Stimulation by parathyroid hormone-related protein and transforming growth factor-alpha of phosphate transport in osteoblast-like cells

NHERF1 regulation of PTH-dependent bimodal Pi transport in osteoblasts

Control of systemic inorganic phosphate (Pi) levels is crucial for osteoid mineralization. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) mediates actions on phosphate homeostasis mostly by regulating the activity of the type 2 sodium-phosphate cotransporter (Npt2), and this action requires the PDZ protein NHERF1. Osteoblasts express Npt2 and in response to PTH enhance osteogenesis by increasing mineralized matrix. The regulation of Pi transport in osteoblasts is poorly understood. To address this gap we characterized PTH-dependent Pi transport and the role of NHERF1 in primary mouse calvarial osteoblasts. Under proliferating conditions osteoblasts express Npt2a, Npt2b, PTH receptor, and NHERF1. Npt2a mRNA expression was lower in calvarial osteoblasts from NHERF1-null mice. Under basal conditions Pi uptake in osteoblasts from wild-type mice was greater than that of knockout mice. PTH inhibited Pi uptake in proliferating osteoblasts from wild-type mice, but not in cells from knockout mice. In vitro induction of mineralization enhanced osteoblast differentiation and increased osterix and osteocalcin expression. Contrary to the results with proliferating osteoblasts, PTH increased Pi uptake and ATP secretion in differentiated osteoblasts from wild-type mice. PTH had no effect on Pi uptake or ATP release in differentiated osteoblasts from knockout mice. NHERF1 regulation of PTH-sensitive Pi uptake in proliferating osteoblasts is mediated by cAMP/PKA and PLC/PKC, while modulation of Pi uptake in differentiated osteoblasts depends only on cAMP/PKA signaling. The results suggest that NHERF1 cooperates with PTH in differentiated osteoblasts to increase matrix mineralization. We conclude that NHERF1 regulates PTH that differentially affects Na-dependent Pi transport at distinct stages of osteoblast proliferation and maturation.

Osteoblast autonomous Pi regulation via Pit1 plays a role in bone mineralization

The complex pathogenesis of mineralization defects seen in inherited and/or acquired hypophosphatemic disorders suggests that local inorganic phosphate (P(i)) regulation by osteoblasts may be a rate-limiting step in physiological bone mineralization. To test whether an osteoblast autonomous phosphate regulatory system regulates mineralization, we manipulated well-established in vivo and in vitro models to study mineralization stages separately from cellular proliferation/differentiation stages of osteogenesis. Foscarnet, an inhibitor of NaP(i) transport, blocked mineralization of osteoid formation in osteoblast cultures and local mineralization after injection over the calvariae of newborn rats. Mineralization was also down- and upregulated, respectively, with under- and overexpression of the type III NaP(i) transporter Pit1 in osteoblast cultures. Among molecules expressed in osteoblasts and known to be related to P(i) handling, stanniocalcin 1 was identified as an early response gene after foscarnet treatment; it was also regulated by extracellular P(i), and itself increased Pit1 accumulation in both osteoblast cultures and in vivo. These results provide new insights into the functional role of osteoblast autonomous P(i) handling in normal bone mineralization and the abnormalities seen in skeletal tissue in hypophosphatemic disorders.

Osteopontin regulation by inorganic phosphate is ERK1/2-, protein kinase C-, and proteasome-dependent

The generation of inorganic phosphate by alkaline phosphatase during osteoblast differentiation represents an important signaling event, although the molecular and cellular consequences are currently undefined. We have previously described osteopontin as a gene regulated by an increase in inorganic phosphate not only in osteoblasts but also in other cell types. We describe here the identification of specific signaling pathways required for the stimulation of osteopontin expression by inorganic phosphate. We have determined that phosphate selectively activates the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling pathway but does not activate the other mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling proteins, p38, or the c-Jun N-terminal kinase. In addition, our results suggest that cellular exposure to 10 mm inorganic phosphate causes a biphasic ERK1/2 activation. The second ERK1/2 activation is required for osteopontin regulation, whereas the first is not sufficient. Analysis of common protein kinase families has revealed that phosphate-induced osteopontin expression specifically uses a protein kinase C-dependent signaling pathway. In addition, our results suggest that protein kinase C and ERK1/2 are not part of the same pathway but constitute two distinct pathways. Finally, we have determined that the proteasomal activity is required not only for phosphate-induced expression of osteopontin but also for the induction of osteopontin in response to 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate and okadaic acid. The data presented here define for the first time the ability of increased inorganic phosphate to stimulate specific signaling pathways resulting in functionally significant changes in gene expression and identify three important signaling pathways in the regulation of osteopontin.

Guanosine nucleotides inhibit different syndromes of PTHrP excess caused by human cancers in vivo

There are two well-described syndromes caused by tumor production of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), namely osteolytic bone disease associated with breast cancer and humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy (HHM) that occurs with or without bone metastasis. Both syndromes have been shown experimentally to be inhibited by neutralizing antibodies to PTHrP. In a search for small-molecule inhibitors of PTHrP production or effects, we have identified guanine-nucleotide analogs as compounds that inhibit PTHrP expression by human tumor cells associated with these syndromes. We show in nude athymic murine models that these compounds reduce PTHrP-mediated osteolytic lesions associated with metastatic human breast-cancer cells as well as the degree of hypercalcemia caused by excessive PTHrP production by a squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung. These results suggest that the PTHrP gene promoter may be a suitable target for treating the skeletal effects of malignancy.

Stimulation of sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate transport by activation of Gi/o-protein-coupled receptors by epinephrine in MC3T3-E1 osteoblast-like cells

Recent data have shown that activation of Gi-protein-coupled receptors in osteoblast-like cells enhances the proliferation and differentiation of these cells. In the present study, we investigated the effect of epinephrine, an agonist of Gi-protein-coupled receptors in MC3T3-E1 cells, on Pi transport, type III Pi transporter expression, and the signaling mechanism(s) involved in this response. Epinephrine time- and dose-dependently stimulated sodium-dependent Pi transport and this effect was dependent on RNA and protein synthesis. This effect was associated with a related time-dependent increase in Pit-1 mRNA expression. Kinetic analysis indicated that the change in Pi transport activity induced by epinephrine was due to alteration in the maximal rate of Pi transport. Investigation of Pi transport stimulation by several adrenergic agonists and its inhibition by spiperone suggest that the effect of epinephrine on Pi transport was mediated by alpha1-adrenergic receptors. Pertussis toxin, which inactivates Gi/o proteins, significantly blunted the stimulatory effect of epinephrine on Pi transport. Analysis of the signaling pathways involved in this response has suggested a major role of protein kinase C and a small contribution from the mitogen-activated protein kinase Erk (MAPK(erk)). The results show that, in MC3T3-E1 osteoblast-like cells, activation of Gi/o-protein-coupled receptors induces stimulation of Pi transport. This effect is mediated by activation of protein kinase C and the MAPK(erk) pathway and probably involves the synthesis of Pit-1 transporters.

Abordagem clínico-laboratorial no diagnóstico diferencial de hipercalcemia

A hipercalcemia é anormalidade metabólica comum, porém pouco diagnosticada por ser freqüentemente assintomática. Aproximadamente 90% dos casos são decorrentes de hiperparatireoidismo primário (HPT) ou doença maligna complicada por hipercalcemia, estando prevalentes em pacientes ambulatoriais e hospitalizados, respectivamente. Laboratorialmente, o HPT e hipercalcemia humoral maligna apresentam algumas semelhanças, tais como: aumento do AMPc nefrogênico, hipofosfatemia e hipercalciúria. Porém, o quadro clínico da hipercalcemia associada à malignidade é mais severo e, geralmente, o paciente apresenta-se clinicamente debilitado pela doença, com múltiplas metástases. A dosagem sérica de PTH intacto (PTHi) é fundamental para o diagnóstico definitivo, estando o PTHi elevado ou normal no HPT primário, e suprimido na malignidade. Os mecanismos de hipercalcemia da doença maligna são: secreção de fatores humorais que alteram a homeostase do cálcio e fatores locais produzidos pelos tumores metastáticos ou hematológicos no osso, causando aumento da reabsorção osteoclástica. A proteína relacionada ao hormônio da paratireóide (PTHrP) tem sido implicada na maioria dos casos de hipercalcemia devido a tumores sólidos. Outros fatores como interleucina-6, fator de crescimento tumoral, fator de necrose tumoral e interleucina-1 podem modular os efeitos do PTHrP nos órgãos-alvo, e em alguns tumores, ativam diretamente o osteoctastos como por exemplo no mieloma múltiplo. A hipercalcemia pode estar menos freqüentemente associada a algumas doenças endócrinas como tireotoxicose, feocromocitoma, doença de Addison e neoplasia endócrino múltipla tipos I e IIA. Algumas drogas podem causar esse distúrbio metabólica, merecendo destaque a vitamina D, os diuréticos tiazídicos e o lítio. A sarcoidose é exemplo de doença granulomatosa que pode associar-se à hipercalcemia em 10% dos casos e hipercalciúria em 50%. O diagnóstico diferencial das hipercalcemias é essencial para que haja uma abordagem terapêutica eficaz dessa anormalidade metabólica.

Characteristics and regulation of Pi transport in osteogenic cells for bone metabolism

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is an essential element in the development of osteogenic cells. The translocation of Pi from the systemic to the skeletal extracellular compartment appears to be an important function of osteoblastic cells. The plasma membrane of osteogenic cells is endowed with a sodium-dependent Pi transport system that is regulated by osteotropic factors such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fluoride. A similar Pi transport system has been recently identified in matrix vesicles derived from the plasma membrane of osteogenic cells, such as epiphyseal chondrocytes or osteoblastic cells. Matrix vesicles are extracellular structures which are considered to play an important role in endochondral and membranous calcification. Pi transport appears to be the driving force responsible for the accumulation of mineral inside the matrix vesicles and thereby can be considered as a pivotal determinant in the induction of the calcification process. Furthermore, modulation of the activity of the Pi transport at the level of the plasma membrane of osteogenic cells by osteotropic factors is transferred to the matrix vesicles derived from these cells. This notion implies that hormonal and other environmental factors, such as Pi itself and calcium, which have a direct impact on the Pi transport activity of osteogenic cells can also influence the capacity of the matrix vesicles to initiate the mineralization of the bone matrix. The cellular mechanisms involved in the regulation of Pi transport by osteotropic factors have been recently investigated. For the PTH/PTHrP regulatory effect, cAMP appears to be the main mediator and the response does not require the de novo synthesis of proteins. For the effects of IGF-1, PDGF and fluoride, tyrosine phosphorylation processes are involved and responses are dependent upon the de novo synthesis of proteins. The molecules responsible for activation of these signaling pathways are currently under investigation. Such an investigation may improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the differentiation processes of osteogenesis such as the calcification of the extracellular matrix.

Regulation of parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related protein receptor expression by osteoblast-deposited extracellular matrix in a human osteoblast-like cell line

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptors and the biological response to PTH in osteoblasts have been shown to be influenced by glucocorticoids, growth factors, cytokines or PTH itself. Furthermore, components of extracellular matrix (ECM) appear to regulate the response to PTH as well. We investigated the effects of osteoblast-deposited ECM on PTH-related protein (PTHrP)-stimulated cAMP production, PTHrP binding and PTH/PTHrP receptor mRNA in the human osteoblast-like cell line SaOS-2. ECM was laid down by the human osteoblastic cell line MG-63. At confluence, maximal cAMP stimulation induced by 100 nmol/l PTHrP (1-34) was decreased in SaOS-2 cells grown on ECM as compared with cultures on plastic dishes, without any change in PTHrP concentration producing half-maximal stimulation. In contrast, cAMP production stimulated by PGE2 was increased in cells on ECM. Saturable 125I-PTHrP binding (as evaluated by Scatchard plot analysis) was markedly diminished in cells grown on ECM (5,600 +/- 2,010 vs. 20,700 +/- 1,710 binding sites/cell, x +/- S.E.M., P < 0.01, n = 4 experiments), without any significant change in affinity (1.3 +/- 0.4 vs. 2.5 +/- 0.5 nmol/l (NS), in cells on ECM and plastic, respectively). This apparent decrease in membrane receptor density was associated with markedly lower steady state PTH/PTHrP receptor mRNA levels as assessed by Northern blot analysis (ECM/control: 0.4 +/- 0.1). A difference in PTH/PTHrP receptor mRNA levels between cells on ECM or on plastic dishes was detectable by 8 hours but not by 4 hours, after seeding the cells at high density. By 24 hours after plating, PTH/PTHrP receptor mRNA levels were maximally decreased in cells on ECM. These results in the human osteoblast-like cell line SaOS-2 indicate that PTH/PTHrP receptors are down-regulated by growth on ECM. Thus, attachment of bone cells to bone surface could influence differentiation and function of osteoblasts.

Functional expression of a stably transfected parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone related protein receptor complementary DNA in CHO cells

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were stably transfected with OK-O complementary DNA encoding the parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone related protein (PTH/PTHrP) receptor derived from opossum kidney (OK) cells (Jüppner et al., 1991). A subclone of transfected CHO cells, CHO-E2, presented high affinity binding of 125I-labeled [Tyr36]chickenPTHrP(1-36)amide ([125I]chPTHrP(1-36)) (Kd 1.28 +/- 0.10 nM) similar to that of wildtype OK cells (Kd 2.23 +/- 0.16 nM) (P < 0.01). Photoaffinity labeling of the PTH/PTHrP receptors using N-hydroxysuccinimidyl-4-azidobenzoate modified [125I]chPTHrP(1-36) revealed the same specifically labeled 90 kDa protein in CHO-E2 and OK cells. In CHO-cells, chPTHrP(1-36) stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation in dose-dependent fashion (EC50 0.15 +/- 0.04 nM) and raised peak cytosolic free calcium concentration (EC50 2.90 +/- 0.36 nM) independent of extracellular calcium, and stimulated phosphate uptake (EC50 0.21 +/- 0.07 nM). Both, chPTHrP(1-36) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate stimulated phosphate uptake were suppressed by staurosporine. But, Sp-cyclic adenosine-3',5'-monophosphothioate did not affect phosphate uptake in CHO-E2 cells. In conclusion, a PTH/PTHrP receptor stably expressed in CHO cells is linked to stimulation of phosphate uptake. Receptor coupling presumably occurred through the protein kinase C rather than the protein kinase A pathway.

Phosphate transport in osteoblasts from normal and X-linked hypophosphatemic mice

Human hypophophatemic vitamin D-resistant rickets (X-linked hypophosphatemia-XLH) is characterized by hypophosphatemia, a decreased tubular reabsorption of phosphate (P(i)) and defective skeleton mineralization. Utilizing a mouse model (Hyp) of XLH, which demonstrates biological abnormalities and skeletal defects of XLH, we analyzed sodium-dependent phosphate transport in isolated osteoblasts derived from the calvaria of normophosphatemic and hypophosphatemic mice. Initial rates of phosphate uptake by normal and Hyp osteoblasts showed similar slopes. Osteoblasts from both normal and Hyp mice exhibited saturable, sodium-dependent phosphate transport with apparent Vmax and Km values not significantly different (normal mice, Vmax = 24.30 +/- 3.45 nmol/mg prot. 10 min, Km = 349.49 +/- 95.20 mumol/liter; Hyp mice, Vmax = 23.03 +/- 3.41 nmol/mg prot. 10 min, Km = 453.64 +/- 106.93 mumol/liter, n = 24). No differences were found in the ability of normal and Hyp osteoblasts to respond to P(i) transport after 5 hours of P(i) deprivation. Both cell types exhibited a similar increase in cAMP in response to PTH. The accumulated results demonstrate that P(i) uptake and transport in normal and Hyp mouse osteoblasts is a sodium-dependent saturable process. As osteoblast P(i) uptake and transport is apparently normal in the Hyp mouse model of XLH, the "osteoblastic failure" described for the Hyp mouse should be attributed to other mechanism(s).

Parathyroid hormone-related protein and calcium phosphate metabolism

There is marked homology between the parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein (PTHrP) molecules at the amino terminal but the rest of the molecules are quite different, providing immunologically distinct peptides. However, they interact with the same receptor. Thus, PTHrP mediates biological actions reminiscent of PTH. PTHrP gene is a single copy gene, producing one to three mRNA transcripts through alternative splicing of the carboxy terminal, encoding peptides of 139, 141 or 173 amino acids. Having been recently isolated from malignant tumours, PTHrP is now considered to be the major mediator of humoral hypercalcaemia of malignancy (HHM). The PTH-like effects of PTHrP on the kidney and bone have been well characterized. The increase in renal tubular calcium reabsorption and the reduction in tubular phosphate reabsorption with a concomitant rise in nephrogenous cyclic AMP constitute the pathophysiological changes in the renal handling of calcium and phosphate in HHM. The osteotropic contribution to the malignant hypercalcaemia has been validated by enhanced osteoclastic bone resorption--an indirect effect of the amino terminal portion of the PTHrP molecule on osteoblasts. However, PTHrP has also been detected in a large number of normal adult tissues/organs as well as in human and animal fetuses. Fetal plasma calcium is higher than maternal and this is achieved by active transport of calcium across the placenta. Using ovine placental perfusion models, PTHrP, which is believed to originate from fetal parathyroid glands and the placenta itself, has been demonstrated to sustain this calcium gradient. Active placental transport of magnesium, but not phosphate, was also shown to be enhanced by PTHrP.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)