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Li H, Li Y, Xiang L, Luo S, Zhang Y, Li S. Therapeutic potential of GDF-5 for enhancing tendon regenerative healing. Regen Ther 2024; 26:290-298. [PMID: 39022600 PMCID: PMC11252783 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2024.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Tendon injury is a common disorder of the musculoskeletal system, with a higher possibility of occurrence in elderly individuals and athletes. After a tendon injury, the tendon suffers from inadequate and slow healing, resulting in the formation of fibrotic scar tissue, ending up with inferior functional properties. Therapeutic strategies involving the application of growth factors have been advocated to promote tendon healing. Growth and differentiation-5 (GDF-5) represents one such factor that has shown promising effect on tendon healing in animal models and in vitro cultures. Although promising, these studies are limited as the molecular mechanisms by which GDF-5 exerts its effect remain incompletely understood. Starting from broadly introducing essential elements of current understanding about GDF-5, the present review aims to define the effect of GDF-5 and its possible mechanisms of action in tendon healing. Nevertheless, we still need more in vivo studies to explore dosage, application time and delivery strategy of GDF-5, so as to pave the way for future clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyue Li
- School of Physical Education, Southwest Medical University, PR China
| | - Yini Li
- Department of Ultrasound, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Linmei Xiang
- Department of Dermatology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, PR China
| | - Shengyu Luo
- School of Physical Education, Southwest Medical University, PR China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Luzhou Vocational and Technical College, PR China
| | - Sen Li
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, PR China
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Klar RM. The Induction of Bone Formation: The Translation Enigma. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 6:74. [PMID: 29938204 PMCID: PMC6002665 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2018.00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A paradigmatic shift in the way of thinking is what bone tissue engineering science requires to decrypt the translation conundrum from animal models into human. The deductive work of Urist (1965), who discerned the principle of bone induction from the pioneering works of Senn, Huggins, Lacroix, Levander, and other bone regenerative scientists, provided the basis that has assisted future bone tissue regenerative scientists to extend the bone tissue engineering field and its potential uses for bone regenerative medicine in humans. However, major challenges remain that are preventing the formation of bone by induction clinically. Growing experimental evidence is indicating that bone inductive studies are non-translatable from animal models into a clinical environment. This is preventing bone tissue engineering from reaching the next phase in development. Countless studies are trying to discern how the formation of bone by induction functions mechanistically, so as to try and solve this enigmatic problem. However, are the correct questions being asked? Why do bone inductive animal studies not translate into humans? Why do bone induction principles not yield the same extent of bone formation as an autogenous bone graft? What are bone tissue engineering scientists missing? By critically re-assessing the past and present discoveries of the bone induction field, this review article attempts to re-discover the field of bone formation by induction, identifying some key features that may have been missed. These include a detailed library of all proteins in bones and their arrangement in the 3D superstructure of the bone together with some other important criteria not considered by tissue engineering scientists. The review therefore not only re-iterates possible avenues of research that need to be re-explored but also seeks to guide present and future scientists in how they assess their own research in light of experimental design and results. By addressing these issues bone formation by induction without autografts might finally become clinically viable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland M. Klar
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Experimental Orthopaedics, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University Hospital of Munich (LMU), Munich, Germany
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Applications of Chondrocyte-Based Cartilage Engineering: An Overview. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:1879837. [PMID: 27631002 PMCID: PMC5007317 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1879837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Chondrocytes are the exclusive cells residing in cartilage and maintain the functionality of cartilage tissue. Series of biocomponents such as different growth factors, cytokines, and transcriptional factors regulate the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) differentiation to chondrocytes. The number of chondrocytes and dedifferentiation are the key limitations in subsequent clinical application of the chondrocytes. Different culture methods are being developed to overcome such issues. Using tissue engineering and cell based approaches, chondrocytes offer prominent therapeutic option specifically in orthopedics for cartilage repair and to treat ailments such as tracheal defects, facial reconstruction, and urinary incontinence. Matrix-assisted autologous chondrocyte transplantation/implantation is an improved version of traditional autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT) method. An increasing number of studies show the clinical significance of this technique for the chondral lesions treatment. Literature survey was carried out to address clinical and functional findings by using various ACT procedures. The current study was conducted to study the pharmacological significance and biomedical application of chondrocytes. Furthermore, it is inferred from the present study that long term follow-up studies are required to evaluate the potential of these methods and specific positive outcomes.
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Dex S, Lin D, Shukunami C, Docheva D. Tenogenic modulating insider factor: Systematic assessment on the functions of tenomodulin gene. Gene 2016; 587:1-17. [PMID: 27129941 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tenomodulin (TNMD, Tnmd) is a gene highly expressed in tendon known to be important for tendon maturation with key implications for the residing tendon stem/progenitor cells as well as for the regulation of endothelial cell migration in chordae tendineae cordis in the heart and in experimental tumour models. This review aims at providing an encompassing overview of this gene and its protein. In addition, its known expression pattern as well as putative signalling pathways will be described. A chronological overview of the discovered functions of this gene in tendon and other tissues and cells is provided as well as its use as a tendon and ligament lineage marker is assessed in detail and discussed. Last, information about the possible connections between TNMD genomic mutations and mRNA expression to various diseases is delivered. Taken together this review offers a solid synopsis on the up-to-date information available about TNMD and aids at directing and focusing the future research to fully uncover the roles and implications of this interesting gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Dex
- Experimental Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Dasheng Lin
- Experimental Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Chisa Shukunami
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Division of Basic Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical & Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Denitsa Docheva
- Experimental Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), Munich, Germany; Department of Medical Biology, Medical University-Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria.
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Chang MC, Lin LD, Tseng HC, Chang BE, Chan CP, Lee SY, Chang HH, Lin PS, Tseng SK, Jeng JH. Growth and differentiation factor-5 regulates the growth and differentiation of human dental pulp cells. J Endod 2013; 39:1272-7. [PMID: 24041390 DOI: 10.1016/j.joen.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Growth and differentiation factor-5 (GDF-5) is a multifunctional protein that regulates the development and repair in many tissues. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether GDF-5 may influence the proliferation, differentiation, and collagen turnover of human dental pulp cells. METHODS Human dental pulp cells were treated with different concentrations of GDF-5 (0-500 ng/mL). Morphology of pulp cells was observed under a microscope. Cell proliferation was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide assay. Immunofluorescent assay was used to observe the percentages of cell mitosis. Collagen content was measured by Sircol collagen assay. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 level in the culture medium was measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blotting. Cell differentiation was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and ALP enzyme activity assay. RESULTS After exposure of dental pulp cells to various concentrations of GDF-5, cell number was up-regulated significantly in dose-dependent manner. GDF-5 also stimulated mitosis of dental pulp cells as indicated by an increased percentage of binucleated cells from 28% to 35%-45%. GDF-5 did not affect the collagen content and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 level of pulp cells. GDF-5 decreased the ALP activity of pulp cells as analyzed by ALP staining and enzyme activity assay, with 14%-44% of inhibition. CONCLUSIONS GDF-5 revealed mitogenic and proliferative activity to dental pulp cells. GDF-5 showed inhibitory effect on ALP activity but little effect on the collagen turnover. These events are crucial in specific stages of dental pulp repair and regeneration. GDF-5 may be potentially used for tissue engineering of pulp-dentin complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Chi Chang
- Biomedical Science Team, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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6
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Coleman CM, Scheremeta BH, Boyce AT, Mauck RL, Tuan RS. Delayed fracture healing in growth differentiation factor 5-deficient mice: a pilot study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2011; 469:2915-24. [PMID: 21590487 PMCID: PMC3171561 DOI: 10.1007/s11999-011-1912-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Growth differentiation factor-5 (GDF-5) is a key regulator of skeletogenesis and bone repair and induces bone formation in spinal fusions and nonunion applications by enhancing chondrocytic and osteocytic differentiation and stimulating angiogenesis. Elucidating the contribution of GDF-5 to fracture repair may support its clinical application in complex fractures. QUESTIONS/PURPOSE We therefore asked whether the absence of GDF-5 during fracture repair impaired bone healing as assessed radiographically, histologically, and mechanically. METHODS In this pilot study, we performed tibial osteotomies on 10-week-old male mice, stabilized by intramedullary and extramedullary nailing. Healing was assessed radiographically and histologically on Days 1 (n = 1 wild-type; n = 5 bp [brachopodism]), 5 (n = 3 wild-type; n = 3 bp), 10 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 3 bp), 14 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 6 bp), 21 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 6 bp), 28 (n = 7 wild-type; n = 6 bp), and 56 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 6 bp) after fracture. After 10 (n = 7 wild-type; n = 7 bp contralateral and n = 3 bp fractured tibiae), 14 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 6 bp), 21 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 6 bp), 28 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 3 bp), and 56 (n = 8 wild-type; n = 6 bp) days, the callus cross-sectional area was calculated. We characterized the mechanical integrity of the healing fracture by yield stress and Young's modulus at 28 (n = 6 wild-type; n = 3 bp) and 56 (n = 8 wild-type; n = 6 bp) days postfracture. RESULTS The absence of GDF-5 impaired cartilaginous matrix deposition in the callus and reduced callus cross-sectional area. After 56 days, the repaired bp fracture was mechanically comparable to that of controls. CONCLUSIONS Although GDF-5 deficiency did not compromise long-term fracture healing, a delay in cartilage formation and remodeling supports roles for GDF-5 in the early phase of bone repair. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Local delivery of GDF-5 to clinically difficult fractures may simulate cartilage formation in the callus and support subsequent remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M. Coleman
- Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Service, Bethesda, MD USA
- Regenerative Medicine Institute, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway City, County Galway Ireland
| | - Brooke H. Scheremeta
- Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Service, Bethesda, MD USA
- Schneider Children’s Hospital, New Hyde Park, NY USA
| | - Amanda T. Boyce
- Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Service, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Robert L. Mauck
- Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Service, Bethesda, MD USA
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Rocky S. Tuan
- Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Service, Bethesda, MD USA
- Center for Cellular and Molecular Engineering, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 450 Technology Drive, Room 221, Pittsburgh, PA 15219 USA
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Yeh LCC, Lee JC. Effects of cartilage-derived morphogenetic protein-3 on the expression of chondrogenic and osteoblastic markers in the pluripotent mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 cell line. Growth Factors 2010; 28:117-28. [PMID: 20102312 DOI: 10.3109/08977190903512586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
CDMP-3/GDF-7/BMP-12 treatment of pluripotent mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 cells resulted in a dose- and time-dependent change in cell morphology and in the expression of alkaline phosphatase, mRNA expression of osteocalcin, and bone sialoprotein, as well as mineralized bone nodule formation. CDMP-3 also stimulated Alcian Blue staining indicative of extracellular matrix formation without affecting aggrecan expression. CDMP-3 downregulated mRNA expression of BMP-4 and BMP-8A. CDMP-3 stimulated mRNA expression of ALK-1, ALK-2(ActR-IA), ALK-3(BMPR-IA), and ALK-4 without affecting that of ALK-6(BMPR-IB), ALK-7, and BMPR-II. These findings suggest that, under the experimental conditions studied, CDMP-3 induces the pluripotent mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 cells to express both chondrocytic and osteoblastic markers. The results further reveal potential complex interplay between the different bone morphogenetic proteins and their receptors in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee-Chuan C Yeh
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
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Shen B, Bhargav D, Wei A, Williams LA, Tao H, Ma DDF, Diwan AD. BMP-13 emerges as a potential inhibitor of bone formation. Int J Biol Sci 2009; 5:192-200. [PMID: 19240811 PMCID: PMC2646266 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.5.192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2008] [Accepted: 02/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein-13 (BMP-13) plays an important role in skeletal development. In the light of a recent report that mutations in the BMP-13 gene are associated with spine vertebral fusion in Klippel-Feil syndrome, we hypothesized that BMP-13 signaling is crucial for regulating embryonic endochondral ossification. In this study, we found that BMP-13 inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (BM MSCs) in vitro. The endogenous BMP-13 gene expression in MSCs was examined under expansion conditions. The MSCs were then induced to differentiate into osteoblasts in osteo-inductive medium containing exogenous BMP-13. Gene expression was analysed by real-time PCR. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression and activity, proteoglycan (PG) synthesis and matrix mineralization were assessed by cytological staining or ALP assay. Results showed that endogenous BMP-13 mRNA expression was higher than BMP-2 or -7 during MSC growth. BMP-13 supplementation strongly inhibited matrix mineralization and ALP activity of osteogenic differentiated MSCs, yet increased PG synthesis under the same conditions. In conclusion, BMP-13 inhibited osteogenic differentiation of MSCs, implying that functional mutations or deficiency of BMP-13 may allow excess bone formation. Our finding provides an insight into the molecular mechanisms and the therapeutic potential of BMP-13 in restricting pathological bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojiang Shen
- Orthopaedic Research Institute, St George Hospital, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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9
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Kugler JE, Passamaneck YJ, Feldman TG, Beh J, Regnier TW, Di Gregorio A. Evolutionary conservation of vertebrate notochord genes in the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. Genesis 2009; 46:697-710. [PMID: 18802963 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To reconstruct a minimum complement of notochord genes evolutionarily conserved across chordates, we scanned the Ciona intestinalis genome using the sequences of 182 genes reported to be expressed in the notochord of different vertebrates and identified 139 candidate notochord genes. For 66 of these Ciona genes expression data were already available, hence we analyzed the expression of the remaining 73 genes and found notochord expression for 20. The predicted products of the newly identified notochord genes range from the transcription factors Ci-XBPa and Ci-miER1 to extracellular matrix proteins. We examined the expression of the newly identified notochord genes in embryos ectopically expressing Ciona Brachyury (Ci-Bra) and in embryos expressing a repressor form of this transcription factor in the notochord, and we found that while a subset of the genes examined are clearly responsive to Ci-Bra, other genes are not affected by alterations in its levels. We provide a first description of notochord genes that are not evidently influenced by the ectopic expression of Ci-Bra and we propose alternative regulatory mechanisms that might control their transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie E Kugler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10065, USA
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BARNES RALSTONM, FIRULLI ANTHONYB. A twist of insight - the role of Twist-family bHLH factors in development. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2009; 53:909-24. [PMID: 19378251 PMCID: PMC2737731 DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.082747rb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Members of the Twist-family of bHLH proteins play a pivotal role in a number of essential developmental programs. Twist-family bHLH proteins function by dimerizing with other bHLH members and binding to cis- regulatory elements, called E-boxes. While Twist-family members may simply exhibit a preference in terms of high-affinity binding partners, a complex, multilevel cascade of regulation creates a dynamic role for these bHLH proteins. We summarize in this review information on each Twist-family member concerning expression pattern, function, regulation, downstream targets, and interactions with other bHLH proteins. Additionally, we focus on the phospho-regulatory mechanisms that tightly control posttranslational modification of Twist-family member bHLH proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- RALSTON M. BARNES
- Riley Heart Research Center, Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Departments of Anatomy and Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Medical School, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - ANTHONY B. FIRULLI
- Riley Heart Research Center, Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Departments of Anatomy and Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Medical School, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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Williams LA, Bhargav D, Diwan AD. Unveiling the bmp13 enigma: redundant morphogen or crucial regulator? Int J Biol Sci 2008; 4:318-29. [PMID: 18797508 PMCID: PMC2536705 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.4.318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Accepted: 09/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins are a diverse group of morphogens with influences not only on bone tissue, as the nomenclature suggests, but on multiple tissues in the body and often at crucial and influential periods in development. The purpose of this review is to identify and discuss current knowledge of one vertebrate BMP, Bone Morphogenetic Protein 13 (BMP13), from a variety of research fields, in order to clarify BMP13's functional contribution to developing and maintaining healthy tissues, and to identify potential future research directions for this intriguing morphogen. BMP13 is highly evolutionarily conserved (active domain >95%) across diverse species from Zebrafish to humans, suggesting a crucial function. In addition, mutations in BMP13 have recently been associated with Klippel-Feil Syndrome, causative of numerous skeletal and developmental defects including spinal disc fusion. The specific nature of BMP13's crucial function is, however, not yet known. The literature for BMP13 is focused largely on its activity in the healing of tendon-like tissues, or in comparisons with other BMP family molecules for whom a clear function in embryo development or osteogenic differentiation has been identified. There is a paucity of detailed information regarding BMP13 protein activity, structure or protein processing. Whilst some activity in the stimulation of osteogenic or cartilaginous gene expression has been reported, and BMP13 expression is found in post natal cartilage and tendon tissues, there appears to be a redundancy of function in the BMP family, with several members capable of stimulating similar tissue responses. This review aims to summarise the known or potential role(s) for BMP13 in a variety of biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Williams
- Spine Service, St George Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Abstract
Chondrocyte is a unique cell type in articular cartilage tissue and is essential for cartilage formation and functionality. It arises from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and is regulated by a series of cytokine and transcription factor interactions, including the transforming growth factor-beta super family, fibroblast growth factors, and insulin-like growth factor-1. To understand the biomechanisms of the chondrocyte differentiation process, various cellular model systems have been employed, such as primary chondrocyte culture, clonal normal cell lines (HCS-2/8, Ch-1, ATDC5, CFK-2, and RCJ3.1C5.18), and transformed clonal cell lines (T/C-28a2, T/C-28a4, C-28/I2, tsT/AC62, and HPV-16 E6/E7). Additionally, cell culture methods, including conventional monolayer culture, three-dimensional scaffold culture, bioreactor culture, pellet culture, and organ culture, have been established to create stable environments for the expansion, phenotypic maintenance, and subsequent biological study of chondrocytes for clinical application. Knowledge gained through these study systems has allowed for the use of chondrocytes in orthopedics for the treatment of cartilage injury and epiphyseal growth plate defects using tissue-engineering approaches. Furthermore, the potential of chondrocyte implantation for facial reconstruction, the treatment of long segmental tracheal defects, and urinary incontinence and vesicoureteral reflux are being investigated. This review summarizes the present study of chondrocyte biology and the potential uses of this cell in orthopedics and other disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Lin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Australia, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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