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Hu L, Chen W, Qian A, Li YP. Wnt/β-catenin signaling components and mechanisms in bone formation, homeostasis, and disease. Bone Res 2024; 12:39. [PMID: 38987555 PMCID: PMC11237130 DOI: 10.1038/s41413-024-00342-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Wnts are secreted, lipid-modified proteins that bind to different receptors on the cell surface to activate canonical or non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways, which control various biological processes throughout embryonic development and adult life. Aberrant Wnt signaling pathway underlies a wide range of human disease pathogeneses. In this review, we provide an update of Wnt/β-catenin signaling components and mechanisms in bone formation, homeostasis, and diseases. The Wnt proteins, receptors, activators, inhibitors, and the crosstalk of Wnt signaling pathways with other signaling pathways are summarized and discussed. We mainly review Wnt signaling functions in bone formation, homeostasis, and related diseases, and summarize mouse models carrying genetic modifications of Wnt signaling components. Moreover, the therapeutic strategies for treating bone diseases by targeting Wnt signaling, including the extracellular molecules, cytosol components, and nuclear components of Wnt signaling are reviewed. In summary, this paper reviews our current understanding of the mechanisms by which Wnt signaling regulates bone formation, homeostasis, and the efforts targeting Wnt signaling for treating bone diseases. Finally, the paper evaluates the important questions in Wnt signaling to be further explored based on the progress of new biological analytical technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifang Hu
- Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, Xi'an Key Laboratory of Special Medicine and Health Engineering, Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Division in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Airong Qian
- Laboratory for Bone Metabolism, Xi'an Key Laboratory of Special Medicine and Health Engineering, Key Laboratory for Space Biosciences and Biotechnology, Research Center for Special Medicine and Health Systems Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710072, China.
| | - Yi-Ping Li
- Division in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA.
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Bell-Hensley A, Beard DC, Feeney K, Zheng H, Jiang Y, Zhang X, Liu J, Gabel H, McAlinden A. Skeletal abnormalities in mice with Dnmt3a missense mutations. Bone 2024; 183:117085. [PMID: 38522809 PMCID: PMC11057337 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2024.117085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Overgrowth and intellectual disability disorders in humans are typified by length/height and/or head circumference ≥ 2 standard deviations above the mean as well as intellectual disability and behavioral comorbidities, including autism and anxiety. Tatton-Brown-Rahman Syndrome is one type of overgrowth and intellectual disability disorder caused by heterozygous missense mutations in the DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A) gene. Numerous DNMT3A mutations have been identified in Tatton-Brown-Rahman Syndrome patients and may be associated with varying phenotype severities of clinical presentation. Two such mutations are the R882H and P904L mutations which result in severe and mild phenotypes, respectively. Mice with paralogous mutations (Dnmt3aP900L/+ and Dnmt3aR878H/+) exhibit overgrowth in their long bones (e.g., femur, humerus), but the mechanisms responsible for their skeletal overgrowth remain unknown. The goal of this study is to characterize skeletal phenotypes in mouse models of Tatton-Brown-Rahman Syndrome and identify potential cellular mechanisms involved in the skeletal overgrowth phenotype. We report that mature mice with the Dnmt3aP900L/+ or Dnmt3aR878H/+ mutation exhibit tibial overgrowth, cortical bone thinning, and weakened bone mechanical properties. Dnmt3aR878H/+ mutants also contain larger bone marrow adipocytes while Dnmt3aP900L/+ mutants show no adipocyte phenotype compared to control animals. To understand the potential cellular mechanisms regulating these phenotypes, growth plate chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts were assessed in juvenile mutant mice using quantitative static histomorphometry and dynamic histomorphometry. Tibial growth plates appeared thicker in mutant juvenile mice, but no changes were observed in osteoblast activity or osteoclast number in the femoral mid-diaphysis. These studies reveal new skeletal phenotypes associated with Tatton-Brown-Rahman Syndrome in mice and provide a rationale to extend clinical assessments of patients with this condition to include bone density and quality testing. These findings may be also informative for skeletal characterization of other mouse models presenting with overgrowth and intellectual disability phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin Bell-Hensley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Diana C Beard
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kathryn Feeney
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Hongjun Zheng
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yunhao Jiang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Xiyun Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jin Liu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Harrison Gabel
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
| | - Audrey McAlinden
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Cell Biology & Physiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA; Shriners Hospital for Children - St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Cheng K, Gao S, Mei Y, Zhou D, Song C, Guo D, Hou Y, Liu Z. The bone nonunion microenvironment: A place where osteogenesis struggles with osteoclastic capacity. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31314. [PMID: 38813209 PMCID: PMC11133820 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Bone nonunion is a common and serious orthopedic disorder, the occurrence of which is associated with a disruption of the dynamic balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone repair. However, the critical molecular mechanisms affecting this homeostasis are not well understood, and it is essential to investigate the specific components of this mechanism and to restore the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts to promote bone repair. First, we defined this complex local environmental factor as the "bone nonunion microenvironment" and identified the importance of the "struggle" between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which is the most essential element in determining the process of repair. On this basis, we also explored the cellular factors that influence osteogenesis and the molecular signals that influence the balance between osteoclast and osteoblasts, which are important for restoring homeostasis. Further, we explored other factors involved in osteogenesis, such as the biomechanical environment, the nutritional environment, the acid-base environment, and the temperature environment, which are important players in osteogenesis. In conclusion, we found that the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is the essence of bone healing, which is based on the "bone nonunion microenvironment". Therefore, investigating the role of the bone nonunion microenvironment in the system of osteoblast-osteoclast "struggle" provides an important basis for further understanding of the mechanism of nonunion and the development of new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Silong Gao
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yongliang Mei
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Daqian Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Chao Song
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Daru Guo
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yunqing Hou
- Department of Medical Imaging, Luzhou Longmatan District People's Hospital, Luzhou, China
| | - Zongchao Liu
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Department of Medical Imaging, Luzhou Longmatan District People's Hospital, Luzhou, China
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Hong G, Tang L, Zhou T, Xie Y, Wang J, Ge D, Dong Q, Sun P. Fufang Zhenshu Tiaozhi capsule enhances bone formation and safeguards against glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis through innovative Mekk2-mediated β-catenin deubiquitination. J Bone Miner Metab 2024:10.1007/s00774-024-01516-4. [PMID: 38755327 DOI: 10.1007/s00774-024-01516-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Bone homeostasis depends on the regulation of β-catenin in osteoblasts. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are known to diminish β-catenin activity via Wnt pathway signaling, leading to osteoporosis. Conversely, activating β-catenin in osteoblasts through mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 2 (Mekk2) offers an innovative approach to combat GC-induced osteoporosis (GIOP). Fufang Zhenshu Tiaozhi (FTZ) capsules have shown effectiveness in treating GIOP, but the mechanisms behind this are still unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this study, Mekk2 knockout mice (Mekk2-/-) was generated by CRISPR/Cas9. These mice were then subjected to Alcian Blue-Alizarin Red staining and immunofluorescence to assess their bone and cartilage development. To establish models of GIOP, both Mekk2-/- and wild-type (WT) mice were treated with dexamethasone (DXMS) and subsequently given FTZ capsules. We analyzed the resulting phenotypic changes in these mice using Micro-CT scans and histomorphological studies. Primary osteoblasts, isolated from both Mekk2-/- and WT mice, underwent qRT-PCR to measure key osteogenesis markers, including Runx2, Sp7, Bgalp, Col1a1 and Alp. Cells were then exposed to treatments with either FTZ or Wnt3a and the phosphorylation levels of β-catenin and Mekk2, along with the protein expression of Runx2, were evaluated using Western blotting and immunoprecipitation. Additionally, C3H10T1/2 cells transfected with TOPflash-luciferase and Renilla luciferase reporters were treated with FTZ and Wnt3a to measure β-catenin activity. RESULTS In our study, administering FTZ in vivo effectively prevented bone loss typically induced by GCs. However, it's important to note that this protective effect was substantially reduced in mice lacking Mekk2. Additionally, FTZ showed a significant ability to enhance osteogenic differentiation in primary osteoblasts, doing so by altering the expression of Mekk2. Intriguingly, the impact of FTZ on Mekk2 appears to function through a pathway separate from the traditional Wnt signaling route. Furthermore, our findings indicate that FTZ also promotes the deubiquitination of β-catenin, contributing further to its positive effects on bone health. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that FTZ plays a significant role in protecting bone mass in cases of GIOP. The mechanism through which FTZ confers this benefit involves the activation of Mekk2/β-catenin signaling pathways, which represents a promising alternative strategy to counteract the deleterious effects of GIOP by augmenting osteoblastogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoju Hong
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510000, People's Republic of China
- The Third Medical Collage, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510000, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Tang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianyu Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China
| | - Youhong Xie
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiangyan Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongdong Ge
- Department of Orthopedic, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China
| | - Qunwei Dong
- Department of Orthopedic, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China.
- Department of Orthopedic, Yunfu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yunfu, 527300, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ping Sun
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510378, People's Republic of China.
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Zhang X, Yang Z, Zhang D, Bai M. The role of Semaphorin 3A in oral diseases. Oral Dis 2024; 30:1887-1896. [PMID: 37771213 DOI: 10.1111/odi.14748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Semaphorin 3A (SEMA3A), also referred to as H-Sema III, is a molecule with significant biological importance in regulating physiological and pathological processes. However, its role in oral diseases, particularly its association with inflammatory immunity and alveolar bone remodeling defects, remains poorly understood. This comprehensive review article aims to elucidate the recent advances in understanding SEMA3A in the oral system, encompassing nerve formation, periodontitis, pulpitis, apical periodontitis, and oral squamous cell carcinoma. Notably, we explore its novel function in inflammatory immunomodulation and alveolar bone formation during oral infectious diseases. By doing so, this review enhances our comprehension of SEMA3A's role in oral biology and opens up possibilities for modulatory approaches and potential treatments in oral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Cariology and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhenqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Cariology and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Demao Zhang
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingru Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department of Cariology and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Henning P, Kassem A, Westerlund A, Lundberg P, Engdahl C, Lionikaite V, Wikström P, Wu J, Li L, Lindholm C, de Souza PPC, Movérare-Skrtic S, Lerner UH. Toll-like receptor-2 induced inflammation causes local bone formation and activates canonical Wnt signaling. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1383113. [PMID: 38646530 PMCID: PMC11026618 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1383113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
It is well established that inflammatory processes in the vicinity of bone often induce osteoclast formation and bone resorption. Effects of inflammatory processes on bone formation are less studied. Therefore, we investigated the effect of locally induced inflammation on bone formation. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 agonists LPS from Porphyromonas gingivalis and PAM2 were injected once subcutaneously above mouse calvarial bones. After five days, both agonists induced bone formation mainly at endocranial surfaces. The injection resulted in progressively increased calvarial thickness during 21 days. Excessive new bone formation was mainly observed separated from bone resorption cavities. Anti-RANKL did not affect the increase of bone formation. Inflammation caused increased bone formation rate due to increased mineralizing surfaces as assessed by dynamic histomorphometry. In areas close to new bone formation, an abundance of proliferating cells was observed as well as cells robustly stained for Runx2 and alkaline phosphatase. PAM2 increased the mRNA expression of Lrp5, Lrp6 and Wnt7b, and decreased the expression of Sost and Dkk1. In situ hybridization demonstrated decreased Sost mRNA expression in osteocytes present in old bone. An abundance of cells expressed Wnt7b in Runx2-positive osteoblasts and ß-catenin in areas with new bone formation. These data demonstrate that inflammation, not only induces osteoclastogenesis, but also locally activates canonical WNT signaling and stimulates new bone formation independent on bone resorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Henning
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ali Kassem
- Department of Molecular Periodontology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anna Westerlund
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Lundberg
- Department of Molecular Periodontology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Engdahl
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Vikte Lionikaite
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Wikström
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Section of Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jianyao Wu
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lei Li
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Catharina Lindholm
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Pedro P. C. de Souza
- Innovation in Biomaterials Laboratory, Federal University of Goiás, Goiania, Brazil
| | - Sofia Movérare-Skrtic
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ulf H. Lerner
- Sahlgrenska Osteoporosis Centre, Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Molecular Periodontology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Buck HV, Stains JP. Osteocyte-mediated mechanical response controls osteoblast differentiation and function. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1364694. [PMID: 38529481 PMCID: PMC10961341 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1364694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Low bone mass is a pervasive global health concern, with implications for osteoporosis, frailty, disability, and mortality. Lifestyle factors, including sedentary habits, metabolic dysfunction, and an aging population, contribute to the escalating prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis. The application of mechanical load to bone through physical activity and exercise prevents bone loss, while sufficient mechanical load stimulates new bone mass acquisition. Osteocytes, cells embedded within the bone, receive mechanical signals and translate these mechanical cues into biological signals, termed mechano-transduction. Mechano-transduction signals regulate other bone resident cells, such as osteoblasts and osteoclasts, to orchestrate changes in bone mass. This review explores the mechanisms through which osteocyte-mediated response to mechanical loading regulates osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. An overview of bone cell biology and the impact of mechanical load will be provided, with emphasis on the mechanical cues, mechano-transduction pathways, and factors that direct progenitor cells toward the osteoblast lineage. While there are a wide range of clinically available treatments for osteoporosis, the majority act through manipulation of the osteoclast and may have significant disadvantages. Despite the central role of osteoblasts to the deposition of new bone, few therapies directly target osteoblasts for the preservation of bone mass. Improved understanding of the mechanisms leading to osteoblastogenesis may reveal novel targets for translational investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph Paul Stains
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Bratengeier C, Johansson L, Liszka A, Bakker AD, Hallbeck M, Fahlgren A. Mechanical loading intensities affect the release of extracellular vesicles from mouse bone marrow-derived hematopoietic progenitor cells and change their osteoclast-modulating effect. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23323. [PMID: 38015031 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202301520r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Low-intensity loading maintains or increases bone mass, whereas lack of mechanical loading and high-intensity loading decreases bone mass, possibly via the release of extracellular vesicles by mechanosensitive bone cells. How different loading intensities alter the biological effect of these vesicles is not fully understood. Dynamic fluid shear stress at low intensity (0.7 ± 0.3 Pa, 5 Hz) or high intensity (2.9 ± 0.2 Pa, 1 Hz) was used on mouse hematopoietic progenitor cells for 2 min in the presence or absence of chemical compounds that inhibit release or biogenesis of extracellular vesicles. We used a Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand-induced osteoclastogenesis assay to evaluate the biological effect of different fractions of extracellular vesicles obtained through centrifugation of medium from hematopoietic stem cells. Osteoclast formation was reduced by microvesicles (10 000× g) obtained after low-intensity loading and induced by exosomes (100 000× g) obtained after high-intensity loading. These osteoclast-modulating effects could be diminished or eliminated by depletion of extracellular vesicles from the conditioned medium, inhibition of general extracellular vesicle release, inhibition of microvesicle biogenesis (low intensity), inhibition of ESCRT-independent exosome biogenesis (high intensity), as well as by inhibition of dynamin-dependent vesicle uptake in osteoclast progenitor cells. Taken together, the intensity of mechanical loading affects the release of extracellular vesicles and change their osteoclast-modulating effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bratengeier
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - L Johansson
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - A Liszka
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - A D Bakker
- Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Hallbeck
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - A Fahlgren
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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9
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Chen MY, Zhao FL, Chu WL, Bai MR, Zhang DM. A review of tamoxifen administration regimen optimization for Cre/loxp system in mouse bone study. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 165:115045. [PMID: 37379643 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene knockout is a technique routinely used in basic experimental research, particularly in mouse skeletal and developmental studies. Tamoxifen-induced Cre/loxp system is known for its temporal and spatial precision and commonly utilized by researchers. However, tamoxifen has been shown its side effects on affecting the phenotype of mouse bone directly. This review aimed to optimize tamoxifen administration regimens including its dosage and duration, to identify an optimal induction strategy that minimizes potential side effects while maintaining recombination efficacy. This study will help researchers in designing gene knockout experiments in bone when using tamoxifen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Yang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Fu-Lin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wen-Lin Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ming-Ru Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China; National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China; Department of Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
| | - De-Mao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
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Zohora FT, Aliyu M, Saboor-Yaraghi AA. Secretome-based acellular therapy of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in degenerative and immunological disorders: A narrative review. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18120. [PMID: 37496898 PMCID: PMC10366432 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The bone marrow (BM) plays a pivotal role in homeostasis by supporting hematopoiesis and immune cells' activation, maturation, interaction, and deployment. "BMSC-derived secretome" refers to the complete repertoire of secreted molecules, including nucleic acids, chemokines, growth factors, cytokines, and lipids from BM-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). BMSC-derived secretomes are the current molecular platform for acellular therapy. Secretomes are highly manipulable and can be synthesised in vast quantities using commercially accessible cell lines in the laboratory. Secretomes are less likely to elicit an immunological response because they contain fewer surface proteins. Moreover, the delivery of BMSC-derived secretomes has been shown in numerous studies to be an effective, cell-free therapy method for alleviating the symptoms of inflammatory and degenerative diseases. As a result, secretome delivery from BMSCs has the same therapeutic effects as BMSCs transplantation but may have fewer adverse effects. Additionally, BMSCs' secretome has therapeutic promise for organoids and parabiosis studies. This review focuses on recent advances in secretome-based cell-free therapy, including its manipulation, isolation, characterisation, and delivery systems. The diverse bioactive molecules of secretomes that successfully treat inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, reproductive, gastrointestinal, and anti-ageing systems were also examined in this review. However, secretome-based therapy has some unfavourable side effects that may restrict its uses. Some of the adverse effects of this modal therapy were briefly mentioned in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatema Tuz Zohora
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Malaysia
| | - Mansur Aliyu
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, International Campus, TUMS-IC, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Clinical Science, College of Health Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Ali Akbar Saboor-Yaraghi
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, International Campus, TUMS-IC, Tehran, Iran
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Bao K, Jiao Y, Xing L, Zhang F, Tian F. The role of wnt signaling in diabetes-induced osteoporosis. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2023; 15:84. [PMID: 37106471 PMCID: PMC10141960 DOI: 10.1186/s13098-023-01067-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis, a chronic complication of diabetes mellitus, is characterized by a reduction in bone mass, destruction of bone microarchitecture, decreased bone strength, and increased bone fragility. Because of its insidious onset, osteoporosis renders patients highly susceptible to pathological fractures, leading to increased disability and mortality rates. However, the specific pathogenesis of osteoporosis induced by chronic hyperglycemia has not yet been fully elucidated. But it is currently known that the disruption of Wnt signaling triggered by chronic hyperglycemia is involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic osteoporosis. There are two main types of Wnt signaling pathways, the canonical Wnt signaling pathway (β-catenin-dependent) and the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway (non-β-catenin-dependent), both of which play an important role in regulating the balance between bone formation and bone resorption. Therefore, this review systematically describes the effects of abnormal Wnt pathway signaling on bone homeostasis under hyperglycemia, hoping to reveal the relationship between Wnt signaling and diabetic osteoporosis to further improve understanding of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kairan Bao
- Department of Integrated Traditional & Western Medicine, Affiliated hospital of North, China University of Science and Technology, Jianshe South Road 73, Tangshan, 063000, Hebei, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yinghua Jiao
- Department of Integrated Traditional & Western Medicine, Affiliated hospital of North, China University of Science and Technology, Jianshe South Road 73, Tangshan, 063000, Hebei, People's Republic of China
- North China University of Science and Technology, Bohai Road 21, Caofeidian Dis, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Xing
- Department of Integrated Traditional & Western Medicine, Affiliated hospital of North, China University of Science and Technology, Jianshe South Road 73, Tangshan, 063000, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Fang Zhang
- Department of Integrated Traditional & Western Medicine, Affiliated hospital of North, China University of Science and Technology, Jianshe South Road 73, Tangshan, 063000, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Faming Tian
- Department of Integrated Traditional & Western Medicine, Affiliated hospital of North, China University of Science and Technology, Jianshe South Road 73, Tangshan, 063000, Hebei, People's Republic of China
- North China University of Science and Technology, Bohai Road 21, Caofeidian Dis, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People's Republic of China
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12
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Xu Q, Luo Y, Chao Z, Zhang J, Liu X, Tang Q, Wang K, Tan S, Fang M. Integrated Analysis of Transcriptome Expression Profiles Reveals miRNA-326-NKX3.2-Regulated Porcine Chondrocyte Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087257. [PMID: 37108419 PMCID: PMC10138716 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The porcine body length trait is an essential factor affecting meat production and reproductive performance. It is evident that the development/lengthening of individual vertebrae is one of the main reasons for increases in body length; however, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, RNA-seq analysis was used to profile the transcriptome (lncRNA, mRNA, and miRNA) of the thoracic intervertebral cartilage (TIC) at two time points (1 and 4 months) during vertebral column development in Yorkshire (Y) and Wuzhishan pigs (W). There were four groups: 1- (Y1) and 4-month-old (Y4) Yorkshire pigs and 1- (W1) and 4-month-old (W4) Wuzhishan pigs. In total, 161, 275, 86, and 126 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs, 1478, 2643, 404, and 750 DE genes (DEGs), and 74,51, 34, and 23 DE miRNAs (DE miRNAs) were identified in the Y4 vs. Y1, W4 vs. W1, Y4 vs. W4, and Y1 vs. W1 comparisons, respectively. Functional analysis of these DE transcripts (DETs) demonstrated that they had participated in various biological processes, such as cellular component organization or biogenesis, the developmental process, the metabolic process, bone development, and cartilage development. The crucial bone development-related candidate genes NK3 Homeobox 2 (NKX3.2), Wnt ligand secretion mediator (WLS), gremlin 1 (GREM1), fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3), hematopoietically expressed homeobox (HHEX), (collagen type XI alpha 1 chain (COL11A1), and Wnt Family Member 16 (WNT16)) were further identified by functional analysis. Moreover, lncRNA, miRNA, and gene interaction networks were constructed; a total of 55 lncRNAs, 6 miRNAs, and 7 genes formed lncRNA-gene, miRNA-gene, and lncRNA-miRNA-gene pairs, respectively. The aim was to demonstrate that coding and non-coding genes may co-regulate porcine spine development through interaction networks. NKX3.2 was identified as being specifically expressed in cartilage tissues, and it delayed chondrocyte differentiation. miRNA-326 regulated chondrocyte differentiation by targeting NKX3.2. The present study provides the first non-coding RNA and gene expression profiles in the porcine TIC, constructs the lncRNA-miRNA-gene interaction networks, and confirms the function of NKX3.2 in vertebral column development. These findings contribute to the understanding of the potential molecular mechanisms regulating pig vertebral column development. They expand our knowledge about the differences in body length between different pig species and provide a foundation for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Xu
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yabiao Luo
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhe Chao
- Institute of Animal Sciences and Veterinary, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571100, China
| | - Jibin Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91006, USA
| | - Ximing Liu
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qiguo Tang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Kejun Wang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shuyi Tan
- Institute of Animal Sciences and Veterinary, Hainan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571100, China
| | - Meiying Fang
- Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, MOA Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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13
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Abstract
Intercellular communication by Wnt proteins governs many essential processes during development, tissue homeostasis and disease in all metazoans. Many context-dependent effects are initiated in the Wnt-producing cells and depend on the export of lipidated Wnt proteins. Although much focus has been on understanding intracellular Wnt signal transduction, the cellular machinery responsible for Wnt secretion became better understood only recently. After lipid modification by the acyl-transferase Porcupine, Wnt proteins bind their dedicated cargo protein Evi/Wntless for transport and secretion. Evi/Wntless and Porcupine are conserved transmembrane proteins, and their 3D structures were recently determined. In this Review, we summarise studies and structural data highlighting how Wnts are transported from the ER to the plasma membrane, and the role of SNX3-retromer during the recycling of its cargo receptor Evi/Wntless. We also describe the regulation of Wnt export through a post-translational mechanism and review the importance of Wnt secretion for organ development and cancer, and as a future biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Wolf
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Signalling and Functional Genomics and Heidelberg University, BioQuant and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Boutros
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Signalling and Functional Genomics and Heidelberg University, BioQuant and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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14
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Lawson LY, Migotsky N, Chermside-Scabbo CJ, Shuster JT, Joeng KS, Civitelli R, Lee B, Silva MJ. Loading-induced bone formation is mediated by Wnt1 induction in osteoblast-lineage cells. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22502. [PMID: 35969160 PMCID: PMC9430819 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200591r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical loading on the skeleton stimulates bone formation. Although the exact mechanism underlying this process remains unknown, a growing body of evidence indicates that the Wnt signaling pathway is necessary for the skeletal response to loading. Recently, we showed that Wnts produced by osteoblast lineage cells mediate the osteo-anabolic response to tibial loading in adult mice. Here, we report that Wnt1 specifically plays a crucial role in mediating the mechano-adaptive response to loading. Independent of loading, short-term loss of Wnt1 in the Osx-lineage resulted in a decreased cortical bone area in the tibias of 5-month-old mice. In females, strain-matched loading enhanced periosteal bone formation in Wnt1F/F controls, but not in Wnt1F/F; OsxCreERT2 knockouts. In males, strain-matched loading increased periosteal bone formation in both control and knockout mice; however, the periosteal relative bone formation rate was 65% lower in Wnt1 knockouts versus controls. Together, these findings show that Wnt1 supports adult bone homeostasis and mediates the bone anabolic response to mechanical loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Y. Lawson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Nicole Migotsky
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Christopher J. Chermside-Scabbo
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - John T. Shuster
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Kyu Sang Joeng
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Roberto Civitelli
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Brendan Lee
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Matthew J. Silva
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO, United States
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15
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Roth DM, Souter K, Graf D. Craniofacial sutures: Signaling centres integrating mechanosensation, cell signaling, and cell differentiation. Eur J Cell Biol 2022; 101:151258. [PMID: 35908436 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2022.151258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Cranial sutures are dynamic structures in which stem cell biology, bone formation, and mechanical forces interface, influencing the shape of the skull throughout development and beyond. Over the past decade, there has been significant progress in understanding mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) differentiation in the context of suture development and genetic control of suture pathologies, such as craniosynostosis. More recently, the mechanosensory function of sutures and the influence of mechanical signals on craniofacial development have come to the forefront. There is currently a gap in understanding of how mechanical signals integrate with MSC differentiation and ossification to ensure appropriate bone development and mediate postnatal growth surrounding sutures. In this review, we discuss the role of mechanosensation in the context of cranial sutures, and how mechanical stimuli are converted to biochemical signals influencing bone growth, suture patency, and fusion through mediation of cell differentiation. We integrate key knowledge from other paradigms where mechanosensation forms a critical component, such as bone remodeling and orthodontic tooth movement. The current state of the field regarding genetic, cellular, and physiological mechanisms of mechanotransduction will be contextualized within suture biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Marta Roth
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
| | - Katherine Souter
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
| | - Daniel Graf
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
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McCarthy C, Camci-Unal G. Low Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound for Bone Tissue Engineering. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:1488. [PMID: 34945337 PMCID: PMC8707172 DOI: 10.3390/mi12121488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
As explained by Wolff's law and the mechanostat hypothesis, mechanical stimulation can be used to promote bone formation. Low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) is a source of mechanical stimulation that can activate the integrin/phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase/Akt pathway and upregulate osteogenic proteins through the production of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). This paper analyzes the results of in vitro and in vivo studies that have evaluated the effects of LIPUS on cell behavior within three-dimensional (3D) titanium, ceramic, and hydrogel scaffolds. We focus specifically on cell morphology and attachment, cell proliferation and viability, osteogenic differentiation, mineralization, bone volume, and osseointegration. As shown by upregulated levels of alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin, increased mineral deposition, improved cell ingrowth, greater scaffold pore occupancy by bone tissue, and superior vascularization, LIPUS generally has a positive effect and promotes bone formation within engineered scaffolds. Additionally, LIPUS can have synergistic effects by producing the piezoelectric effect and enhancing the benefits of 3D hydrogel encapsulation, growth factor delivery, and scaffold modification. Additional research should be conducted to optimize the ultrasound parameters and evaluate the effects of LIPUS with other types of scaffold materials and cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen McCarthy
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, One University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854, USA;
| | - Gulden Camci-Unal
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, One University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854, USA;
- Department of Surgery, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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