Antiepileptic drugs: Impacts on human serum paraoxonase-1: BEYDEMIR AND DEMIR

Synthesis of a New Series of Anthraquinone-Linked Cyclopentanone Derivatives: Investigating the Antioxidant, Antibacterial, Cytotoxic and Tyrosinase Inhibitory Activities of the Mushroom Tyrosinase Enzyme Using Molecular Docking

Purpose

New bioactive anthraquinone derivatives are investigated for antibacterial, tyrosinase inhibitory, antioxidant cytotoxic activity, and molecular docking.

Methods

The compounds were produced using the grindstone method, yielding 69 to 89%. These compounds were analyzed using IR, 1H, and 13C NMR and elemental and mass spectral methods. Additionally, the antibacterial, antioxidant, and tyrosinase inhibitory activities of all the synthesised compounds were evaluated.

Results

Compound 2 showed remarkable tyrosinase inhibition activity, with an (IC50: 13.45 µg/mL), compared to kojic acid (IC50: 19.40 µg/mL). It also exhibited moderate antioxidant and antibacterial activities with respect to the references BHT and ampicillin, respectively. Kinetic analysis revealed that the tyrosinase inhibitory activity of compound 2 was non-competitive and competitive, whereas that of compound 1 was low. All compounds (1-8) were significantly less active than doxorubicin (LC50: 0.74±0.01μg/mL). However, compound 2 affinity for the 2Y9X protein was lower than kojic acid, with a lower docking score (-8.6 kcal/mol compared to (-4.7 kcal/mol), making it more effective.

Conclusion

All synthesized compounds displayed remarkable antibacterial, tyrosinase inhibitory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities, with compound 2 showing exceptional potency as a multitarget agent. Anthraquinone substituent groups may offer the potential for the development of treatments. The derivatives were synthesized using the grindstone method, and their antibacterial, antioxidant, tyrosinase inhibitory, and cytotoxic activities were inspected. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were performed using compound 2 and kojic acid to validate the results and confirm the stability of the compounds.

Naringenin, Hesperidin and Quercetin Ameliorate Radiation-Induced Damage In Rats: In Vivo And In Silico Evaluations

In this study, we sought to determine how well naringenin, hesperidin, and quercetin prevented damage brought on by radiotherapy. During the investigation, 48 adult female Sprague Dawley rats were used. Eight groups of eight rats each were formed by randomly assigning the rats to the groups. The normal control group was represented by Group 1. Group 2 rats were those that received a dose of 15 Gray (Gy) of radiotherapy. The rats assigned to Group 3 received only Naringenin, whereas those assigned to Group 4 received only quercetine, and those assigned to Group 5 received only hesperidin. Rats in Group 6, 7 and 8 were received naringenin, quarcetin and hesperidin at a dose of 50 mg/kg daily for one week prior to radiotheraphy exposition. After radiotheraphy and phenolic compounds rats were sacrificed and some metabolic enzyme (aldose reductase (AR), sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH), paraoxonase-1 (PON1), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and glutathione S-transferase (GST)) activity was determined in eye and brain tissues. It was found that phenolic compounds have protective effect against radiation-induced damage because of their anti-diabetic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In addition, hesperidin was found to be superior to quercetin and naringenin in terms of enzyme activity efficacy. Furthermore, hesperidin exhibited favorable binding affinity for BChE in silico compared to other enzymes.

Neuroprotective Potential of Tannic Acid Against Neurotoxic Outputs of Monosodium Glutamate in Rat Cerebral Cortex

Glutamate in monosodium glutamate (MSG), which is widely used in the food industry, has an important role in major brain functions such as memory, learning, synapse formation, and stabilization. However, extensive use of MSG has been linked with neurotoxicity. Therefore, in addition to clarifying the underlying mechanisms of MSG-induced neurotoxicity, it is also important to determine safe agents that can diminish the damage caused by MSG. Tannic acid (TA) is a naturally occurring plant polyphenol that exhibits versatile physiological effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidant, and radical scavenging. This study was conducted to assess the neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects of these two dietary components in the rat cerebral cortex. Twenty-four Sprague Dawley rats were divided into 4 equal groups and were treated with MSG (2 g/kg) and TA (50 mg/kg) alone and in combination for 3 weeks. Alterations in oxidative stress indicators (MDA and GSH) were measured in the cortex tissues. In addition, changes in enzymatic activities and gene expression patterns of antioxidant system components (GST, GPx, CAT, and SOD) were investigated. Furthermore, mRNA expressions of FoxO transcription factors (Foxo1 and Foxo3) and apoptotic markers (Casp3 and Casp9) were assessed. Results revealed that dietary TA intake significantly rehabilitated MSG-induced dysregulation in cortical tissue by regulating redox balance, cellular homeostasis, and apoptosis. The present study proposes that MSG-induced detrimental effects on cortical tissue are potentially mitigated by TA via modulation of oxidative stress, cell metabolism, and programmed cell death.

Association of Apolipoprotein E Gene Polymorphism with Type 2 Diabetic Nephropathy in the Southern Chinese Population

Background

Common polymorphisms within the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene are rs429358 and rs7412, which result in three major alleles (ɛ2, ɛ3, and ɛ4) and six genotypes (E2/E2, E2/E3, E3/E3, E3/E4, E4/E4, and E2/E4). Although APOE gene polymorphisms have been suggested to be associated with the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN), their potential association remains unclear in different regions. This study aims to unveil the genetic effects of APOE gene polymorphisms on DN susceptibility and serum lipid profiles in southern Chinese population.

Methods

A total of 306 DN patients and 483 type 2 diabetic patients as controls were included in the study. The APOE gene polymorphisms were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) microarray gene chip. Relevant medical records and information of these participants were collected.

Results

There were statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in gender, SBP, hypertension, hyperuricemia, UTP, TG and HDL-C between DN patients and controls. DN patients exhibited a higher frequency of the ε2 allele and E2/E3 genotype than controls (p < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis indicated that the ε2 allele and E2/E3 genotype were independent risk factors (adjusted OR: 3.237, 95% CI: 1.789-5.854, p < 0.001; adjusted OR: 3.453, 95% CI: 1.873-6.368, p < 0.001), while the ε3 allele or E3/E3 genotype might serve as protective role (adjusted OR: 0.395, 95% CI: 0.255-0.612, p < 0.001) for development of DN.

Conclusion

Our study indicates a correlation between APOE polymorphisms and DN in the southern Chinese Hakka population. Specifically, individuals carrying the APOE ε2 allele and E2/E3 genotype are at a higher risk of developing DN. Conversely, those with the APOE ε3 allele and E3/E3 genotype have a lower risk of DN in southern Chinese population.

Evaluation of in vitro effect, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations of some dihydropyridine-class calcium channel blockers on human serum paraoxonase 1 (hPON1) enzyme activity

Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) was purified 148.80-fold in 37.92% yield by hydrophobic interaction chromatography technique. The purity of PON1 was checked by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) with a single band of 43 kDa. The in vitro effects of nine different calcium channel blockers on PON1 activity were evaluated. All drugs strongly decreased PON1 activity, and IC50 levels were between 13.987 ± 0.59 and 238.104 ± 2.14 μM, Ki values between 8.58 ± 0.36 and 111 ± 1.27 μM. The drugs with the strongest inhibitory effect were nisoldipine with 13.987 ± 0.59 μM and nicardipine with 20.158 ± 0.43 μM. The mechanism of action for the inhibition of the enzyme by nisoldipine and nicardipine was investigated through molecular docking. The stability of enzyme-ligand complexes obtained from the docking was explored through molecular dynamics simulation. The binding affinity of the ligands toward the enzyme was also investigated through MMPBSA (molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area method). The computational analysis demonstrated these compounds could inhibit the enzyme. Nisoldipine had the strongest binding, and its complex was the most stable one. Furthermore, nicardipine was found to have the highest affinity toward the enzyme.

Protective effects of the Terminalia bellirica tannin-induced Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in rats with high-altitude pulmonary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and endothelial cell dysfunction induced by high-altitude hypoxia have important roles in the pathological process of high-altitude pulmonary hypertension (HAPH). Tannins present in Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (TTR) have pharmacological activities that produce oxidation resistance and exert anti-inflammatory effects. Whether TTR exerts a protective effect on HAPH remains unknown.

METHODS

A rat model of HAPH was established. The mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP) of the animals was measured, the serum levels of SOD, MDA, and GSH-Px were measured using ELISA, and the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, Nrf2, and HO-1 proteins in the lung tissue of each group of rats was measured using Western blotting. Pathological changes in the lung tissue were also observed. A model of damage to H₂O₂-induced pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) was generated, and cell proliferation was measured using CCK-8 assays. Flow cytometry was used to measure ROS levels in PAECs. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, Nrf2, and HO-1 proteins in PAECs.

RESULTS

The hemodynamic and pathologic findings showed that the mPAP of HAPH rats increased markedly, and the vascular wall thickness increased (P < 0.05). TTR reduced mPAP, alleviated or slowed pulmonary arterial remodeling, increased GSH-Px and SOD activity, lowered the level of MDA (P < 0.05), and downregulated the expression of Bax in the lung tissues of HAPH rats, while the expression of Bcl-2, Nrf2, and HO-1 was upregulated (P < 0.05). The results of the cell experiments showed that TTR inhibited H₂O₂-induced PAEC apoptosis and ROS production (P < 0.05), downregulated the expression of Bax in PAECs, and upregulated the expression of Bcl-2, Nrf2, and HO-1 (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that TTR reduces pulmonary arterial pressure, decreases oxidative stress during HAPH, and exerts protective effects in rats with HAPH and that its mechanism of action is related to regulation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Modulatory Effect of Lifestyle-Related, Environmental and Genetic Factors on Paraoxonase-1 Activity: A Review

Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is a calcium-dependent, HDL-bound serum hydrolase active toward a wide variety of substrates. PON1 displays three types of activities, among which lactonase, paraoxonase, arylesterase and phosphotriesterase can be distinguished. Not only is this enzyme a major organophosphate compound detoxifier, but it is also an important constituent of the cellular antioxidant system and has anti-inflammatory and antiatherogenic functions. The concentration and activity of PON1 is highly variable among individuals, and these differences can be both of genetic origin and be a subject of epigenetic regulation. Owing to the fact that, in recent decades, the exposure of humans to an increasing number of different xenobiotics has been continuously rising, the issues concerning the role and activity of PON1 shall be reconsidered with particular attention to growing pharmaceuticals intake, dietary habits and environmental awareness. In the following manuscript, the current state of knowledge concerning the influence of certain modifiable and unmodifiable factors, including smoking, alcohol intake, gender, age and genotype variation on PON1 activity, along with pathways through which these could interfere with the enzyme's protective functions, is presented and discussed. Since exposure to certain xenobiotics plays a key role in PON1 activity, the influence of organophosphates, heavy metals and several pharmaceutical agents is also specified.

Ophthalmic drugs: in vitro paraoxonase 1 inhibition and molecular docking studies

Glaucoma is a neuropathy disorder and is generally treated by drugs. Allergic conjunctivitis is a common ophthalmologic disease. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is an organophosphate hydrolyzer and antiatherogenic enzyme. PON1 is known for preventing atherosclerosis through lipid-modifying features, as well as which has decisive actions of antiapoptosis, anti-inflammatory, antithrombosis, and antiadhesion antioxidant activity properties. Thus, reducing the enzyme levels in hyperthyroidism, chronic renal failure, glaucoma, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases is a significant risk. This study was tested some ophthalmic drugs used to treat the diseases, such as glaucoma and allergic conjunctivitis, mentioned above, travoprost, latanoprost, ketotifen, emedastine, and olopatadine, for their inhibition activities against PON1. These drugs displayed the potent inhibition effect with IC₅₀ values ranging between 14.95 ± 0.15 and 299.60 ± 4.07 μM and K_I constants ranging from 9.71 ± 2.63 to 261.50 ± 59.98 μM. Besides, the molecular docking analyses of the competitive inhibitors, travoprost, emedastine, and olopatadine, were performed to understand the binding interactions on the enzyme's binding site. According to both in vitro and in silico analysis results, travoprost had the most potent effect on PON1 enzyme activity.

Biological evaluation and in silico study of benzohydrazide derivatives as paraoxonase 1 inhibitors

Serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is found in all mammalian species and is a calcium-dependent hydrolytic enzyme. PON1 hydrolyze several substrates, including carbonates, esters, and organophosphates. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of the presynthesized benzohydrazide derivatives (1-9) on PON1 activity. Benzohydrazide compounds moderate inhibited PON1 with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration values ranging from 76.04 ± 13.51 to 221.70 ± 13.59 μM and K_I values ranging from 38.75 ± 12.21 to 543.50 ± 69.76 μM. Compound 4 (2-amino-4-chlorobenzohydrazide) showed the best inhibition (K_I  = 38.75 ± 12.21 μM). Molecular docking and ADME-Tox studies of benzohydrazide derivatives were also carried out. In this context, we hope that the results obtained in this study contribute to the determination of the side effects of current and new benzohydrazide-based pharmacological compounds to be developed.

Methyl benzoate derivatives: in vitro Paraoxonase 1 inhibition and in silico studies

Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) can metabolize some compounds such as aromatic carboxylic acid and unsaturated aliphatic esters, arylesters, cyclic carbonate, plucuronide drugs, some carbamate insecticide classes, nerve gases, and lactone compounds. Methyl benzoate has recently been shown to display potent toxicity against several insect species. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of the methyl benzoate compounds (1-17) on PON1 activity. Methyl benzoate compounds inhibited PON1 with K_I values ranging from 25.10 ± 4.73 to 502.10 ± 64.72 μM. Compound 10 (methyl 4-amino-2-bromo benzoate) showed the best inhibition (K_I  = 25.10 ± 4.73 μM). Furthermore, using the ADME-Tox, Glide XP, and MM-GBSA tools of the Schrödinger Suite 2021-4, a complete ligand-receptor interaction prediction was performed to characterize the methyl benzoates (1-17), probable binding modalities versus the PON1.

Beneficial effects of primidone in Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC)-model cells and mice: Reduction of unesterified cholesterol levels in cells and extension of lifespan in mice

Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) is caused by a loss of function of either NPC1 or NPC2 protein, resulting in the accumulation of unesterified, free-cholesterol (free-C) in cells/tissues and thus leading to cell/tissue damage. In the brain of patients/animals with NPC, as a consequence of the accumulation of free-C in late endosomes/lysosomes (LE/LY) in cells, multiple lipids including complex sphingolipids are accumulated, and almost all patients/animals ultimately develop progressive/fatal neurodegeneration. Several reagents that are considered to act in the brain show beneficial effects on NPC-model animals. In the present study, we investigated the effects of antiepileptic drugs, such as primidone and valproic acid, on the accumulation of free-C in NPC1-null CHO cells and NPC1* fibroblasts, human fibroblasts established from a patient with NPC1 mutation. Like valproic acid, treatment with primidone reduced free-C levels in LE/LY in NPC1-null/mutant cells. Down-regulation of cholesterol ester levels in NPC1-null cells and up-regulation of HMG-CoA reductase and low-density lipoprotein receptor mRNA levels in NPC1* cells were partially recovered by primidone treatment. Thus, primidone was suggested to enhance free-C trafficking from LE/LY to endoplasmic reticulum in NPC1-null/mutant cells. In NPC1-null mice, oral application of primidone (100 mg/kg/day) extended lifespan by approximately 5 days, although the first days showing ataxia, a typical symptom of neuromotor dysfunction, were not affected. Our findings suggest the potential of primidone for the treatment of NPC.

Synthesis, in vitro inhibition effect of novel phthalocyanine complexes as carbonic anhydrase and paraoxonase enzyme inhibitors

The preparation and assessment of carbonic anhydrase and paraoxonase enzyme inhibition properties of 3-(2-(5-amino-4-(4-bromophenyl)-3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)ethoxy)phthalonitrile (2) and its nitrogen-containing non-peripheral phthalocyanine derivatives (3 and 4) are reported for the first time. The new phthalonitrile and its phthalocyanine derivatives have been elucidated by FT-IR spectroscopy, 1H-NMR, [Formula: see text]C-NMR, mass and UV-vis spectroscopy. The results demonstrated that all synthesized compounds moderately inhibited carbonic anhydrase and paraoxonase enzymes. Among the compounds, the most active ones were found to be compound 4 for PON (Ki : 0.14 [Formula: see text]M), compound 3 for hCA I (Ki : 22.52 [Formula: see text]M) and compound 1 for hCA II (Ki : 13.62 [Formula: see text]M).

Molecular Docking Studies and Inhibition Properties of Some Antineoplastic Agents against Paraoxonase-I

Background:

Currently, most of the drugs used in clinical applications show their pharmacological influences by inhibiting or activating enzymes. Therefore, enzyme inhibitors have an essential place in the drug design for many diseases.

Objective:

The current study aimed to contribute to this growing drug design field (i.e., medicine discovery and development) by analyzing enzyme-drug interactions.

Methods:

For this reason, Paraoxonase-I (PON1) enzyme was purified from fresh human serum by using rapid chromatographic techniques. Additionally, the inhibition effects of some antineoplastic agents were researched on the PON1.

Results:

The enzyme was obtained with a specific activity of 2603.57 EU/mg protein. IC50 values for pemetrexed disodium, irinotecan hydrochloride, dacarbazine, and azacitidine were determined to be 9.63μM, 30.13μM, 53.31μM, and 21.00mM, respectively. These agents found to strongly inhibit PON1, with Ki constants ranging from 8.29±1.47μM to 23.34±2.71mM. Dacarbazine and azacitidine showed non-competitive inhibition, while other drugs showed competitive inhibition. Furthermore, molecular docking was performed using maestro for these agents. Among these, irinotecan hydrochloride and pemetrexed disodium possess the binding energy of -5.46 and -8.43 kcal/mol, respectively.

Conclusion:

The interaction studies indicated that these agents with the PON1 possess binding affinity.

Inhibition effects of some pesticides and heavy metals on carbonic anhydrase enzyme activity purified from horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) gill tissues

The gill tissue is the main site of metabolic enzymes or compensation, with the kidney tissue playing a supporting role. At the gill tissue, carbonic anhydrase enzymes (CAs) catalyze the hydration of CO₂ to HCO₃^- and H⁺ for production to the H₂O. In this work, the CA enzyme was purified from horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) gill with a specific activity of 21,381.42 EU/mg, purification fold of 150.61, total activity of 2347.68 EU/mL, and a yield of 16.13% using sepharose 4B-L-tyrosine-sulfanilamide affinity gel chromatography. For recording the enzyme purity, gel electrophoresis was performed, and single band was seen. The molecular weight of this enzyme was found approximately 35 kDa. Also, the inhibitory effects of different pesticides such as thiram, clofentezine, propineb, deltamethrin, azoxystrobin, and thiophanate and heavy metal ions such as Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺, Co²⁺, Pb²⁺ Hg²⁺, and As³⁺ on horse mackerel gill tissue CA enzyme activities were investigated. Our results indicated that these pesticides and metal ions showed inhibitory effects at low nanomolar and millimolar concentrations for fish gill CA enzymes, respectively.

Benzenesulfonamide derivatives containing imine and amine groups: Inhibition on human paraoxonase and molecular docking studies

Sulfonamides known as inhibitors of many metabolic enzymes have been widely used as antimicrobial drugs for a long time. In the present study, we investigated in vitro inhibitory activities of benzenesulfonamide derivatives on human paraoxonase-I (hPON1). For this aim, PON1 was purified from human serum with a specific activity of 2603.57 EU/mg and 8.34% yield using simple chromatographic methods. The various concentrations of early-synthesized sixteen sulfonamide derivatives were tested on the paraoxonase activity. Ki values of compounds were found in the range of 0.28-357.70 µM. Compound H4 had the highest inhibitory activity on hPON1 as competitive. Estimated structure-activity relationship (SAR) for compounds was done based on different substituents and their positions in the compounds. Besides, the molecular docking analysis of compound H4 was performed to understand the binding interactions on the active site of the enzyme. According to these experimental results, compound H4 was a potential inhibitor of PON1.

Differential effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on paraoxonase-1 enzyme activity: An in vitro study

Paraoxonase-I (PON1) is a calcium-dependent hydrolytic enzyme, plays an important role in most antioxidant properties related to high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Antidepressant drugs are commonly employed in treatment of mood disorders and anxiety treatment. In this study, human serum PON1 was purified using simple reproducible procedures and the effects of some antidepressant drugs on its activity were determined. It was found that mirtazapine, aripiprazole, escitalopram, and risperidone exhibited potential inhibitory properties on the purified PON1 activity with IC₅₀ values in the range of 115.50-231.00 μM and K_i values in the range of 41.66 ± 4.27 μM-276.36 ± 35.28 μM. Both risperidone and escitalopram inhibited PON1 activity competitively, while both aripiprazole and mirtazapine inhibited PON1 activity non-competitively. Chlorpromazine did not affect PON1 activity. Usage of drugs with significant biological activity may be hazardous in some cases.

Some indazoles reduced the activity of human serum paraoxonase 1, an antioxidant enzyme: in vitro inhibition and molecular modeling studies

Background: Paraoxonase 1 (PON1: EC 3.1.8.1) is a vital antioxidant enzyme against mainly atherosclerosis and many other diseases associated with oxidative stress. Thus, studies related to PON1 have an important place in the pharmacology. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the in vitro inhibition effects of some indazoles on the activity of human PON1. Methods: PON1 was purified from human serum with a specific activity of 5000 U/mg and 13.50% yield by using simple chromatographic methods. Results: The indazoles showed K_i values in a range of 26.0 ± 3.00-111 ± 31.0 μM against hPON1. All these indazoles exhibited competitive inhibition. In addition, molecular docking studies were performed in order to assess the probable binding mechanisms into the active site of hPON1. Molecular modeling studies confirmed our results. Conclusions: Inhibition of PON1 by indazoles supplies a verification to further consideration of limitation dosage of indazole molecule groups as drug.

Purification and characterization of the carbonic anhydrase enzyme from horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) muscle and the impact of some metal ions and pesticides on enzyme activity

In this paper, the total carbonic anhydrase (CA) enzyme was purified from horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) muscle with a specific activity of 23,063.93 EU/mg, purification fold of 551.08, total activity of 1522.22 EU/mL and a yield of 18.50% using sulfanilamide affinity column chromatography. For obtaining the subunit molecular mass and enzyme purity, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) for this part was performed and a single band was clearly recorded. The molecular mass of this enzyme was found approximately 35 kDa. The optimum temperature and pH values were obtained from Arrhenius plot. In addition, the inhibitory effects of different heavy metal ions (Fe²⁺, Cu²⁺, Co²⁺, Pb²⁺ Hg²⁺ and As³⁺) and some pesticides (thiram, clofentezine, propineb, deltamethrin, azoxystrobin and thiophanate) on horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) muscle tissue CA enzyme activities were investigated by utilizing esterase assay activity. The used metal ions and pesticides had IC₅₀ values in the range of 0.21-13.84 mM and 3.78-70.58 mM, respectively.

Inhibition effects of some antidepressant drugs on pentose phosphate pathway enzymes

The glucose metabolism in the pentose cycle is essential to the source of NADPH. Deficiency of these enzymes have been linked to depression and psychotic disorders. Depression is an increasingly prevalent mental disorder which may cause loss of labor. Antidepressant drugs are commonly employed in treatments of mood disorders and anxiety treatment. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of aripiprazole, mirtazapine, risperidone, escitalopram and haloperidol on the activity of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzymes purified from human erythrocytes. It was found that aripiprazole, mirtazapine, risperidone, escitalopram and haloperidol show effective inhibitor properties on purified G6PD and 6PGD enzymes. The IC₅₀ values of these drugs were found in the range of 26.34 μM-5.78 mM for 6PGD and 16.26 μM-3.85 mM for G6PD. The K_i values of the drugs were found in the range of 30.21 ± 4.31 μM-4.51 ± 1.83 mM for 6PGD and 14.12 ± 3.48 μM-4.98 ± 1.14 mM for G6PD. Usage of drugs with significant biological effects may be a hazard in some conditions.

The effects of zingerone against vancomycin-induced lung, liver, kidney and testis toxicity in rats: The behavior of some metabolic enzymes

In this study, it was demonstrated the ameliorative effect of zingerone (ZO) (25 and 50 mg/kg body weight) against vancomycin (VCM) (200 mg/kg body weight) administered to rats on some metabolic enzymes' activities in the lung, liver, kidney, and testis tissues of rats. Forty-two rats were divided into six groups as follows: control, ZO-25, ZO-50, VCM, VCM + ZO-25, and VCM + ZO-50. α-Glycosidase, butyrylcholinesterase, aldose reductase, acetylcholinesterase, paraoxonase-1, and carbonic anhydrase enzyme activities were significantly (P < .05) decreased in VCM group when compared with the control group. ZO, supplied with VCM, significantly activated some of these enzyme in all tissues. The results of this study showed that ZO regulates abnormal increases and decreases in VCM-induced metabolic enzyme activities in all tissues.

Investigation of Potential Paraoxonase-I Inhibitors by Kinetic and Molecular Docking Studies: Chemotherapeutic Drugs

BACKGROUND

Metabolic processes in living organisms are closely related to the catalytic activity of enzymes. Changes in enzyme activity cause various diseases e.g., neurological, cancer, metabolic and cardiovascular. Most of the current therapeutic drugs available in clinical utilization function as enzyme inhibitors.

OBJECTIVE

The main goal of the current study to contribute to this growing drug design area (such as medication discovery and development) by investigating protein-drug interactions.

METHODS

The paraoxonase-I (PON1) enzyme was purified from human serum by using different and simple chromatographic techniques. Additionally, it was investigated inhibition effects of some chemotherapeutic drugs on the PON1.

RESULTS

The purification results for PON1 depicted a 3880.83 EU/mg proteins specific activity and the molecular weight was calculated as 43 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. These drugs found to strongly inhibit PON1, with IC50 values ranging from 0.222±0.002 to 688.300±0.897 µM. Ki constants for vincristine sulfate, epirubicin hydrochloride, and doxorubicin hydrochloride were determined to be 0.235±0.032 µM, 221.400±29.270 µM, and 913.300±201.000 µM, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These drugs showed in competitive inhibition. Also, the molecular docking poses of these agents inside the catalytic sites of 1V04 and 3SRE were analysis.

Antidiabetic properties of dietary phenolic compounds: Inhibition effects on α-amylase, aldose reductase, and α-glycosidase

Aldose reductase (AR), α-amylase, and α-glycosidase are vital enzymes to prevent diabetic complications. Here, AR was purified from sheep kidney using elementary methods with 111.11-purification fold and with 0.85% purification yield. The interactions between some phenolic compounds and the AR, α-glycosidase, and α-amylase enzyme were determined. It was found that phenolic compounds exhibit potential inhibitor properties for these enzymes. For α-amylase, studied phenolic compounds showed IC₅₀ values in the range of 601.56-2,067.78 nM. For α-glycosidase, K_i values were found in the range of 169.25 ± 27.22-572.88 ± 106.76 nM. For AR, K_i values in the range of 8.48 ± 0.56-43.26 ± 7.63 µM. However, genistein showed the best inhibition effect toward AR and α-glycosidase, but delphinidin chloride exhibited the best inhibition effect against α-amylase enzyme. We determined that all compounds showed noncompetitive inhibition effect against AR and α-glycosidase. Also, studied phenolic compounds may be useful in the prevention or treatment of diabetic complications.

Inhibition effects of quinones on aldose reductase: Antidiabetic properties

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by abnormal glucose metabolism. Aldose reductase (AR) is the first enzyme in the polyol pathway and converts glucose to sorbitol. It plays a vital role as a glucose reducing agent and is involved in the pathophysiology of diabetic complications. In this study, we purified AR from sheep kidney with a specific activity of 2.00 EU/mg protein and 133.33- fold purification After the purification of the AR enzyme, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was performed and the molecular weight of the enzyme was found approximately as 38 kDa. The inhibition effects of eight quinones were studied against AR. The quinones were potent inhibitors of AR with K_i values in the range of 0.07-20.04 μM. Anthraquinone showed the best potential inhibitory effects against AR. All compounds exhibited noncompetitive inhibition against AR. These compounds may be selective inhibitors of this enzyme. AR inhibition is an essential strategy for the attenuation and prevention of diabetic complications.

A potential risk factor for paraoxonase 1: in silico and in-vitro analysis of the biological activity of proton-pump inhibitors†

Objectives

Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are drugs commonly utilized by about 7% of adults in the world. Recent researches have shown that there are countless and severe side effects of these drugs. This situation has raised concern among clinicians and patients alike. The purpose of this study is to contribute the novel drug discovery and development technology and toxicology field by researching interactions of PPIs on paraoxonase 1.

Methods

In this study, the paraoxonase 1 enzyme was purified from human serum by using rapid and straightforward chromatographic techniques. Subsequently, the inhibition effects of pantoprazole, omeprazole, and esomeprazole, PPIs, were investigated on paraoxonase 1. Besides, molecular docking studies were performed to unravel the binding mechanism between the enzyme and drugs.

Key findings

All drugs showed potent inhibitory activities. IC50 of the drugs values were 54.780 ± 0.524, 86.470 ± 0.818 and 93.390 ± 0.885 mm and Ki constants were found as 39.895 ± 0.005 mm, 70.112 ± 0.010 mm and 78.868 ± 0.008 mm, respectively. The binding scores observed in silico studies were found to agree with the obtained from in-vitro experimental results.

Conclusions

We observed that the drugs decreased PON1 activity at low concentrations. The results show that adjusting the dosages of these medications is a crucial case for each patient. The physicians should more carefully interpret whether there is an essential indication before prescribing PPIs and, if there is, to approve the proper dosing for the situation.

The behaviour of some antihypertension drugs on human serum paraoxonase-1: an important protector enzyme against atherosclerosis

Objectives

Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) enzyme is related to high-density lipoprotein (HDL), which is calcium dependent. It has essential roles such as protecting LDL against oxidation and detoxification of highly toxic substances. It is a significant risk to reduce the levels of this enzyme in patients with diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, hyperthyroidism and chronic renal failure.

Methods

Here, it was reported that the purification of human serum PON1 using straightforward methods and determination of the interactions between some antihypertension drugs and the enzyme.

Key finding

It was found that these drugs exhibit potential inhibitor properties for human serum PON1 with IC50 values in the range of 131.40–369.40 μm and Ki values in the range of 56.24 ± 6.75–286.74 ± 28.28 μm. These drugs showed different inhibition mechanisms. It was determined that midodrine and nadolol were exhibited competitive inhibition, but atenolol and pindolol were exhibited non-competitive inhibition.

Conclusion

Usage of these drugs would be hazardous in some cases.

Investigation of Potential Paraoxonase-I Inhibitors by Kinetic and Molecular Docking Studies: Chemotherapeutic Drugs

Background:

Metabolic processes in living organisms are closely related to the catalytic activity of enzymes. Changes in enzyme activity cause various diseases e.g., neurological, cancer, metabolic and cardiovascular. Most of the current therapeutic drugs available in clinical utilization function as enzyme inhibitors.

Objective:

The main goal of the current study to contribute to this growing drug design area (such as medication discovery and development) by investigating protein-drug interactions.

Methods:

The paraoxonase-I (PON1) enzyme was purified from human serum by using different and simple chromatographic techniques. Additionally, it was investigated inhibition effects of some chemotherapeutic drugs on the PON1.

Results:

The purification results for PON1 depicted a 3880.83 EU/mg proteins specific activity and the molecular weight was calculated as 43 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. These drugs found to strongly inhibit PON1, with IC50 values ranging from 0.222±0.002 to 688.300±0.897 µM. Ki constants for vincristine sulfate, epirubicin hydrochloride, and doxorubicin hydrochloride were determined to be 0.235±0.032 µM, 221.400±29.270 µM, and 913.300±201.000 µM, respectively.

Conclusion:

These drugs showed in competitive inhibition. Also, the molecular docking poses of these agents inside the catalytic sites of 1V04 and 3SRE were analysis.

The effects of some cephalosporins on acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferase: an in vivo and in vitro study

BACKGROUND

Glutathione S-transferase (GST) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) are important enzymes in the metabolism. GSTs are primarily available in phase II metabolism. AChE is vital for neurodegenerative disorders.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The in vitro and in vivo effects of cefoperazone sodium (CFP), cefuroxime (CXM), and cefazolin (CZO) were investigated on GST and AChE activity in the present study. GST was purified using Glutathione-Agarose affinity chromatography.

RESULTS

K_i constants of CFP, CXM, and CZO were 0.1392 ± 0.02, 1.5179 ± 0.33, and 1.006 ± 0.11 mM for GST and 0.3010 ± 0.07, 0.3561 ± 0.09, and 0.3844 ± 0.04 mM, for AChE, respectively. The most effective inhibitor was CFP for both enzymes in in vitro. CZO (50 mg/kg), CXM (25 mg/kg), and CFP (100 mg/kg) inhibit in vivo GST and AChE activities. CXM had the most effective in vivo inhibition on AChE and GST.

CONCLUSIONS

CZO, CXM, and CFP are effective AChE and GST inhibitors in both in vitro and in vivo.

Gadolinium-based contrast agents: in vitro paraoxonase 1 inhibition, in silico studies

Medications show their biological effects by interaction with enzymes, which have been known to play an essential role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. Inhibition or induction of drug metabolizing enzymes has an essential place in the drug design for many kinds of diseases including cardiovascular, neurological, metabolic, and cancer. The main goal of the current study is to contribute to this growing drug design field by observing PON1-drug interactions. In recent years, the safety of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has discussed. In the present study, paraoxonase 1 (PON1) enzyme was purified from human serum by simple chromatographic methods with 4095.24 EU mg^-1 protein specific activity. The inhibitory activities of gadoteric acid, gadopentetic acid, gadoxetate disodium, and gadodiamide were investigated on PON1 activity of the enzyme. IC₅₀ values were found in the range of 51.28 ± 0.14 to 285.80 ± 0.96 mM. K_i constants were found as 67.95 ± 0.60 mM, 104.97 ± 0.96 mM, 202.33 ± 1.75 mM, and 299.43 ± 2.64 mM for gadoteric acid, gadopentetic acid, gadoxetate disodium, and gadodiamide, respectively. While the inhibition types are determined as competitive of gadoxetate disodium and gadodiamide by the Lineweaver-Burk curves, it was noncompetitive for other compounds. In addition, the molecular docking analyses of gadoxetate disodium and gadodiamide were carried out to understand the binding interactions on the active site of the PON1 enzyme. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) of the drugs was established on the basis of different substituents and their positions in the compounds.

Inhibitory Effects of Usnic and Carnosic Acid on Some Metabolic Enzymes: An In vitro Study

Background:

Natural products are produced via primary and secondary metabolism in different organisms. The compounds obtained via secondary metabolism are not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can have a different value for humans.

Objective:

The objective of this study was to examine inhibitory effects of Usnic Acid (UA), a well-known lichen secondary metabolite, and Carnosic Acid (CA), the primary antioxidant compound of Rosmarinus officinalis L., on purified Human Paraoxonase, (PON1), Glutathione Reductase (GR) and Glutathione S-Transferase (GST). These enzymes have antioxidant properties and a protective effect on the oxidation of free radicals. Hence, deficiencies of such enzymes inside cells can result in a buildup of toxic substances and cause some metabolic disorders.

Methods:

UA and CA were tested in various concentrations against human GST, PON1, and GR activity in vitro and they reduced human GST, PON1, and GR activity.

Results:

UA Ki constants were calculated as 0.012±0.0019, 0.107±0.06 and 0.21±0.1 mM for GST, PON1, and GR enzymes. CA Ki constants were determined as 0.028±0.009, 0.094±0.03 and 0.79±0.33 mM, for GST, PON1, and GR enzymes. UA and CA showed competitive inhibition for GR and GST enzymes, while they exhibited non-competitive inhibition for PON1.

Conclusion:

These findings indicate that UA and CA could be useful in drug development studies.

Antibiotics Used in Patients after Surgery and Effects of Human Serum Paraoxonase-I (PON1) Enzyme Activity

Background:

Paraoxonase (PON; arilesterase, [EC 3.1.8.1]) is an enzyme from the group arilesterases (ARE). This enzyme is capable of hydrolyzing paraoxone which is the active metabolite of parathion, an organic phosphorus insecticide. PON activity was found to be low in individuals prone to development of atherosclerosis such as diabetes, familial hypercholesterolemia and kidney disorders. It was noted that PON enzyme activity decreases in relation to age increase in adults. PON enzyme activity is approximately half of that in newborns and premature babies. Approximately one year after birth, it reaches the adult level. It can be said that PON1 has significant role on living organisms. For this reason, many studies on interactions of PON-drugs are needed. </P><P> Objective: In this article, our aim is to investigate in vitro effects of four pharmaceutically active agents (fosfomycin, cefuroxime axetil, cefaclor monohydrate, and cefixime) which are often used in patients after surgery on human serum paraoxanase-I (PON1) enzyme activity.

Methods:

In this article, we purify paraoxonase-I enzyme from human serum by using ammonium sulfate precipitation (in the range of 60-80%), ion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. We use electrophoresis to check the purity of the enzyme. We investigate the paraoxonase activity of the enzyme at 412 nm the inhibition effects of the active substances. Paraoxone is used as the substrate. Activity measurements arw made at different inhibitor concentrations related to inhibitor studies and % Activity- [I] graphs are drawn for drug active substances. Lineweaver-Burk graphics are used to determine the Ki constants. Finally, to determine the types of inhibition we interpret these graphs.

Results:

The active agents used after surgery decreased the PON1 enzyme activity. They showed different inhibition mechanism. The inhibition mechanism of fosfomycin and cefaclor monohydrate was noncompetitive, cefixime was uncompetitive and cefuroxime axetil was a competitive inhibitor. The IC50 values for fosfomycin, cefuroxime axetil, cefaclor monohydrate, and cefixime were calculated to be 31.5 mM, 1.03 mM, 4.18 mM and 0.781 mM, respectively, and the Ki constants were determined to be 27.98 ± 12.25 mM, 2.20 ± 0.22 mM, 4.81 ± 2.25 mM and 1.12 ± 0.32 mM, respectively. The IC50 and Ki values showed that cefixime active agent has the maximum inhibition.

Conclusion:

In this study, we have detected that cefuroxime axetil inhibited competitively in vitro paraoxonase activity of this enzyme. According to this information, we thought that cefuroxime axetil linked to the active site of the enzyme. Fosfomycin and cefaclor monohydrate can be attached with amino acids out of the active site of the enzyme because they inhibit enzyme noncompetitively. Cefixime can be attached only to the enzyme-substrate complex because it inhibits enzyme uncompetitively.

Effect of certain non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on the paraoxonase 2 (PON2) in human monocytic cell line U937

The paraoxonase gene family in humans consists of three members as PON1, PON2 and PON3. PON2 can be expressed in several tissues; however, it is not released from the cells in those tissues. PON2 is also expressed in macrophages. Firstly, the commonly used NSAIDs diclofenac sodium and tenoxicam were applied on U937 cell line, the in vitro human monocyte cell line. Than PON2 specific Lactonase activity and paraoxonase family specific arylesterase were determined. Use of Diclofenac sodium in 0.845 mM dose during 6-12 h of incubation and Tenoxicam in 0.74 mM dose during 6 h of incubation resulted in a significant decline in the lactonase activity. Diclofenac sodium didn't make any change in the arylesterase activity. On the other hand, tenoxicam decreased arylesterase activity during the use of 12 h, in 0.74 mM and 1.48 mM dose.

Synthesis and characterization of four novel palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes with 1-(2-aminoethyl)pyrrolidine, diclofenac and mefenamic acid: In vitro effect of these complexes on human serum paraoxanase1 activity

In this study, the effects of four novel mononuclear palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes on the activity of human serum paraoxanase1 were examined. First, four novel mononuclear palladium(II) and platinum(II) complexes were synthesized with a nitrogen donor ligand 1-(2-aminoethyl)pyrrolidine and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs diclofenac, mefenamic acid. These complexes were characterized by spectroscopic, thermal, and elemental analyses. The crystal structures of complex [Pd(2-amepyr)₂ ](dicl)₂ 1 and [Pd(2-amepyr)₂ ](mef)₂ 3 were determined by X-ray crystallography. Then, paraoxonase1 enzyme was purified from human serum. The effects of these complexes on enzyme were evaluated in vitro. The complexes consist of the cationic unit and the counterions. The diclofenac and mefenamic acid acted as a counterion in the complexes. It was observed that all the complexes were stable up to high temperatures. These complexes, even at low doses, inhibited the activity of the enzyme with different inhibition mechanisms.