Novel albendazole-chitosan nanoparticles for intestinal absorption enhancement and hepatic targeting improvement in rats

Nematocidal activity of chitosan nanoparticles conjugated with albendazole against the enteral and parenteral phases of trichinosis in experimentally infected mice

Trichinosis is a serious parasitic zoonotic disease caused mainly by Trichinella spiralis. The used drugs for treatment of trichinosis showed limited bioavailability and high degree of resistance. Moreover, they have a very poor effect in treatment of encysted larvae. Therefore, there is a need for development of new agents which help in improving the bioavailability of the used drugs and enable them to reach different tissues. This study was designed to assess the use of chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) in conjugation with full and half dose albendazole (ABZ) in treatment of intestinal and muscular trichinosis. Albino mice (84 mice) were used to evaluate the efficacy of drugs and divided into seven groups; I: control, II: ABZ (50 mg/kg) treated, III: ABZ (25 mg/kg) treated, IV: ABZ (50 mg/kg) conjugated CSNPs treated, V: ABZ (25 mg/kg) conjugated CSNPs treated, VI: CS treated and VII: CSNPs treated. Parasitological and histopathological examinations were used to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of the used drugs. Results showed significant reduction of adult Trichinella extracted from intestine of all ABZ treated groups either conjugated or not with the highest reduction rate in group IV followed by group V with percentage of reduction of 99.33% and 98.11%, respectively and marked improvement of histopathological examination. Also, results showed significant reduction of Trichinella larvae extracted from muscles of group IV, V and VII with the highest reduction rate in group IV with percentage of reduction of 100% in muscle larvae and marked improvement of histopathological examination. It was concluded that albendazole full dose conjugated chitosan nanoparticles can be a good candidate drug for treating both intestinal and muscular trichinosis.

The role of chitosan in enhancing the solubility and antibacterial activity of emodin against drug-resistant bacteria

Similar to most anthraquinone compounds, the pharmacological properties of emodin are limited because of its low water solubility. In this study, the formulation of chitosan and emodin (EMD/CS) was prepared by a bottom-up method with precipitation and sonication steps in order to enhance the solubility of emodin. Thanks to the interactions of oxygen-and nitrogen-containing groups in chitosan with emodin molecules, the solubility of emodin in the formulation was remarkably increased to 0.5 mg/mL. The EMD/CS particles were well dispersed and distributed in a range of sub-micrometer with an average particle size of 342 nm. The EMD/CS formulation exhibited synergic antibacterial activity of emodin and chitosan, against drug-resistant bacterial strains, namely Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7). When the compositions of emodin and chitosan increased, the antibacterial effectiveness of the EMD/CS formulation increased. The EMD/CS formulation with compositions of 0.5 mg/mL of emodin and 9.0 mg/mL of chitosan could significantly inhibit the proliferation of E. coli O157:H7. Meanwhile, the EMD/CS formulation with a lower concentration of emodin (0.4 mg/mL) and chitosan (7.2 mg/mL) could cause an extermination effect on MRSA. The enhanced solubility of EMD/CS formulation suggests that this formulation can be a potential candidate for the treatment of infectious diseases caused by drug-resistant bacterial pathogens.

Augmentation of anti-proliferative efficacy of quercetin encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles by induction of cell death via mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in oral cancer

Quercetin (QCT), an antioxidant plant flavonoid, is known to impart prominent anti-cancer properties. However, its clinical application as a potential drug is hindered owing to its hydrophobicity, extensive metabolism, low absorption, and rapid elimination. The drawbacks of these phytochemical-based therapies can be addressed using nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. In this study, we sought to develop chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) as the drug vehicle for encasing quercetin (QCT-CSNPs) and further investigate its anti-tumor potential against human oral cancer cell line Cal33. Our findings indicate that the average particle diameter of the formulated chitosan nanoparticles was around 100 nm, and they had a spherical structure, as per the TEM and FESEM images. The efficient entrapment of quercetin inside the CSNPs matrix is confirmed by XRD, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, FTIR, and DSC analysis. The in vitro cell cytotoxicity study against Cal33 oral cancer cells revealed that QCT-CSNPs exhibited superior toxicity compared to free QCT post-24-hour treatment. The improved anti-cancer efficacy of QCT-CSNPs was further confirmed by enhanced cellular apoptosis, colony formation inhibition, migration inhibition, and chromatin condensation. Moreover, the mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced ROS (Reactive oxygen species) production indicated mitochondrial-mediated cell death in QCT-CSNPs treated Cal33 cells. In conclusion, our data suggest that quercetin-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles may serve as a potential drug candidate against oral cancer.

Oral Delivery of Anti-Parasitic Agent-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: Enhanced Liver Targeting and Improved Therapeutic Effect on Hepatic Alveolar Echinococcosis

Background

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a lethal parasitic disease caused by infection with the metacestode of the dog/fox tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis, which primarily affects the liver. Although continued efforts have been made to find new drugs against this orphan and neglected disease, the current treatment options remain limited, with drug delivery considered a likely barrier for successful treatment.

Methods

Nanoparticles (NPs) have gained much attention in the field of drug delivery due to their potential to improve delivery efficiency and targetability. In this study, biocompatible PLGA nanoparticles encapsulating a novel carbazole aminoalcohol anti-AE agent (H1402) were prepared to promote the delivery of the parent drug to liver tissue for treating hepatic AE.

Results

H1402-loaded nanoparticles (H1402-NPs) had a uniform spherical shape and a mean particle size of 55 nm. Compound H1402 was efficiently encapsulated into PLGA NPs with a maximal encapsulation efficiency of 82.1% and drug loading content of 8.2%. An in vitro uptake assay demonstrated that H1402-NPs rapidly penetrated the in vitro cultured pre-cyst wall and extensively accumulated in the pre-cysts of E. multilocularis within only 1 h. The biodistribution profile of H1402-NPs determined through ex vivo fluorescence imaging revealed significantly enhanced liver distribution compared to unencapsulated H1402, which translated to improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced systemic toxicity (especially hepatotoxicity and cytotoxicity) in a hepatic AE murine model. Following a 30-day oral regimen (100 mg/kg/day), H1402-NPs significantly reduced the parasitic burden in both the parasite mass (liver and metacestode total weight, 8.8%) and average metacestode size (89.9%) compared to unmedicated infected mice (both p-values < 0.05); the treatment outcome was more effective than those of albendazole- and free H1402-treated individuals.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrate the advantages of encapsulating H1402 into PLGA nanoparticles and highlight the potential of H1402-NPs as a promising liver-targeting therapeutic strategy for hepatic AE.

Biodegradable and biocompatible subcutaneous implants consisted of pH-sensitive mebendazole-loaded/folic acid-targeted chitosan nanoparticles for murine triple-negative breast cancer treatment

BACKGROUND

Mebendazole (MBZ) is a well-known anti-parasite drug with significant anti-cancer properties. However, MBZ exhibits low solubility, limited absorption efficacy, extensive first-pass effect, and low bioavailability. Therefore, multiple oral administration of high dose MBZ is required daily for achieving the therapeutic serum level which can cause severe side effects and patients' non-compliance.

METHOD

In the present study, MBZ-loaded/folic acid-targeted chitosan nanoparticles (CS-FA-MBZ) were synthesized, characterized, and used to form cylindrical subcutaneous implants for 4T1 triple-negative breast tumor (TNBC) treatment in BALB/c mice. The therapeutic efficacy of the CS-FA-MBZ implants was investigated after subcutaneous implantation in comparison with Control, MBZ (40 mg/kg, oral administration, twice a week for 2 weeks), and CS-FA implants, according to 4T1 tumors' growth progression, metastasis, and tumor-bearing mice survival time. Also, their biocompatibility was evaluated by blood biochemical analyzes and histopathological investigation of vital organs.

RESULTS

The CS-FA-MBZ implants were completely degraded 15 days after implantation and caused about 73.3%, 49.2%, 57.4% decrease in the mean tumors' volume in comparison with the Control (1050.5 ± 120.7 mm³), MBZ (552.4 ± 76.1 mm³), and CS-FA (658.3 ± 88.1 mm³) groups, respectively. Average liver metastatic colonies' number per microscope field at the CS-FA-MBZ group (2.3 ± 0.7) was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than the Control (9.6 ± 1.7), MBZ (5.0 ± 1.5), and CS-FA (5.2 ± 1) groups. In addition, the CS-FA-MBZ treated mice exhibited about 52.1%, 27.3%, and 17% more survival days after the cancer cells injection in comparison with the Control, MBZ, and CS-FA groups, respectively. Moreover, the CS-FA-MBZ implants were completely biocompatible based on histopathology and blood biochemical analyzes.

CONCLUSION

Taking together, CS-FA-MBZ implants were completely biodegradable and biocompatible with high therapeutic efficacy in a murine TNBC model.

Antimicrobial Properties of Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives in the Treatment of Enteric Infections

Antibiotics played an important role in controlling the development of enteric infection. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance and gut dysbiosis led to a growing interest in the use of natural antimicrobial agents as alternatives for therapy and disinfection. Chitosan is a nontoxic natural antimicrobial polymer and is approved by GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration). Chitosan and chitosan derivatives can kill microbes by neutralizing negative charges on the microbial surface. Besides, chemical modifications give chitosan derivatives better water solubility and antimicrobial property. This review gives an overview of the preparation of chitosan, its derivatives, and the conjugates with other polymers and nanoparticles with better antimicrobial properties, explains the direct and indirect mechanisms of action of chitosan, and summarizes current treatment for enteric infections as well as the role of chitosan and chitosan derivatives in the antimicrobial agents in enteric infections. Finally, we suggested future directions for further research to improve the treatment of enteric infections and to develop more useful chitosan derivatives and conjugates.

Supersaturable self-microemulsifying delivery systems: an approach to enhance oral bioavailability of benzimidazole anticancer drugs

This study explored the design of supersaturable self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (S-SMEDDS) to address poor solubility and oral bioavailability of a novel benzimidazole derivative anticancer drug (BI). Firstly, self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems SMEDDS made of Miglyol® 812, Kolliphor® RH40, Transcutol® HP, and ethanol were prepared and loaded with the BI drug. Upon dispersion, the systems formed neutrally charged droplets of around 20 nm. However, drug precipitation was observed following incubation with simulated gastric fluid (pH 1.2). Aiming at reducing this precipitation and enhancing drug payload, supersaturable systems were then prepared by adding 1% hydroxypropyl cellulose as precipitation inhibitor. Supersaturable systems maintained a higher amount of drug in a supersaturated state in gastric medium compared with conventional formulations and were stable in simulated intestinal medium (pH 6.8). In vitro cell studies using Caco-2 cell line showed that these formulations reduced in a transient manner the transepithelial electrical resistance of the monolayers without toxicity. Accordingly, confocal images revealed that the systems accumulated at tight junctions after a 2 h exposure. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies carried out following oral administration of BI-loaded S-SMEDDS, SMEDDS, and free drug to healthy mice showed that supersaturable systems promoted drug absorption compared with the other formulations. Overall, these data highlight the potential of using the supersaturable approach as an alternative to conventional SMEDDS for improving oral systemic absorption of lipophilic drugs.

Solid Polymeric Nanoparticles of Albendazole: Synthesis, Physico-Chemical Characterization and Biological Activity

Albendazole is a benzimidazole derivative with documented antitumor activity and low toxicity to healthy cells. The major disadvantage in terms of clinical use is its low aqueous solubility which limits its bioavailability. Albendazole was incorporated into stable and homogeneous polyurethane structures with the aim of obtaining an improved drug delivery system model. Spectral and thermal analysis was used to investigate the encapsulation process and confirmed the presence of albendazole inside the nanoparticles. The in vitro anticancer properties of albendazole encapsulated in polyurethane structures versus the un-encapsulated compound were tested on two breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, in terms of cellular viability and apoptosis induction. The study showed that the encapsulation process enhanced the antitumor activity of albendazole on the MCF-7 and MDA-MB-23 breast cancer lines. The cytotoxic activity manifested in a concentration-dependent manner and was accompanied by changes in cell morphology and nuclear fragmentation.

Chitosan-based particulate systems for drug and vaccine delivery in the treatment and prevention of neglected tropical diseases

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of infections which are difficult to prevent or control, affecting impoverished communities that are unique to tropical or subtropical regions. In spite of the low number of drugs that are currently used for the treatment of these diseases, progress on new drug discovery and development for NTDs is still very limited. Therefore, strategies on the development of new delivery systems for current drugs have been the main focus of formulators to provide improved efficacy and safety. In recent years, particulate delivery systems at micro- and nanosize, including polymeric micro- and nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions, have been widely investigated in the treatment and control of NTDs. Among these polymers used for the preparation of such systems is chitosan, which is a marine biopolymer obtained from the shells of crustaceans. Chitosan has been investigated as a delivery system due to the versatility of its physicochemical properties as well as bioadhesive and penetration-enhancing properties. Furthermore, chitosan can be also used to improve treatment due to its bioactive properties such as antimicrobial, tissue regeneration, etc. In this review, after giving a brief introduction to neglected diseases and particulate systems developed for the treatment and control of NTDs, the chitosan-based systems will be described in more detail and the recent studies on these systems will be reviewed. Graphical abstract.

Nanoparticles for antiparasitic drug delivery

As an emerging novel drug carrier, nanoparticles provide a promising way for effective treatment of parasitic diseases by overcoming the shortcomings of low bioavailability, poor cellular permeability, nonspecific distribution and rapid elimination of antiparasitic drugs from the body. In recent years, some kinds of ideal nanocarriers have been developed for antiparasitic drug delivery. In this review, the progress of the enhanced antiparasitic effects of different nanoparticles payload and their influencing factors were firstly summarized. Secondly, the transport and disposition process in the body were reviewed. Finally, the challenges and prospects of nanoparticles for antiparasitic drug delivery were proposed. This review will help scholars to understand the development trend of nanoparticles in the treatment of parasitic diseases and explore strategies in the development of more efficient nanocarriers to overcome the difficulty in the treatment of parasite infections in the future.

Albendazole-lipid nanocapsules: Optimization, characterization and chemoprophylactic efficacy in mice infected with Echinococcus granulosus

Cystic echinococcosis (CE), which is caused during the metacestode larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus, is a life-threatening disease and is very difficult to treat. At present, the FDA-approved antihelmintic drugs are mebendazole (MBZ), albendazole (ABZ) and its principal metabolite ABZ sulfoxide (ABZSO), but as these have a therapeutic efficacy over 50%, underlining the need for new drug delivery systems. The aim of this work was the optimization and characterization of previously developed ABZ lipid nanocapsules (ABZ-LNCs) and evaluate their efficacy in mice infected with E. granulosus. LNCs were prepared by the phase inversion technique and characterized in terms of size, surface charge, drug loading, and in vitro stability followed by an in vivo proof-of-concept using a murine model infected with E. granulosus. Stable particle dispersions with a narrow size distribution and high efficiency of encapsulation (≥90%) were obtained. ABZ-LNCs showed a greater chemoprophylactic efficacy than ABZ suspension administered by the oral route as 4 out of the 10 ABZ-LNCs treated mice did not develop any cysts, whereas the infection progressed in all mice from the ABZ suspension group. Regarding the ultrastructural studies of cysts, mice treated with ABZ-LNCs or ABZ suspension revealed changes in the germinal layer. However, the extent of the damage appeared to be greater after ABZ-LNC administration compared to the suspension treatment. These results suggest that ABZ-LNCs could be a promising novel candidate for ABZ delivery to treat CE.

Chitosan-based nanodelivery systems applied to the development of novel triclabendazole formulations

Triclabendazole is a poorly-water soluble (0.24 μg/mL) compound classified into the Class II/IV of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System. It is the drug of choice to treat fascioliasis, a neglected parasitic disease worldwide disseminated. Triclabendazole is registered as veterinary medicine and it is only available for human treatment as 250 mg tablets. Thus, the aim of this work was to develop novel drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology approaches. The chitosan-based nanocapsules and nanoemulsions of triclabendazole were fully characterized regarding their particle size distribution, polydispersity index and zeta potential, in-vitro release and stability in biological media. Cytotoxicity evaluation and cellular uptake studies using CaCo-2 cell line were also investigated. The results indicated an average hydrodynamic size around ~160 nm were found for unloaded nanoemulsions which were slightly increased up to ~190 nm for loaded one. In contrast, the average hydrodynamic size of the nanocapsules increased from ~160 nm up to ~400 nm when loaded with triclabendazole. The stability studies upon 30 days storage at 4, 25 and 37°C showed that average size of nanoemulsions was not modified with varying amounts of loaded TCBZ while an opposite result was seen in case of loaded nanocapsules. In addition, a slight reduction of zeta potential values over time was observed in both triclabendazole nanosystems. Release of TCBZ from nanoformulations over 6 h in simulated gastric fluid was 9 to 16-fold higher than with untreated TCBZ dispersion. In phosphate buffer saline solution there was no drug release for neither nanocapsules nor nanoemulsions. Cell viabilities studies indicated that at certain concentrations, drug encapsulation can lower its cytotoxic effects when compared to untreated drug. Confocal laser scanning microscopy study has shown that nanocapsules strongly interacted with Caco-2 cells in vitro which could increase the passage time of triclabendazole after oral administration. The results of this study constitute the first step towards the development of nanoformulations intended for the oral delivery of anti-parasitic drugs of enhanced bioavailability.

Progress in the pharmacological treatment of human cystic and alveolar echinococcosis: Compounds and therapeutic targets

Human cystic and alveolar echinococcosis are helmintic zoonotic diseases caused by infections with the larval stages of the cestode parasites Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis, respectively. Both diseases are progressive and chronic, and often fatal if left unattended for E. multilocularis. As a treatment approach, chemotherapy against these orphan and neglected diseases has been available for more than 40 years. However, drug options were limited to the benzimidazoles albendazole and mebendazole, the only chemical compounds currently licensed for treatment in humans. To compensate this therapeutic shortfall, new treatment alternatives are urgently needed, including the identification, development, and assessment of novel compound classes and drug targets. Here is presented a thorough overview of the range of compounds that have been tested against E. granulosus and E. multilocularis in recent years, including in vitro and in vivo data on their mode of action, dosage, administration regimen, therapeutic outcomes, and associated clinical symptoms. Drugs covered included albendazole, mebendazole, and other members of the benzimidazole family and their derivatives, including improved formulations and combined therapies with other biocidal agents. Chemically synthetized molecules previously known to be effective against other infectious and non-infectious conditions such as anti-virals, antibiotics, anti-parasites, anti-mycotics, and anti-neoplastics are addressed. In view of their increasing relevance, natural occurring compounds derived from plant and fungal extracts are also discussed. Special attention has been paid to the recent application of genomic science on drug discovery and clinical medicine, particularly through the identification of small inhibitor molecules tackling key metabolic enzymes or signalling pathways.

Human cystic and alveolar echinococcosis (CE and AE), caused by the larval stages of the helminths Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis, respectively, are progressive and chronic diseases affecting more than 1 million people worldwide. Both are considered orphan and neglected diseases by the World Health Organization. As a treatment approach, chemotherapy is limited to the use of benzimidazoles, drugs that stop parasite growth but do not kill the parasite. To compensate this therapeutic shortfall, new treatment alternatives are urgently needed. Here, we present the state-of-the-art regarding the alternative compounds and new formulations of benzimidazoles assayed against these diseases until now. Some of these new and modified compounds, either alone or in combination, could represent a step forward in the treatment of CE and AE. Unfortunately, few compounds have reached clinical trials stage in humans and, when assayed, the design of these studies has not allowed evidence-based conclusions. Thus, there is still an urgent need for defining new compounds or improved formulations of those already assayed, and also for a careful design of clinical protocols that could lead to the draw of a broad international consensus on the use of a defined drug, or a combination of drugs, for the effective treatment of CE and AE.

In vitro and in vivo effects of chitosan-praziquantel and chitosan-albendazole nanoparticles on Echinococcus granulosus Metacestodes

Cystic echinococcosis (CE), which is caused by the metacestode of Echinococcus granulosus, is one of the most important zoonoses affecting humans. Benzimidazoles (in particular albendazole) and praziquantel (PZQ) are effective against CE, but poor water solubility of these agents often leads to inadequate results. Here, we evaluate the effects of chitosan-albendazole (ChABZ) and chitosan-praziquantel (ChPZQ) nanoparticles as a new formulation on hydatid cysts both in vitro and in vivo. Developed microcysts in culture were treated with different concentrations of ChABZ and ChPZQ nanoparticles (either alone or in combination), and ABZ + PZQ suspension. The viability rate of microcysts was used to evaluate the drug efficacies. In addition, the prophylactic and therapeutic effects of the drugs were studied on infected DBA/2 mice. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe the ultra-structural changes. The viability rate of microcysts and differences in cyst weights were compared by ANOVA, and the cyst numbers were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The combination of ChABZ + ChPZQ nanoparticles was more effective than the ABZ + PZQ suspension in vitro (p < 0.05). In prophylaxy, a significant reduction was observed both in size and in number of the cysts in ChABZ + ChPZQ nanoparticle groups compared with the control group (p < 0.05). In the therapeutic stage, however, this treatment only reduced the cyst numbers. Degeneration of the microcysts treated with the drugs was evident in the ultra-structural imaging. Overall, the nanoparticulate drugs were more effective than their suspension counterparts, but further studies are recommended to evaluate the full potential of these nanoparticles in the treatment of human CE.

Nanoformulations of albendazole as effective anticancer and antiparasite agents

Initially emerging as a widely used clinical antiparasitic drug, albendazole (ABZ) has been increasingly recognized as an effective anticancer agent due to its outstanding advantage, in other words, low toxicity to normal cells but high effectiveness against parasites and some tumors. The major challenge is its poor water solubility and subsequently low bioavailability. This article thus first reviews the brief achievements in using ABZ to treat parasites and cancers, and summarizes the basic mechanisms of action of ABZ. Then this article critically reviews recent nanotechnological strategies, in other words, formulating/conjugating it with carriers into nanoformulations, in practices of improving aqueous solubility and efficacy in treatment of tumors and parasites. Our expert opinions in this field are provided for more effective delivery of ABZ to treat tumors and parasites in vivo.

Repurposing Albendazole: new potential as a chemotherapeutic agent with preferential activity against HPV-negative head and neck squamous cell cancer

Albendazole is an anti-helminthic drug that has been shown to exhibit anti-cancer properties, however its activity in head and neck squamous cell cancer (HNSCC) was unknown. Using a series of in vitro assays, we assessed the ability of albendazole to inhibit proliferation in 20 HNSCC cell lines across a range of albendazole doses (1 nM–10 μM). Cell lines that responded to treatment were further examined for cell death, inhibition of migration and cell cycle arrest. Thirteen of fourteen human papillomavirus-negative HNSCC cell lines responded to albendazole, with an average IC₅₀ of 152 nM. In contrast, only 3 of 6 human papillomavirus-positive HNSCC cell lines responded. Albendazole treatment resulted in apoptosis, inhibition of cell migration, cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and altered tubulin distribution. Normal control cells were not measurably affected by any dose tested. This study indicates that albendazole acts to inhibit the proliferation of human papillomavirus-negative HNSCC cell lines and thus warrants further study as a potential chemotherapeutic agent for patients suffering from head and neck cancer.

Flubendazole, FDA-approved anthelmintic, targets breast cancer stem-like cells

Cancer stem-like cell (CS-like cell) is considered to be responsible for recurrence and drug resistance events in breast cancer, which makes it a potential target for novel cancer therapeutic strategy. The FDA approved flubendazole, has been widely used in the treatment of intestinal parasites. Here, we demonstrated a novel effect of flubendazole on breast CS-like cells. Flubendazole inhibited breast cancer cells proliferation in dose- and time-dependent manner and delayed tumor growth in xenograft models by intraperitoneal injection. Importantly, flubendazole reduced CD44^high/CD24^low subpopulation and suppressed the formation of mammosphere and the expression of self-renewal related genes including c-myc, oct4, sox2, nanog and cyclinD1. Moreover, we found that flubendazole induced cell differentiation and inhibited cell migration. Consistently, flubendazole reduced mesenchymal markers (β-catenin, N-cadherin and Vimentin) expression and induced epithelial and differentiation marker (Keratin 18) expression in breast cancer cells. Mechanism study revealed that flubendazole arrested cell cycle at G2/M phase and induced monopolar spindle formation through inhibiting tubulin polymerization. Furthermore, flubendazole enhanced cytotoxic activity of conventional therapeutic drugs fluorouracil and doxorubicin against breast cancer cells. In conclusion, our findings uncovered a remarkable effect of flubendazole on suppressing breast CS-like cells, indicating a novel utilization of flubendazole in breast cancer therapy.

Exploring the Preparation of Albendazole-Loaded Chitosan-Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles

The objective of this study was to improve the solubility of albendazole and optimize the preparation of an oral nanoparticle formulation, using β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and chitosan-tripolyphosphate (TPP) nanoparticles. The solubility of albendazole in buffers, surfactants, and various concentrations of acetic acid solution was investigated. To determine drug loading, the cytotoxic effects of the albendazole concentration in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) were investigated. The formulations were prepared by mixing the drug solution in Tween 20 with the chitosan solution. TPP solution was added dropwise with sonication to produce a nanoparticle through ionic crosslinking. Then the particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of the nanoparticles were investigated to obtain an optimal composition. The solubility of albendazole was greater in pH 2 buffer, Tween 20, and βCD depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Drug loading was determined as 100 µg/mL based on the results of cell viability. The optimized ratio of Tween 20, chitosan/hydroxypropyl βCD, and TPP was 2:5:1, which resulted in smaller particle size and proper zeta positive values of the zeta potential. The chitosan-TPP nanoparticles increased the drug solubility and had a small particle size with homogeneity in formulating albendazole as a potential anticancer agent.