameters in formalin (phases I and II) and egg albumin-induced models. Moreover, THY (15 mg/kg) exerted better anti-inflammatory effects in combination with the standard drug ketoprofen than alone and with celecoxib. In silico studies demonstrated elevated binding affinities of THY with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) than the COX-1 enzyme, and the ligand binds at a similar location where ketoprofen and celecoxib interact. The results of MD simulations confirmed the stability of the test ligand. THY exerted anti-inflammatory effects on Swiss mice and young chicks, possibly by interacting with COX-2. As a conclusion, THY might be a hopeful drug candidate for the management of inflammatory disorders.

The anticancer impact of folate-linked ZnO-decorated bovine serum albumin/silibinin nanoparticles on human pancreatic, breast, lung, and colon cancers

In the current study, we aimed to design an individual hybrid silibinin nano-delivery system consisting of ZnO and BSA components to study its antioxidant activity and apoptotic potential on human pancreatic, breast, lung, and colon cancer cell lines. The folate-linked ZnO-decorated bovine serum albumin/silibinin nanoparticles (FZBS-NP) were synthesized and characterized by FTIR, FESEM, DLS, and zeta potential analysis. The FZBS-NP's cytotoxicity was evaluated by measuring the cancer cells' (MCF-7, A549, HT-29, and Panc) viability. Moreover, the apoptotic potential of the nanoparticles was studied by conducting several analyses including AO/PI and DAPI cell staining analysis, apoptotic gene expression profile (BAX, BCL2, and Caspase-8) preparation, and FITC Annexin V/PI flow cytometry. Finally, both antioxidant assays (ABTS and DPPH) were utilized to analyze the FZBS-NPs' antioxidant activities. The 152-nm FZBS-NP significantly induced the selective apoptotic death on the MCF-7, A549, HT-29, Panc, and Huvec cancer cells by increasing the SubG1 cell population following the increased treatment concentrations of FZBS-NP. Moreover, the FZBS-NPs exhibited powerful antioxidant activity. The BSA component of the FZBS-NPs delivery system improves the ability of the nanoparticles to gradually release silibinin and ZnO near the cancer cells. On the other hand, considering the powerful antioxidant activity of FZBS-NP, they have the potential to selectively induce apoptosis in human colon and breast cancer cells and protect normal types, which makes it an efficient safe anticancer compound. However, to verify the FZBS-NP anti-cancer efficiency further cancer and normal cell lines are required to measure several types of apoptotic gene expression.

Alginate Nanoparticles Containing Cuminum cyminum and Zataria multiflora Essential Oils with Promising Anticancer and Antibacterial Effects

Cancer and bacterial infections are major global health concerns driving the need for innovative medicines. This study investigated alginate nanoparticles loaded with essential oils (EOs) from Cuminum cyminum and Zataria multiflora as potential drug delivery systems. The nanoparticles were comprehensively characterized using techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), zetasizer, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis). Their biological properties against two human skin cancer cell lines (A-375 and A-431) and three bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus) were also evaluated. Alginate nanoparticles containing C. cyminum and Z. multiflora EOs exhibited sizes of 160 ± 8 nm and 151 ± 10 nm, respectively. Their zeta potentials and encapsulation efficiencies were -18 ± 1 mV and 79 ± 4%, as well as -27 ± 2 mV and 86 ± 5%, respectively. The IC50 values against the tested cell lines and bacteria revealed superior efficacy for nanoparticles containing Z. multiflora EO. Considering the proper efficacy of the proposed nanoparticles, the straightforward preparation method and low cost suggest their potential for further in vivo studies.

Nanoformulated herbal compounds: enhanced antibacterial efficacy of camphor and thymol-loaded nanogels

Herbal components are highly useful assets for the advancement of novel antibacterial drugs. Nanotechnology holds great promise as an approach to enhance the effectiveness and develop the composition of these substances. The study developed nanogels incorporating camphor, thymol, and a combination derived from the initial nanoemulsions with particle sizes of 103, 85, and 135 nm, respectively. The viscosity of nanogels and the successful loading of compounds in them were examined by viscometery and ATR-FTIR studies. The bactericidal properties of the nanogels were examined against four bacterial strains. The nanogel containing camphor and thymol at 1250 µg/mL concentration exhibited complete growth suppression against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. The thymol nanogel at 1250 µg/mL and the camphor nanogel at 2500 µg/mL exhibited complete inhibition of growth on Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli, respectively. Both nanogels showed favorable effectiveness as antibacterial agents and could potentially examine a wide range of pathogens and in vivo studies.

Anti-proliferative activity of chitosan-coated oxypeucedanin nano-chitosomes (COPD-NCs) against human HT-29 colon cancer cells: in vitro study

Oxypeucedanin (OPD) as a powerful anti-proliferative agent found in the Angelicae dahuricae has been used to suppress cancer cell growth. However, the hydrophobic chemical structure has limited its solubility and bio-accessibility. This is the first time OPD is encapsulated into a nano-liposomal structure and coated with poly-cationic chitosan polymer as the oxypeucedanin drug delivery system to evaluate its antioxidant and anti-colon cancer potential. The chitosan-coated oxypeucedanin nano-chitosomes (COPD-NCs) were synthesized utilizing the thin-layer hydration method and characterized by FESEM, DLS, FTIR, and zeta potential analysis. The anti-cancer potential of COPD-NC was analyzed by measuring the cell survival rate (MTT assay) and studying the cellular death type (AO/PI staining) following the increased treatment concentrations of COPD-NC on the HT-29 colon cancer cell line. Moreover, the COPD-NCs' apoptotic activity was verified by analyzing Cas-3 and Cas-9 gene expression profiles. Finally, the COPD-NCs' antioxidant activity was evaluated by applying ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP antioxidant assays. The 258.26-nm COPD-NCs significantly inhibited the HT-29 colon cancer cells compared with the normal fibroblast HFF cells. The up-regulated Cas-3 and Cas-9 gene expression exhibited the COPD-NCs' apoptotic activity. Also, the COPD-NCs' apoptotic activity was verified by detecting the increased apoptotic bodies following the AO/PI fluorescent staining in the increased exposure doses of COPD-NCs. Ultimately, the COPD-NCs meaningfully inhibited the ABTS-DPPH radicals and exhibited an appropriate FRAP-reductive potential. The designed nanostructure for COPD-NCs significantly improved its antioxidant potential and selective cytotoxicity on human HT-29 human cancer cells, which makes them a safe selective natural drug delivery system. Therefore, the COPD-NCs can selectively induce apoptotic death in human HT-29 cancer cells and have the potential to be studied as an anti-colon cancer compound. However, further cancer and normal cell lines are required to verify their selective cytotoxicity.

Nanoemulsion-Based System as a Novel and Promising Approach for Enhancing the Antimicrobial and Antitumoral Activity of Thymus vulgaris (L.) Oil in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

The utilisation of medicinal plants and their essential oils is receiving more attention due to the ineffectiveness of current therapeutic methods in the treatment of various cancers and the rising incidence of bacterial antibiotic resistance. Thymol, an active ingredient of Thymus vulgaris, is known to have hepatoprotective, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. To overcome major obstacles to their usage, such as quick oxidation and high volatility, plant essential oils must be administered through a system to improve the delivery of their active pharmaceutical ingredient. The bioavailability of active substances may be enhanced by the colloidal dispersion nanoemulsion. Therefore, this study aims to derive a comparative evaluation of the thyme oil nanoemulsion formulation and the characterisation of its antibacterial and antitumorigenic activities. A nanoemulsion (NE) with a droplet size of 122.2 ± 1.079 nm was discovered to be stable and mono-dispersed for 4 months and inhibited the growth of B. subtilis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus. It also displayed antitumorigenic capabilities in HepG2 cells by arresting the cell cycle in the G2/M phase and upregulating the gene expression levels of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), Caspase 3, 8, and 9, as well as a concomitant concentration-dependent decrease in B-cell leukaemia/lymphoma 2 protein (BCL2). Along with an increase in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) levels, upregulation of the expression levels of the reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways was also seen, indicating of ROS formation in the cancer cells.

Thymol as a Component of Chitosan Systems-Several New Applications in Medicine: A Comprehensive Review

Thymol, a plant-derived monoterpene phenol known for its broad biological activity, has often been incorporated into chitosan-based biomaterials to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review from 2018 to 2023, focusing on the biomedical implications of thymol-loaded chitosan systems. A review of databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted using specific keywords and search criteria. Of the 90 articles, 12 were selected for the review. Thymol-loaded chitosan-based nanogels (TLCBS) showed improved antimicrobial properties, especially against multidrug-resistant bacterial antagonists. Innovations such as bipolymer nanocarriers and thymol impregnated with photosensitive chitosan micelles offer advanced bactericidal strategies and show potential for bone tissue regeneration and wound healing. The incorporation of thymol also improved drug delivery efficiency and biomechanical strength, especially when combined with poly(dimethylsiloxane) in chitosan-gelatin films. Thymol-chitosan combinations have also shown promising applications in oral delivery and periodontal treatment. This review highlights the synergy between thymol and chitosan in these products, which greatly enhances their therapeutic efficacy and highlights the novel use of essential oil components. It also highlights the novelty of the studies conducted, as well as their limitations and possible directions for the development of integrated substances of plant and animal origin in modern and advanced medical applications.

Design, spectroscopic characterization, in silico and in vitro cytotoxic activity assessment of newly synthesized thymol Schiff base derivatives

Cancer is a global public health problem affecting millions of people every year. New anticancer drug candidates are needed to overcome the resistance to drugs used in the treatment of various types of cancer. In this study, two new series of benzenesulfonate-based thymol derivatives (14-19 and 20-25) were synthesized for the first time as promising chemotherapeutic agents and characterized using FT-IR, 1D NMR (1H- and 13C-NMR, APT, DEPT 135), 2D NMR (HETCOR and HMBC), and elemental analysis (CHNS). Antiproliferative activity of the molecules was determined against cancer cell lines, namely, the human lung adenocarcinoma cell line (A549) and the colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (DLD-1), using MTT method for both 48 and 72 h. Compounds (14-25) showed cytotoxic activities against A549 with IC50 values ranging from 9.98 to 81.83 μM, respectively, compared to cisplatin (6.65 μM). These compounds exhibited antiproliferative activities against DLD-1 cancer cells at concentrations ranging from 4.29 to 53.62 μM, respectively, compared to cisplatin (9.91 μM). Especially, compound 16 displayed significant cytotoxicity on A549 and DLD-1 cancer cells with IC50 values of 9.98 and 10.75 μM, respectively. Finally, molecular docking studies were performed with Bcl-2, VEGFR-2, EGFR, and HER2 targets using the Schrödinger 2021-2 Maestro Glide program. The binding energy values and binding interactions of compounds 16 and 22 were determined to be the result of their interactions with these targets. Schrödinger 2021-2 Qikprop wizard drug similarity ratios and ADME prediction of all compounds 14-25 were also calculated.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The urolithin B nanomicellar delivery system as an efficient selective anticancer compound

BACKGROUND

Urolithin B (UB), the antioxidant polyphenol has a protective impact on several organs against oxidative stress. However, its bioactivity is limited by its hydrophobic structure. In the current study, UB was encapsulated into a liposomal structure to improve its bioactivities anticancer, and antimicrobial potential.

METHOD

The UB nano-emulsions (UB-NE) were synthesized and characterized utilizing FESEM, DLS, FTIR, and Zeta-potential analysis. The UB-NMs' selective toxicity was studied by conducting an MTT assay on MCF-7, PANC, AGS, and ASPC1 cells. The AO/PI analysis verified the UB-NMs' cytotoxicity on ASPC1 cell lines and approved the MTT results. Finally, the antibacterial activity of the UB-NMs was studied on both gram-positive (B. subtilis, S. aureus) and gram-negative (E. Coli, P. aeruginosa) bacteria by conducting MIC and MBC analysis.

RESULT

The 68.15 nm UB-NMs did not reduce the normal HDF cells' survival. However, they reduced the cancer cells' (PANC and AGS cell lines) survival at high treatment concentrations (> 250 µg/mL) compared with normal HDF and cancer MCF-7 cells. Moreover, the IC50 doses of UB-NMs for the ASPC1 and PANC cancer cells were measured at 44.87, and 221.02 µg/mL, respectively. The UB-NMs selectively exhibited apoptotic-mediated cytotoxicity on the human pancreatic tumor cell line (ASPC1) by down-regulating BCL2 and NFKB gene expression. Also, the BAX gene expression was up-regulated in the ASPC1-treated cells. Moreover, they exhibited significant anti-bactericidal activity against the E. coli (MIC = 50 µg/mL, MBC = 150 µg/mL), P. aeruginosa (MIC = 75 µg/mL, MBC = 275 µg/mL), B. subtilis (MIC = 125 µg/mL, MBC = 450 µg/mL), and S. aureus (MIC = 50 µg/mL, MBC = 200 µg/mL) strains.

CONCLUSION

The significant selective cytotoxic impact of the UB-NMs on the human pancreatic tumor cell line makes it an applicable anti-pancreatic cancer compound. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of UB-NMs has the potential to decrease bacterial-mediated pancreatic cancer. However, several bacterial strains and further cancer cell lines are required to verify the UB-NMs' anticancer potential.

Phytotherapeutics in Cancer: From Potential Drug Candidates to Clinical Translation

Annually, a significant number of individuals succumb to cancer, an anomalous cellular condition characterized by uncontrolled cellular proliferation and the emergence of highly perilous tumors. Identifying underlying molecular mechanism(s) driving disease progression has led to various inventive therapeutic approaches, many of which are presently under pre-clinical and/or clinical trials. Over the recent years, numerous alternative strategies for addressing cancer have also been proposed and put into practice. This article delineates the modern therapeutic drugs employed in cancer treatment and their associated toxicity. Due to inherent drug toxicity associated with most modern treatments, demand rises for alternative therapies and phytochemicals with minimal side effects and proven efficacy against cancer. Analogs of taxol, Vinca alkaloids like vincristine and vinblastine, and podophyllotoxin represent a few illustrative examples in this context. The phytochemicals often work by modifying the activity of molecular pathways that are thought to be involved in the onset and progression of cancer. The principal objective of this study is to provide an overview of our current understanding regarding the pharmacologic effects and molecular targets of the active compounds found in natural products for cancer treatment and collate information about the recent advancements in this realm. The authors' interest in advancing the field of phytochemical research stems from both the potential of these compounds for use as drugs as well as their scientific validity. Accordingly, the significance of herbal formulations is underscored, shedding light on anticancer phytochemicals that are sought after at both pre-clinical and clinical levels, with discussion on the opportunities and challenges in pre-clinical and clinical cancer studies.

Unveiling the therapeutic promise of natural products in alleviating drug-induced liver injury: Present advancements and future prospects

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) refers to adverse reactions to small chemical compounds, biological agents, and medical products. These reactions can manifest as acute or chronic damage to the liver. From 1997 to 2016, eight drugs, including troglitazone, nefazodone, and lumiracoxib, were removed from the market due to their liver-damaging effects, which can cause diseases. We aimed to review the recent research on natural products and their bioactive components as hepatoprotective agents in mitigating DILI. Recent articles were fetched via searching the PubMed, PMC, Google Scholar, and Web of Science electronic databases from 2010 to January 2023 using relevant keywords such as "natural products," "acetaminophen," "antibiotics," "paracetamol," "DILI," "hepatoprotective," "drug-induced liver injury," "liver failure," and "mitigation." The studies reveal that the antituberculosis drug (acetaminophen) is the most frequent cause of DILI, and natural products have been largely explored in alleviating acetaminophen-induced liver injury. They exert significant hepatoprotective effects by preventing mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation, inhibiting oxidative/nitrative stress, and macromolecular damage. Due to the bioavailability and dietary nature, using natural products alone or as an adjuvant with existing drugs is promising. To advance DILI management, it is crucial to conduct well-designed randomized clinical trials to evaluate natural products' efficacy and develop new molecules clinically. However, natural products are a promising solution for remedying drug-induced hepatotoxicity and lowering the risk of DILI.

Biological evaluations and computational studies of newly synthesized thymol-based Schiff bases as anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant agents

Three new thymol-based molecules were synthesized and evaluated as anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. Liver, colon, lung and prostate cancer cell lines were utilized in cytotoxicity tests. The results demonstrated that synthesized molecules had a cytotoxic effect against the screened cell lines. One of the molecules (4a) was found to have a higher efficacy towards the colon cancer cell line (DLD-1) with an IC50 value of 12.39 µM and the other (4c) towards the prostate cancer cell line (PC3) with an IC50 value of 7.67 µM than the positive control drug cisplatin. To assess the antimicrobial activity of molecules (4a-c), Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and yeast were subjected to agar disc diffusion and broth microdilution assays. The investigation of antioxidant potential was conducted using the DPPH radical scavenging activity assay. While all compounds displayed strong cytotoxic and antioxidant properties, they exhibited only moderate antimicrobial activity. Molecular docking studies were performed on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), B-Raf and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). The binding energies and interactions obtained from the docking results of compounds (4a-c) supported the experimental results. Drug similarity rates and pharmacokinetic properties were analyzed with the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) method. Geometric parameters such as chemical potential (µ), electrophilicity index (ω) and chemical softness (σ) of compounds (4a-c) were calculated using the 6-31*G basis set B3LYP method.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Thymol-Modified Oleic and Linoleic Acids Encapsulated in Polymeric Nanoparticles: Enhanced Bioactivity, Stability, and Biomedical Potential

Unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid (OA) and linoleic acid (LA), are promising antimicrobial and cytostatic agents. We modified OA and LA with thymol (TOA and TLA, respectively) to expand their bioavailability, stability, and possible applications, and encapsulated these derivatives in polymeric nanoparticles (TOA-NPs and TLA-NPs, respectively). Prior to synthesis, we performed mathematical simulations with PASS and ADMETlab 2.0 to predict the biological activity and pharmacokinetics of TOA and TLA. TOA and TLA were synthesized via esterification in the presence of catalysts. Next, we formulated nanoparticles using the single-emulsion solvent evaporation technique. We applied dynamic light scattering, Uv-vis spectroscopy, release studies under gastrointestinal (pH 1.2-6.8) and blood environment simulation conditions (pH 7.4), and in vitro biological activity testing to characterize the nanoparticles. PASS revealed that TOA and TLA have antimicrobial and anticancer therapeutic potential. ADMETlab 2.0 provided a rationale for TOA and TLA encapsulation. The nanoparticles had an average size of 212-227 nm, with a high encapsulation efficiency (71-93%), and released TOA and TLA in a gradual and prolonged mode. TLA-NPs possessed higher antibacterial activity against B. cereus and S. aureus and pronounced cytotoxic activity against MCF-7, K562, and A549 cell lines compared to TOA-NPs. Our findings expand the biomedical application of fatty acids and provide a basis for further in vivo evaluation of designed derivatives and formulations.

Network Pharmacology Combined with Molecular Docking, Molecular Dynamics, and In Vitro Experimental Validation Reveals the Therapeutic Potential of Thymus vulgaris L. Essential Oil (Thyme Oil) against Human Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a major global health issue for women. Thyme oil, extracted from Thymus vulgaris L., has shown promising anticancer effects. In the present study, we investigated how Thyme oil can influence breast cancer treatment using a multimethod approach. We used network pharmacology to identify the active compounds of Thyme oil, their molecular targets, and the pathways involved in breast cancer. We found that Thyme oil can modulate several key proteins (EGFR, AKT1, ESR1, HSP90AA1, STAT-3, SRC, IL-6, HIF1A, JUN, and BCL2) and pathways (EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, prolactin signaling pathway, HIF-1 signaling pathway, estrogen signaling pathway, ERBB signaling pathway, AGE-RAGE signaling pathway, JAK-STAT signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, and PI3K-AKT signaling pathway) related to breast cancer progression. We then used molecular docking and dynamics to study the interactions and stability of the Thyme oil-compound complexes. We discovered three potent compounds (aromadendrene, α-humulene, and viridiflorene) that can bind strongly to important breast cancer proteins. We also performed in vitro experiments on MCF-7 cells to confirm the cytotoxicity and antiproliferative effects of Thyme oil. We observed that Thyme oil can inhibit cancer cell growth and proliferation at a concentration of 365.37 μg/mL. Overall, our results provide a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological mechanism of Thyme oil in breast cancer treatment and suggest its potential as a new or adjuvant therapy. Further studies are needed to validate and optimize the therapeutic efficacy of Thyme oil and its active compounds.

New insights into the cytotoxic effects of Thymus vulgaris essential oil on the human triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231

Essential oils (EOs) are natural products that have gained wide interest due to their biological activities and anticancer properties through various mechanisms. The present study aimed to test the cytotoxicity of Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) EO of Italian origin, rich in thymol (49.6%) and p-cymene (18.8%), towards the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and to investigate the biochemical mechanisms underlying its antitumor activity. Thyme EO reduced cancer cell viability in a dose-dependent manner after 24 h treatment, with an IC50 value equal to 75.1 ± 15.2 μg/ml; simultaneously, the inhibition of cancer cell migration and colony formation capacity was evidenced. Thyme EO antiproliferative effects were related to the induction of apoptosis as demonstrated by the increased expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax, cleaved caspase-3, phospho-p53, and SMAC/Diablo and by the reduction of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, cIAP-1, cIAP-2, HIF-1α, survivin, and XIAP. Thyme EO administration led to the early formation of intracellular ROS, followed by the increment of MDA as an index of lipid peroxidation and by the decreased expression of the antioxidant enzymes catalase and PON2. The upregulation of Nrf2 mRNA expression and the strong induction of HO-1 sustained the activation of the Nrf2 pathway by thyme EO. These data showed that the EO from Thymus vulgaris L. might inhibit the malignant phenotype of MDA-MB-231, thus suggesting potential benefits against human triple-negative breast cancer.

Study the Anticancer Properties of Thymol-Loaded PEGylated Bovine Serum Albumin Nanoparticles Conjugated with Folic Acid

Phenolic compounds such as Thymol have an effective role in suppressing cancer, however, their low solubility in aqueous solution has limited their use. This study aimed to prepare Thymol (TY)-loaded bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles surface-modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated with folic acid (FA) and evaluate their inhibitory activity on cancer cells. The TY-BSA-PEG-FA was characterized using DLS, FESEM, and FTIR. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was evaluated indirectly by using UV absorption. The antioxidant property of nanoparticles was evaluated by 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and ferric reducing ability of plasm (FRAP) methods. The effects of nanoparticles against cancer cells were investigated by MTT, AO/PI, flow cytometry, and real-time qPCR methods. The results showed the spherical morphology of TY-BSA-PEG-FA with an average size of 70.0 nm, a PDI of 0.32, a zeta potential of -11.3 mV, and an EE of 89.0±2.3 %. The cytotoxicity effects of nanoparticles against all cell lines were in a concentration-dependent manner. AGS gastric cancer cells were reported to be the most vulnerable to treatment, while pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1) and normal skin cells (HFF) would be the most resistant. The SubG1 phase arrest of about 66 % occurred at 85 μg/mL. An increase in apoptotic cells in fluorescent staining, along with decreased expression of Bcl-2 and increased expression of the BAX gene demonstrated the induction of apoptosis in treated cells. The powerful inhibitory effect of nanoparticles in inhibiting ABTS free radicals (IC50 =82 μg/mL) and DPPH free radicals (IC50 =844 μg/mL) and the ability to reduce iron ions indicated the antioxidant effects of TY-BSA-PEG-FA. Based on these results, the synthesized nanoparticles may be suitable for further investigation in the treatment of cancer, notably gastric cancer.

Induction of G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by thymol through ROS generation and caspase-9/-3 activation in breast and colorectal cancer cell lines

BACKGROUND

Cancer is a major malignancy and one of the leading causes of death; it calls for a proactive strategy for the cure. Herbs are reservoirs of novel chemical entities and their phytochemical exploration has contributed considerably to the discovery of new anticancer drugs. Thymol, a natural phenolic monoterpenoid, has been implicated with many medicinal properties, including anticancer ones. However, the anti-proliferative and apoptosis-inducing ability of thymol on MDA-MB-231 and HCT-8 cell lines has not been studied yet in detail, and hence this study was conceived.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We studied the cytotoxicity, morphological alterations of the cell, oxidative stress, cell cycle modulation, apoptosis and expression of apoptosis-related proteins that ensued due to thymol treatment in these cancer cells.

RESULTS

Thymol inhibited the cell proliferation, altered the morphology of the cells, increased the intracellular ROS level, arrested the cells in G0/G1 phase, induced apoptosis, upregulated pro-apoptotic protein p53 expression, downregulated anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL expression, and activated caspase-9 and -3.

CONCLUSION

These findings elucidate that thymol induces apoptosis through the intrinsic pathway, in MDA-MB-231 breast and HCT-8 colorectal cancer cells through ROS generation and G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest. This reiterates the broad-spectrum anti-tumor potential of thymol and provides an insight to study further to be developed into an anticancer drug.

Investigations of Electronic, Structural, and In Silico Anticancer Potential of Persuasive Phytoestrogenic Isoflavene-Based Mannich Bases

Isoflavenes have received the greatest research attention among the many groups of phytoestrogens. In this study, various isoflavene-based Mannich bases were selected for their theoretical studies. The purpose of this research was to discover the binding potential of all the designated Mannich bases acting as inhibitors against cancerous proteins EGFR, cMet, hTrkA, and HER2 (PDB codes: 5GTY, 3RHK, 6PL2, and 7JXH, respectively). For their virtual screening, DFT calculations and molecular docking studies were undertaken using in silico software. Docking studies predicted that ligands 5 and 15 exhibited the highest docking score by forming hydrogen bonds within the active pocket of protein 6PL2, ligands 1 and 15 both with protein 3RHK, and 7JXH, 12, and 17 with protein 5GTY. Rendering to the trends in polarizability and dipole moment, the energy gap values (0.2175 eV, 0.2106 eV) for the firm conformers of Mannich bases (1 and 4) replicate the increase in bioactivity and chemical reactivity. The energy gap values (0.2214 eV and 0.2172 eV) of benzoxazine-substituted isoflavene-based Mannich bases (9 and 10) reflect the increase in chemical potential due to the most stable conformational arrangements. The energy gap values (0.2188 eV and 0.2181 eV) of isoflavenes with tertiary amine-based Mannich bases (14 and 17) reflect the increase in chemical reactivity and bioactivity due to the most stable conformational arrangements. ADME was also employed to explore the pharmacokinetic properties of targeted moieties. This study revealed that these ligands have a strong potential to be used as drugs for cancer treatment.

The anticancer effects of thymol on HepG2 cell line

There is an increasing incidence of liver cancer, which is a hazard for global health. The present study was designed to evaluate possible cytotoxic, genotoxic, apoptotic, oxidant and antioxidant effects of thymol on hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. The cytotoxic effect of thymol on HepG2 cell line was determined by XTT test. We also used the HUVEC cell line to show whether thymol damages healthy cells. Oxidative stress level was determined with Total Oxidant Status (TOS) and Total Antioxidant Status (TAS) measurement kits. Apoptosis of cells was detected in flow cytometry with Annexin V apoptosis kit. Apoptotic gene expressions were analyzed by real-time PCR. Genotoxicity was determined by comet assay, which measures DNA damage. The thymol IC50 dose was found to be 11 μM on HepG2 cell line. This dose had no lethal effect on the healthy HUVEC cell line. While thymol significantly decreased the TOS level, it increased the TAS level significantly in HepG2 cells compared to control. Thymol significantly induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells (apoptosis rate in control group 1%, in thymol group 21%). Thymol did not alter the gene expressions of bax, bcl-2, and casp3, all of which are associated with apoptosis. Statistically significant change in favor of genotoxicity was observed in tail length measurements. Our results suggest that thymol decreases oxidative stress in HepG2 cell line, but it induces apoptosis and genotoxicity.

Multifunctional Polymeric Biodegradable and Biocompatible Coatings Based on Silver Nanoparticles: A Comparative In Vitro Study on Their Cytotoxicity towards Cancer and Normal Cell Lines of Cytostatic Drugs versus Essential-Oil-Loaded Nanoparticles and on Their Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities

We report on a comparative in vitro study of selective cytotoxicity against MCF7 tumor cells and normal VERO cells tested on silver-based nanocoatings synthesized by the matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) technique. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were loaded with five representative cytostatic drugs (i.e., doxorubicin, fludarabine, paclitaxel, gemcitabine, and carboplatin) and with five essential oils (EOs) (i.e., oregano, rosemary, ginger, basil, and thyme). The as-obtained coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry coupled with differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy, IR mapping, and scanning electron microscopy. A screening of the impact of the prepared nanocoatings on the MCF7 tumor and normal VERO cell lines was achieved by means of cell viability MTT and cytotoxicity LDH assays. While all nanocoatings loaded with antitumor drugs exhibited powerful cytotoxic activity against both the tumor and the normal cells, those embedded with AgNPs loaded with rosemary and thyme EOs showed remarkable and statistically significant selective cytotoxicity against the tested cancercells. The EO-loaded nanocoatings were tested for antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. For all studied pathogens, the cell viability, assessed by counting the colony-forming units after 2 and 24 h, was significantly decreased by all EO-based nanocoatings, while the best antibiofilm activity was evidenced by the nanocoatings containing ginger and thyme EOs.

Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Based Nanoniosome for Enhanced in vitro Delivery and Anticancer Activity of Thymol

Introduction

There is an unmet need to develop potent therapeutics against cancer with minimal side effects and systemic toxicity. Thymol (TH) is an herbal medicine with anti-cancer properties that has been investigated scientifically. This study shows that TH induces apoptosis in cancerous cell lines such as MCF-7, AGS, and HepG2. Furthermore, this study reveals that TH can be encapsulated in a Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-coated niosome (Nio-TH/PVA) to enhance its stability and enable its controlled release as a model drug in the cancerous region.

Materials and Methods

TH-loaded niosome (Nio-TH) was fabricated and optimized using Box-Behnken method and the size, polydispersity index (PDI) and entrapment efficiency (EE) were characterized by employing DLS, TEM and SEM, respectively. Additionally, in vitro drug release and kinetic studies were performed. Cytotoxicity, antiproliferative activity, and the mechanism were assessed by MTT assay, quantitative real-time PCR, flow cytometry, cell cycle, caspase activity evaluation, reactive oxygen species investigation, and cell migration assays.

Results

This study demonstrated the exceptional stability of Nio-TH/PVA at 4 °C for two months and its pH-dependent release profile. It also showed its high toxicity on cancerous cell lines and high compatibility with HFF cells. It revealed the modulation of Caspase-3/Caspase-9, MMP-2/MMP-9 and Cyclin D/ Cyclin E genes by Nio-TH/PVA on the studied cell lines. It confirmed the induction of apoptosis by Nio-TH/PVA in flow cytometry, caspase activity, ROS level, and DAPI staining assays. It also verified the inhibition of metastasis by Nio-TH/PVA in migration assays.

Conclusion

Overall, the results of this study revealed that Nio-TH/PVA may effectively transport hydrophobic drugs to cancer cells with a controlled-release profile to induce apoptosis while exhibiting no detectable side effects due to their biocompatibility with normal cells.

Genotoxic Potential of Thymol on Honey Bee DNA in the Comet Assay

Thymol is a natural essential oil derived from the plant Thymus vulgaris L. It is known to be beneficial for human and animal health and has been used in beekeeping practice against Varroa mite for years. In this study, the genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of thymol were evaluated on the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) continuous cell line AmE-711 for the first time. Using the Comet assay, three increasing concentrations (10, 100, and 1000 µg/mL) of thymol were tested. Negative control (non-treated cells) and positive control (cells treated with 100 µM H₂O₂) were also included. The absence of thymol cytotoxicity was confirmed with the Trypan blue exclusion test. Thymol in the concentration of 10 µg/mL did not increase DNA damage in AmE-711 honey bee cells, while 100 and 1000 µg/mL concentrations showed genotoxic effects. For testing the antigenotoxic effect, all concentrations of thymol were mixed and incubated with H₂O₂. The antigenotoxic effect against was absent at all concentrations (10, 100, 1000 μg/mL) tested. Moreover, thymol enhanced the H₂O₂-induced DNA migration in the Comet assay. The obtained results indicate genotoxic effects of thymol on cultured honey bee cells suggesting its careful application in beekeeping practice to avoid possible negative effects on honey bees.

In vitro efficacy of plumbagin and thymol against Theileria annulata

Phytochemical compounds, plumbagin and thymol were evaluated for their efficacy against Theileria annulata using MTT cell viability assay. Plumbagin and thymol were found to be effective in preventing the proliferation of Theileria annulata infected bovine lymphocytes. The IC50 values of plumbagin and thymol were 0.019 µM and 0.009 µM, respectively. Plumbagin and thymol were found to be non-cytotoxic to the bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells. However, both the compounds were found to have inhibitory effect on vero cell proliferation. Plumbagin had primarily anti-theilerial activity but thymol had primarily anti-mitotic activity. The in vitro efficacy and cell toxicity studies indicate the potential application of plumbagin, purified from Plumbago indica as a lead therapeutic molecule against T. annulata infection in cattle.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12639-022-01550-x.

Thymol co-administration abrogates hexachlorobenzene-induced reproductive toxicities in male rats

This present study was designed to investigate ameliorating potential of thymol (THY) on hexachlorobenzene (HBC)-induced epididymal and testicular toxicities in adult male rats. Forty adult male rats were orally treated by gavage daily for 28 consecutive days and divided into four groups; control group administered with corn oil, HBC-treated group (16 mg/kg b. wt), thymol-treated group (30 mg/kg b. wt), and HBC + THY-treated group. The results revealed that HBC exposure caused a significant decrease in the body weight change, organ weights, sperm functional parameters, serum testosterone level with widespread histological abnormalities. Furthermore, HBC-treated rats showed increased in the serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), epididymal and testicular myeloperoxidase activity, tumor necrosis-α, interleukin-1β level and caspase-3 activity, induced oxidative damage as evidenced by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (RONS) levels and significant reduction in antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced glutathione (GSH). However, co-treatment of THY with HBC alleviated the HBC-induced epididymal and testicular toxicities. Our findings revealed that HBC acts as a reproductive toxicant in rats and thymol could be a potential remedial agent for HBC-induced reproductive toxicity.

Fabrication of chitosan-gelatin films incorporated with thymol-loaded alginate microparticles for controlled drug delivery, antibacterial activity and wound healing: In-vitro and in-vivo studies

Previously, studies have demonstrated the unique characteristics of chitosan-gelatin films as wound dressings applications. However, their application has been limited due to their inadequacy of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory characteristics. To improve the intended multifunctional characteristics of chitosan-gelatin film, in this study, we designed a novel composite film with the capability of controlled and prolonged release of thymol as a natural antioxidant and antimicrobial drug. Here, thymol-loaded ALG MPs (Thymol-ALG MPs) were prepared by electrospraying method and incorporated into the chitosan-gelatin film. The composite wound dressings of Thymol-ALG MPs incorporated in chitosan-gelatin film (CS-GEL/Thymol-ALG MPs) were characterized by in vitro and in vivo evaluations. The Thymol-ALG MPs demonstrated spherical and uniform morphology, with high encapsulation efficiency (88.9 ± 1.1 %). The CS-GEL/Thymol-ALG MPs exhibited high antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and no cytotoxicity for the L929 fibroblast cells. The release trend of thymol from CS-GEL/Thymol-ALG MPs and Thymol-ALG MPs followed a pseudo-Fickian diffusion mechanism. This wound dressing effectively accelerates the wound healing process at rats' full-thickness skin excisions. Also, the histological analysis demonstrated that the CS-GEL/Thymol-ALG MPs could significantly enhance epithelialization, collagen deposition, and induce skin regeneration. The present antibacterial composite film has promising characteristics for wound dressings applications.

Cytotoxic effects of Trachyspermum ammi and Ferula assafoetida on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cell lines

Background

The induction of oxidative stress is one of the most important cancer etiologies. Plant essential oils contain many effective antioxidant compounds in improving oxidative stress. In the present study, the pharmacological potential of Trachyspermum ammi essential oil (TAEO) and Ferula assafoetida essential oil (FAEO) was compared in oxidative stress improvement and cytotoxic effect. TAEO and FAEO were prepared by Clevenger apparatus, and the medicinal compounds in the essential oils were evaluated by GC–MS assay. The TAEO and FAEO were also evaluated as to their phenolic and flavonoid content, monovalent reducing power, and total radical scavenging activity, respectively, by Folin–Ciocalteu, aluminum chloride, FRAP, and DPPH methods. The cytotoxic effect of the TAEO and FAEO was evaluated by MTT assay on MCF-7 (ER+) and MDA-MB-468 (ER−) breast cancer cell lines.

Results

The GC–MS analysis indicated that thymol and (E)-Sec-Butyl propenyl disulfide, respectively, were the highest components of TAEO and FAEO. The phenolic content (P < 0.0001), flavonoid content (P < 0.0001), reducing power (P < 0.0001), radical scavenging activity (P < 0.0001), and cytotoxic effect (P < 0.05) of TAEO were significantly higher than FAEO. The IC50 value of the cytotoxic effect of TAEO on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-468 after 72 h of incubation was, respectively, 192.5 ± 42.57 and 331.4 ± 7.24 ppm.

Conclusion

The cytotoxic effect of TAEO was more potent on the MCF-7 cell line, probably in an estrogen-dependent manner of cellular growth inhibition. It appears that TAEO has a high capacity for improving oxidative stress and inhibiting cell proliferation in breast cancer.

Origanum vulgare ethanolic extracts as a promising source of compounds with antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and anti-virulence activity against dental plaque bacteria

Dental caries and periodontal diseases remain a challenge for oral health, especially given the lack of effective and safe treatment options that are currently available. Against the backdrop of an ongoing antimicrobial resistance crisis, a renewed interest in traditional medicinal plants as a potential source of new bioactive compounds has surfaced. In this context, we systematically screened the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of both ethanolic and aqueous extracts of nine Algerian medicinal plants (Artemisia herba alba, Centaurium erythraea, Juglans regia, Laurus nobilis, Matricaria recutita, Mentha pulegium, Mentha piperita, Origanum vulgare and Taraxacum officinale). To evaluate the activity spectrum of the extracts, the screening was carried out against an extensive collection of Streptococcus, Enterococcus and Lacticaseibacillus isolates recovered from dental plaques of Algerian patients. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial and anti-biofilm properties were observed, especially among ethanolic extracts, which marks them as a promising source for bioactive compounds to control oral biofilms. The ethanolic extract of O. vulgare, which showed the most promising effects in the initial screening, was further characterized. We first verified the biocompatibility of this extract using human oral keratinocytes and selected a range of non-cytotoxic concentrations (0.195-0.781 mg/ml) to further validate its anti-biofilm and anti-virulence potential. At these concentrations, the extract not only prevented biofilm formation (10.04 ± 0.75-87.91 ± 9.08% of reduction) of most dental plaque isolates on a polystyrene surface, but also significantly reduced their adherence to hydroxyapatite (34.58 ± 9.09-62.77 ± 0.95%). Moreover, the extract showed curative potential against mature biofilms grown under conditions mimicking the oral niche. In addition to its anti-biofilm properties, we observed an inhibition of glucosyltransferase activity, a reduction in acidogenesis and a downregulation in the expression of multiple virulence-associated genes for extract-treated samples. Since anti-virulence properties are more robust to the development of resistance, they provide an attractive complementation to the antimicrobial activities of the extract. Thymol was identified as an important active compound of the extract using GC-MS analysis, but synergy with other compounds was also detected, suggesting a potential advantage of using the whole extract over purified thymol. Further research into the bioactive compounds of the O. vulgare ethanolic extract could yield novel products to fight dental caries.

The Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oil from Korean Native Thyme Bak-Ri-Hyang (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak.)

Thymus quinquecostatus Celak. (Korean name: bak-ri-hyang) is an important medicinal and aromatic herb in Korea, which is named for the spread of its fragrance over a distance of approximately 40 km. In traditional Korean systems of medicine, T. quinquecostatus has been used to treat cancer, constipation, hepatic disease, arteriosclerosis, poor circulation in women, constipation, and menstrual irregularities. At present, T. quinquecostatus is used only for ornamental and ground cover purposes. A literature search was conducted to retrieve information regarding the essential oil composition and biological properties of T. quinquecostatus from PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, Taylor and Francis, Wiley, and other literature databases. T. quinquecostatus can be divided into different chemotypes, such as γ-terpinene, thymol, phenol, carvacrol, and geraniol, according to the presence of major components in its essential oil. Further, the essential oil from T. quinquecostatus has been reported to possess various therapeutic properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, sleep prolonging, soothing, skin protection and whitening, anti-aging, anti-obesity, and anti-acne properties. In conclusion, this review will be helpful for utilizing the T. quinquecostatus plant in different industries including food, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, perfumery, and cosmetics.

Thymol ameliorated neurotoxicity and cognitive deterioration in a thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy rat model; involvement of the BDNF/CREB signaling pathway

In the present study, we aimed to delineate the neuroprotective potential of thymol (THY) against neurotoxicity and cognitive deterioration induced by thioacetamide (TAA) in an experimental model of hepatic encephalopathy (HE). Rats received TAA (100 mg kg^-1, intraperitoneally injected, three times per week) for two weeks. THY (30 and 60 mg kg^-1), and Vit E (100 mg k^-1) were administered daily by oral gavage for 30 days after HE induction. Supplementation with THY significantly improved liver function, reduced serum ammonia level, and ameliorated the locomotor and cognitive deficits. THY effectively modulated the alteration in oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters, and brain ATP content. Histopathology of liver and brain tissues showed that THY had ameliorated TAA-induced damage, astrocyte swelling and brain edema. Furthermore, THY downregulated NF-kB and upregulated GFAP protein expression. In addition, THY significantly promoted CREB and BDNF expression at both mRNA and protein levels, together with enhancing brain cAMP level. In conclusion, THY exerted hepato- and neuroprotective effects against HE by mitigating hepatotoxicity, hyperammonemia and brain ATP depletion via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory effects in addition to activation of the CREB/BDNF signaling pathway.

Phytochemistry and Biological Properties of Salvia verbenaca L.: A Comprehensive Review

The family Lamiaceae contains several plants used in traditional medicine to fight against different diseases. Salvia verbenaca L. (S. verbenaca) is one of the Lamiaceae species distributed around the Mediterranean regions. This plant exhibits different bioactive properties, including antibacterial, anticancer, antioxidant, antileishmanial, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, and wound healing. This review was conducted to revise previous studies on S. verbenaca addressing its botanical description, geographical distribution, and phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties. Moreover, the main pharmacological actions of S. verbenaca major compounds were well investigated. Literature reports have revealed that S. verbenaca possesses a pivotal role in medicinal applications. The findings of this work noted that S. verbenaca was found to be rich in chemical compound classes such as terpenoids, phenolics, fatty acids, sterols, and flavonoids. Numerous studies have found that S. verbenaca essential oils and extracts have a wide range of biological effects. These results support the potential pharmacological properties of S. verbenaca and its traditional uses. This analysis can constitute a scientific basis for further refined studies on its pure secondary metabolites. Therefore, the outcome of the present work may support the perspective of identifying new therapeutical applications with detailed pharmacological mechanisms of S. verbenaca to prevent the development of some diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders. However, toxicological investigations into S. verbenaca are needed to assess any potential toxicity before it can be further used in clinical studies.

A Focused Insight into Thyme: Biological, Chemical, and Therapeutic Properties of an Indigenous Mediterranean Herb

A perennial wild shrub from the Lamiaceae family and native to the Mediterranean region, thyme is considered an important wild edible plant studied for centuries for its unique importance in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industry. Thyme is loaded with phytonutrients, minerals and vitamins. It is pungent in taste, yet rich in moisture, proteins, crude fiber, minerals and vitamins. Its chemical composition may vary with geographical location but is mainly composed of flavonoids and antioxidants. Previous studies have illustrated the therapeutic effects of thyme and its essential oils, especially thymol and carvacrol, against various diseases. This is attributed to its multi-pharmacological properties that include, but are not limited to, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antineoplastic actions. Moreover, thyme has long been known for its antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiseptic activities, in addition to remarkable disruption of microbial biofilms. In the COVID-19 era, some thyme constituents were investigated for their potential in viral binding. As such, thyme presents a wide range of functional possibilities in food, drugs, and other fields and prominent interest as a nutraceutical. The aims of the current review are to present botanical and nutritive values of this herb, elaborate its major constituents, and review available literature on its dietetic and biological activities.

The effects of mouthwashes in human gingiva epithelial progenitor (HGEPp) cells

OBJECTIVES

The gingiva epithelium accounts for a significant proportion of the surface around the tooth. An inflammatory reaction occurs in the presence of bacterial biofilm, adhesion is reduced, and the depth of the sulcus gingivalis increases. The most common antiseptic agents in oral rinses are chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX) and cetylpyridinium chloride. We examined long-lasting effects of residual concentrations of eight commercially available rinses. Our main goals were (i) to analyze the effect of different chemical compositions on cell proliferation, (ii) to examine apoptosis, and (iii) cell morphology on human epithelial progenitor cell line (HGEPp).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cell proliferation was measured in a real-time system (0-48 h) by impedimetry (xCELLigence). Apoptosis was measured with labeled Annexin-V (BD-FACScalibur).

RESULTS

Changes in proliferation were measured at certain concentrations: (i) H₂O₂ proved to be cytotoxic at almost all concentrations; (ii) low concentrations of CHX (0.0001%; 0.0003%) were proliferation inducers, while higher concentrations were cytotoxic; (iii) for ClO₂, advantageous proliferative effect was observed over a broad concentration range (0.06-6 ppm). In mouthwashes, additives in the formulation (e.g., allantoin) appeared to influence cellular responses positively. Apoptosis marker assay results suggested a low-level activation by the tested agents.

CONCLUSIONS

Mouthwashes and their reference compounds proved to have concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects on human gingival epithelial cells.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

A better understanding of the effects of mouthwashes and their reference compounds is particularly important. These concentration-dependent effects (cytotoxic or proliferation inducing) interfere with human cells physiology while being used in the fight against the pathogenic flora.

Drug formulations for localized treatment of Human Papillomavirus-induced lesions

BACKGROUND

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for over 90% of all cervical cancer cases. The use of vaginal gels is often indicated for local vaginal drug delivery. Previous studies have shown that Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TEO) exhibits anticancer properties besides antifungal and antibacterial properties. Its activity derives from a specific increase in free radicals and oxidative stress caused in cancer cells. Furthermore, mitoxantrone (MTX), an anthracenedione and C₈, an acridine orange derivative, were shown to inhibit the growth of the cervical cancer cell line HeLa.

RESULTS

The results showed that TEO + C₈ is the most promising formulation in terms of viscosity and osmolality properties in vaginal fluid simulant (VFS). The combined action of TEO with the compound's MTX and C₈ resulted in HeLa cell viability reduction compared with the effect obtained with the individual formulations containing each one of the compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

The formulation TEO + C₈ holds promise in terms of cost-benefit and topical application of the active compound for the HeLa cells.

Chitosan based encapsulation increased the apoptotic efficacy of thymol on A549 cells and exhibited non toxic response in swiss albino mice

Thymol is a plant-derived natural phenolic compound abundantly present in Thymus vulgaris species. In the present study, we developed a chitosan-based drug delivery system to deliver thymol to A549 cells. The physicochemical properties of thymol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (thymol-NP) were characterized using polyphasic techniques viz., FTIR, XRD, DLS, and SEM. Thymol-NP exhibited a size of 282.5 nm and encapsulation efficiency of 74.08 ± 0.73%. The IC₅₀ of thymol-NP against A549 cells was 99.57 μg/ml at 24 h, which was lower than that of the pure form. Clear apoptotic features such as cellular morphology, cell shrinkage, and augmentation of dead cells were observed in both the thymol and thymol-NP treated A549 cells. The percentage of apoptotic cells in the thymol-NP IC₅₀ treated cells was >90% which was considerably higher than the group treated with thymol alone. In vivo toxicity study showed that the swiss albino mice treated up to a concentration of 1000 mg/kg of thymol-NP neither showed signs of toxicity nor death up to 14 days. Also, no significant influence was observed on behavior, body weight, organ weight, and organ histology. Overall, the data concluded that thymol-NP can be considered a safe and potent drug candidate against A549 cells.

Carvacrol and Thymol Combat Desiccation Resistance Mechanisms in Salmonella enterica Serovar Tennessee

Some Salmonella enterica serovars are frequently associated with disease outbreaks in low-moisture foods (LMF) due to their ability to adapt efficiently to desiccation stress. These serovars are often persistent during food processing. Disruption of these resistance responses was accomplished previously using the membrane-active lipopeptide, paenibacterin. This study was initiated to determine how desiccation resistance mechanisms are overcome when Salmonella Tennessee, a known resistant serovar, is treated with the membrane-active food additives carvacrol and thymol. Knowing that the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of carvacrol and thymol against Salmonella Tennessee are 200 and 100 µg/mL, the concentrations tested were 100–400 and 50–200 µg/mL, respectively. Results show that desiccation-adapted Salmonella Tennessee, prepared by air drying at 40% relative humidity and 22–25 °C for 24 h, was not inactivated when exposed for 4.0 h to less than 2xMIC of the two additives. Additionally, treatment of desiccation-adapted Salmonella Tennessee for 120 min with carvacrol and thymol at the MIC-level sensitized the cells (1.4–1.5 log CFU/mL reduction) to further desiccation stress. Treating desiccation-adapted Salmonella Tennessee with carvacrol and thymol induced leakage of intracellular potassium ions, reduced the biosynthesis of the osmoprotectant trehalose, reduced respiratory activity, decreased ATP production, and caused leakage of intracellular proteins and nucleic acids. Carvacrol, at 200–400 µg/mL, significantly downregulated the transcription of desiccation-related genes (proV, STM1494, and kdpA) as determined by the reverse-transcription quantitative PCR. The current study revealed some of the mechanisms by which carvacrol and thymol combat desiccation-resistant Salmonella Tennessee, raising the feasibility of using these additives to control desiccation-adapted S. enterica in LMF.

High anticancer efficacy of solid lipid nanoparticles containing Zataria multiflora essential oil against breast cancer and melanoma cell lines

Background

The cancer burden is rising rapidly worldwide, and it annually causes about 8.8 million deaths worldwide. Due to chemical drugs’ side effects and the emergence of resistance, the development of new green drugs has received much attention. We aimed to investigate whether solid-lipid nanoparticles containing essential oil of Zataria multiflora (ZMSLN) enhanced the anticancer efficacy of the essential oil against breast cancer (MDA-MB-468) and melanoma (A-375) cells.

Results

ZMSLN was prepared by the high-pressure homogenizer method; particle size 176 ± 8 nm, polydispersity index 0.22 ± 0.1, entrapment efficiency 67 ± 5%. The essential oil showed a dose-dependent antiproliferative effect on MDA-MB-468 and A-375 cells at all examined concentrations (75, 150, 300, 600, and 1200 μg/mL). Interestingly, after treating both cells with 75 μg/mL of ZMSLN, their viabilities were reduced to under 13%.

Conclusion

The finding showed that ZMSLN had a distinct antiproliferative efficacy; it could thus be considered a green anticancer candidate for further in vivo and in vivo studies.

Thymol alleviates imidacloprid-induced testicular toxicity by modulating oxidative stress and expression of steroidogenesis and apoptosis-related genes in adult male rats

The present work was designed to assess the potential ameliorative effect of thymol on the testicular toxicity caused by imidacloprid (IMI) in adult male rats. Forty adult male rats were allocated into four groups; control group was given corn oil, thymol-treated group (30 mg/kg b.wt), IMI-treated group (22.5 mg/kg b.wt), and IMI + thymol-treated group. All administrations were done by gavage every day for duration of 56 days. As a result, the IMI exposure caused a significant decline in the body weight change, reproductive organ weights, sperm functional parameters, and serum level of testosterone, widespread histological alterations, and apoptosis in the testis. Additionally, the IMI-treated rats exhibited a remarkable increment in the serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Also, IMI induced testicular oxidative stress, as indicated by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and a marked decline in the activity of antioxidant enzymes and reduced glutathione (GSH), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels. Moreover, IMI treatment significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of steroidogenic genes and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunoexpression in the testicular tissue. However, thymol co-administration significantly mitigated the IMI-induced toxic effects. Our findings suggested that IMI acts as a male reproductive toxicant in rats and thymol could be a potential therapeutic option for IMI reprotoxic impacts.

Morita-Baylis-Hillman adducts derived from thymol: synthesis, in silico studies and biological activity against Giardia lamblia

Giardiasis is a neglected disease, and there is a need for new molecules with less side effects and better activity against resistant strains. This work describes the evaluation of the giardicidal activity of thymol derivatives produced from the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction. Thymol acrylate was reacted with different aromatic aldehydes, using 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) as a catalyst. Eleven adducts (8 of them unpublished) with yields between 58 and 80% were obtained from this reaction, which were adequately characterized. The in silico prediction showed theoretical bioavailability after oral administration as well as antiparasitic activity against Giardia lamblia. Compound 4 showed better biological activity against G. lamblia. In addition to presenting antigiardial activity 24 times better than thymol, this MBHA was obtained in a short reaction time (3 h) with a yield (80%) superior to the other investigated molecules. The molecule was more active than the precursors (thymol and MBHA 12) and did not show cytotoxicity against HEK-293 or HT-29 cells. In conclusion, this study presents a new class of drugs with better antigiardial activity in relation to thymol, acting as a basis for the synthesis of new bioactive molecules. Molecular hybridization technique combined with the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction provided new thymol derivatives with giardicidal activity superior to the precursor molecules.

Cytotoxicity, in vivo toxicity, and chemical composition of the hexane extract of Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng

Cancer is a universal health issue, and many anticancer therapeutic drugs have been isolated from natural products. This study analyzed the cytotoxic and apoptotic activity of Plectranthus amboinicus leaf hexane (PALH) extract in MDA-MB-231 (median inhibitory concentration [IC₅₀] = 39.26 μg/mL) and MCF7 (IC₅₀ = 89.05 μg/mL) breast cancer cell lines. Cells appeared rounded and shrunken, indicating morphological changes due to apoptosis induction. The primary constituent of PALH was phenol, 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl) (44%). PALH extract treatment increased the percentage of late apoptotic cells in the MDA-MB231 cell line (58% ± 1.5% at 200 μg/mL) compared to the control group, as evidenced by the activated caspase-3 and caspase-7 identified and captured by fluorescence microscopy. The relative migration rate in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with 10 μg/mL of PALH extract for 48 h was significantly lower compared to the control group. Analysis of acute (2000 mg/kg/BW) and subacute (250 and 500 mg/kg/BW) toxicity of PALH extract in mice showed no mortality or adverse effects in the kidney and liver histology compared to the control group. PALH extract can be considered nontoxic as it does not cause any adverse changes and so can be proposed as a potential breast anticancer agent.

In vitro and in vivo investigation of polypharmacology of propolis extract as anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and chemical properties

Numerous compounds derived from natural sources such as microbes, plants, and insects have proven to be safe, efficacious, and cost-effective therapeutics for human diseases. This study examined the bioactivities of propolis, a structural sealant and antibacterial/antifungal agent produced by honey bees. Chinese propolis was extracted in methanol or hexane. Propolis significantly reduced the numbers of viable cancer cells when applied as a methanol extract (IC50 values in μg/mL for the indicated cell line: MDA-MB-231, 74.12; LoVo, 74.12; HepG2, 77.74; MCF7, 95.10; A549, 114.84) or a hexane extract (MDA-MB-231, 52.11; LoVo, 45.9; HepG2, 52.11; MCF7, 78.01; A549, 67.90). Hexane extract also induced apoptosis of HepG2 cells according to activated caspase-3/7 expression assays (17.6 ± 2.9% at 150 μg/mL and 89.2 ± 1.9% at 300 μg/mL vs 3.4 ± 0.4% in vehicle control), suppressed the growth of Candida albicans and multiple multidrug-resistant and nonresistant Gram-positive bacteria, and inhibited croton oil-induced skin inflammation when applied as topical treatment. GC-MS identified hexadecanoic acid methyl ester as a major constituent (33.6%). Propolis hexane extract has potential anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Lactose-Gated Mesoporous Silica Particles for Intestinal Controlled Delivery of Essential Oil Components: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study

Mesoporous silica microparticles functionalized with lactose for the specific release of essential oil components (EOCs) in the small intestine are presented. In vitro and in vivo intestinal models were applied to validate the microparticles (M41-EOC-L), in which the presence of lactase acts as the triggering stimulus for the controlled release of EOCs. Among the different microdevices prepared (containing thymol, eugenol and cinnamaldehyde), the one loaded with cinnamaldehyde showed the most significant Caco-2 cell viability reduction. On the other hand, interaction of the particles with enterocyte-like monolayers showed a reduction of EOCs permeability when protected into the designed microdevices. Then, a microdevice loaded with cinnamaldehyde was applied in the in vivo model of Wistar rat. The results showed a reduction in cinnamaldehyde plasma levels and an increase in its concentration in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The absence of payload release in the stomach, the progressive release throughout the intestine and the prolonged stay of the payload in the GIT-lumen increased the bioavailability of the encapsulated compound at the site of the desired action. These innovative results, based on the specific intestinal controlled delivery, suggest that the M41-payload-L could be a potential hybrid microdevice for the protection and administration of bioactive molecules in the small intestine and colon.

Cytotoxicity screening of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil in brine shrimp nauplii and cancer cell lines

Among natural products, essential oils from aromatic plants have been reported to possess potent anticancer properties. In this work, we aimed to perform the cytotoxic concentration range screening and antiproliferative activity screening of chemically characterized Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil. In vivo bioassay was conducted using the brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT). In vitro evaluation of antiproliferative activity was carried out on three human tumor cell lines: breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7, lung carcinoma H460 and acute lymphoblastic leukemia MOLT-4 using MTT assay. Essential oil components thymol (36.7%), p-cymene (30.0%), γ-terpinene (9.0%) and carvacrol (3.6%) were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Analyzed essential oil should be considered as toxic/highly toxic with LC₅₀ 60.38 µg/mL in BSLT and moderate/weakly cytotoxic with IC₅₀ range 52.65–228.78 µg/mL in vitro, according to evaluated cytotoxic criteria. Essential oil induced a dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation in all tested tumor cell lines and showed different sensitivity. Dose dependent toxicity observed in bioassay as well as the in vitro assay confirmed that brine shrimp lethality test is an adequate method for preliminary toxicity testing of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil in tumor cell lines.