Crocin reduces Aspergillus fumigatus-induced airway inflammation and NF-κB signal activation

Crocin Inhibits the Type 2 Inflammatory Response Produced by ILC2s in Eosinophilic Nasal Polyps

BACKGROUND

Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) is subdivided into type 1 and type 2 inflammatory responses according to the mucosal inflammatory patterns. Crocin can reduce the level of T-helper type 2 cell (Th2) cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), and inhibit the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the role of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) in type 2 inflammation in eosinophilic nasal polyps and the inhibitory effect of crocin on this inflammation.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were used to detect the expression of transcription factors and the infiltration of ILC2s in tissues. An ILC2 stimulation model in vitro was constructed based on IL-33 stimulation and treated with crocin. The explant models were constructed and treated with crocin to detect the expression of type 2 inflammation-related factors.

RESULTS

Significantly more GATA-binding protein-3 (GATA3)-positive cells and chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on T-helper type 2 cell (CRTH2)-positive cells, but fewer T-box expressed in T cell (T-bet)-positive cells, were found in eosinophilic nasal polyps (NPwEos). The expression levels of GATA3 and CRTH2 were significantly higher in NPwEos. Recombinant IL-33 stimulation increased the expression of GATA3, CRTH2, and type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) in ILC2s. In an IL-33-stimulated in vitro ILC2 culture model, crocin inhibited the type 2 inflammatory response, especially at lower concentrations (10 µM). The explant organoids of NPwEos were constructed in vitro, and Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B (SEB) was used to construct the type 2 inflammation model. Crocin at 10 µM concentration inhibited type 2 inflammation induced by SEB-stimulated explants.

CONCLUSION

Crocin inhibited type 2 inflammation induced by ILC2 activation at low concentrations via inhibiting the activation of NF-κB.

A review of how the saffron (Crocus sativus) petal and its main constituents interact with the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways

The primary by-product of saffron (Crocus sativus) processing is saffron petals, which are produced in large quantities but are discarded. The saffron petals contain a variety of substances, including alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, glycosides, kaempferol, and minerals. Pharmacological investigations revealed the antibacterial, antidepressant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antinociceptive, antispasmodic, antitussive, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and renoprotective properties of saffron petals, which are based on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway protects against oxidative stress, carcinogenesis, and inflammation. Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-ĸB) is a protein complex involved in approximately all animal cells and participates in different biological procedures such as apoptosis, cell growth, development, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transcription, immune response, and inflammation. The pharmacological properties of saffron and its compounds are discussed in this review, along with their associated modes of action, particularly the Nrf2 and NF-ĸB signaling pathways. Without considering a time constraint, our team conducted this review using search engines or electronic databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Saffron petals and their main constituents may have protective effects in numerous organs such as the brain, colon, heart, joints, liver, lung, and pancreas through several mechanisms, including the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling cascade, which would then result in its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and therapeutic effects.

Accelerating synergistic effects of preconditioned mesenchymal stem cells with Crocin and dexamethasone in pulmonary epithelial cells injury

Chemical warfare victims suffer from bronchiolitis and chronic pulmonary obstruction caused by sulfur mustard (SM) toxicity. Despite the mesenchymal stem cells capacity to alleviate inflammation, their low survival rate under oxidative stress severely limits their effectiveness. This study aimed to examine how natural (Crocin) and synthetic (Dexamethasone) antioxidants might affect MSC efficacy. MSCs were treated with the optimal doses of Crocin (Cr.), Dexamethasone (Dex.), and their combination. The A549 cells line was pretreated with the optimal dose of the CEES to mimic the lung disease. Then, the affected A549 cells were exposed to the preconditioned MSCs and conditioned media, and then their survival rates were estimated by MTTor2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Annexin-V PI apoptosis test was conducted for MSCs and A549 cells. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) assay and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test demonstrated the percentage of production of ROS and the cytokines levels in A549/CEES, respectively. The results revealed significant increases in Cr. + Dex. treated MSCs (P < .01) and A549 cells treated with MSCs-CM/Cr/Dex (P < .01) groups' survival. The apoptosis rate and ROS production were reduced in the MSCs-CM/Cr/Dex. Also, considerable decreases in IL-1β (P < .01) and IL-6 (P < .01) and a significant increase in IL-10 (P < .05) in treated A549/CEES by Cr/Dex and MSCs-CM/Cr/Dex supported the synergistic effects of Crocin and Dexamethasone.

Effect of crocin of Crocus sativus L. on serum inflammatory markers (IL-6 and TNF-α) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Different factors, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, extracellular matrix degradation and apoptosis, affect the pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as a progressive disease characterised by permanent airflow limitation. Herbal supplements with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties can help treat certain chronic diseases. The current study aimed at investigating the preventive effects of crocin supplementation on the serum concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α, exercise capacity and pulmonary function tests (PFT) in patients with COPD. The present prospective randomised clinical trial equally divided fifty-seven patients with COPD into a placebo and an intervention group, who respectively received a placebo and crocin (15 mg twice day for 12 weeks) as a supplement. ELISA was used to measure serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, also PFT and exercise capacity based on 6-min walking distance test (6MWD), which was performed at the beginning and end of the study. Crocin improved the results of PFT (P < 0·05) and 6-MWD (P < 0·001) and exerted preventive effects by increasing the serum levels of IL-6 in patients with COPD compared with those in the placebo group (P < 0·05). Intervention with crocin significantly lowered serum levels of TNF-α at the end of the study (P < 0·01). The present findings suggest crocin supplementation improves exercise capacity and PFT in patients with COPD by reducing serum levels of inflammatory factors.

Oral Bacteriome and Mycobiome across Stages of Oral Carcinogenesis

Oral microbial dysbiosis contributes to the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Numerous studies have focused on variations in the oral bacterial microbiota of patients with OSCC. However, similar studies on fungal microbiota, another integral component of the oral microbiota, are scarce. Moreover, there is an evidence gap regarding the role that microecosystems play in different niches of the oral cavity at different stages of oral carcinogenesis. Here, we catalogued the microbial communities in the human oral cavity by profiling saliva, gingival plaque, and mucosal samples at different stages of oral carcinogenesis. We analyzed the oral bacteriome and mycobiome along the health-premalignancy-carcinoma sequence. Some species, including Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas endodontalis, Acremonium exuviarum, and Aspergillus fumigatus, were enriched, whereas others, such as Streptococcus salivarius subsp. salivarius, Scapharca broughtonii, Mortierella echinula, and Morchella septimelata, were depleted in OSCC. These findings suggest that an array of signature species, including bacteria and fungi, are closely associated with oral carcinogenesis. OSCC-associated diversity differences, species distinction, and functional alterations were most remarkable in mucosal samples, not in gingival plaque or saliva samples, suggesting an urgent need to define oral carcinogenesis-associated microbial dysbiosis based on the spatial microbiome. IMPORTANCE Abundant oral microorganisms constitute a complex microecosystem within the oral environment of the host, which plays a critical role in the adjustment of various physiological and pathological states of the oral cavity. In this study, we demonstrated that variations in the "core microbiome" may be used to predict carcinogenesis. In addition, sample data collected from multiple oral sites along the health-premalignancy-carcinoma sequence increase our understanding of the microecosystems of different oral niches and their specific changes during oral carcinogenesis. This work provides insight into the roles of bacteria and fungi in OSCC and may contribute to the development of early diagnostic assays and novel treatments.

An evaluation on potential anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin

Crocin, an active ingredient derived from saffron, is one of the herbal components that has recently been considered by researchers. Crocin has been shown to have many anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and therefore can be used to treat various diseases. It has been shown that Crocin has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and kidney disease. In addition, the role of this substance in COVID-19 pandemic has been identified. In this review article, we tried to have a comprehensive review of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin in different diseases and different tissues. In conclusion, Crocin may be helpful in pathological conditions that are associated with inflammation and oxidative stress.

Rapid and efficient testing of the toxicity of graphene-related materials in primary human lung cells

Graphene and its derivative materials are manufactured by numerous companies and research laboratories, during which processes they can come into contact with their handlers' physiological barriers—for instance, their respiratory system. Despite their potential toxicity, these materials have even been used in face masks to prevent COVID-19 transmission. The increasingly widespread use of these materials requires the design and implementation of appropriate, versatile, and accurate toxicological screening methods to guarantee their safety. Murine models are adequate, though limited when exploring different doses and lengths of exposure—as this increases the number of animals required, contrary to the Three R's principle in animal experimentation. This article proposes an in vitro model using primary, non-transformed normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells as an alternative to the most widely used model to date, the human lung tumor cell line A549. The model has been tested with three graphene derivatives—graphene oxide (GO), few-layer graphene (FLG), and small FLG (sFLG). We observed a cytotoxic effect (necrosis and apoptosis) at early (6- and 24-h) exposures, which intensified after seven days of contact between cells and the graphene-related materials (GRMs)—with cell death reaching 90% after a 5 µg/mL dose. A549 cells are more resistant to necrosis and apoptosis, yielding values less than half of NHBE cells at low concentrations of GRMs (between 0.05 and 5 µg/mL). Indeed, GRM-induced cell death in NHBE cells is comparable to that induced by toxic compounds such as diesel exhaust particles on the same cell line. We propose NHBE as a suitable model to test GRM-induced toxicity, allowing refinement of the dose concentrations and exposure timings for better-designed in vivo mouse assays.

Is Saffron Able to Prevent the Dysregulation of Retinal Cytokines Induced by Ocular Hypertension in Mice?

Cytokine- and chemokine-mediated signalling is involved in the neuroinflammatory process that leads to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) damage in glaucoma. Substances with anti-inflammatory properties could decrease these cytokines and chemokines and thus prevent RGC death. The authors of this study analysed the anti-inflammatory effect of a hydrophilic saffron extract standardized to 3% crocin content, focusing on the regulation of cytokine and chemokine production, in a mouse model of unilateral laser-induced ocular hypertension (OHT). We demonstrated that following saffron treatment, most of the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17), anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10), Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), and fractalkine were unaffected in response to laser-induced OHT in both the OHT eye and its contralateral eye. Only IL-6 levels were significantly increased in the OHT eye one day after laser induction compared with the control group. These results differed from those observed in animals subjected to unilateral OHT and not treated with saffron, where changes in cytokine levels occurred in both eyes. Therefore, saffron extract regulates the production of proinflammatory cytokines, VEGF, and fractalkine induced by increasing intraocular pressure (IOP), protecting the retina from inflammation. These results indicate that saffron could be beneficial in glaucoma by helping to reduce the inflammatory process.

Carotenoids: Therapeutic Strategy in the Battle against Viral Emerging Diseases, COVID-19: An Overview

Carotenoids, a group of phytochemicals, are naturally found in the Plant kingdom, particularly in fruits, vegetables, and algae. There are more than 600 types of carotenoids, some of which are thought to prevent disease, mainly through their antioxidant properties. Carotenoids exhibit several biological and pharmaceutical benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and immunity booster properties, particularly as some carotenoids can be converted into vitamin A in the body. However, humans cannot synthesize carotenoids and need to obtain them from their diets or via supplementation. The emerging zoonotic virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), originated in bats, and was transmitted to humans. COVID-19 continues to cause devastating international health problems worldwide. Therefore, natural preventive therapeutic strategies from bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, should be appraised for strengthening physiological functions against emerging viruses. This review summarizes the most important carotenoids for human health and enhancing immunity, and their potential role in COVID-19 and its related symptoms. In conclusion, promising roles of carotenoids as treatments against emerging disease and related symptoms are highlighted, most of which have been heavily premeditated in studies conducted on several viral infections, including COVID-19. Further in vitro and in vivo research is required before carotenoids can be considered as potent drugs against such emerging diseases.

Aspergillus fumigatus Induces the Release of IL-8 and MCP-1 by Activating Nuclear Transcription Through Dectin-1 and CR3 Receptors in Alveolar Epithelial Cells

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis induced by the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus is one of the common fatal complications in immunocompromised patients. Lung epithelial cells play an important role in host immune defense against A. fumigatus. However, the interaction between lung epithelial cells and A. fumigatus conidia is not fully understood. In this study, we used the swollen conidia of A. fumigatus to stimulate the type II lung epithelial A549 cells. Results showed that swollen conidia could significantly increase RNA transcription and protein expression of interleukin 8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), but not TNF-α in A549 cells in a time-dependent manner. Moreover, serum opsonization was able to improve the release of inflammatory factors induced by swollen conidia. Blocking of the dectin-1 or CR3 receptors, or both simultaneously, in the A549 cells could decrease the release of IL-8 and MCP-1. Additionally, blocking dectin-1 or CR3 could inhibit the transcription of nuclear factor NF-κB that was activated by swollen conidia. Here we reported for the first time that dectin-1 and CR3 receptors in A549 cells mediate the release of pro-inflammatory factors IL-8 and MCP-1 induced by A. fumigatus.

Protective Effect of Crocin on Liver Function and Survival in Rats With Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock

BACKGROUND

This study investigated the underlying mechanism of crocin in protecting rats with traumatic hemorrhagic shock (THS) from liver injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighty Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups (n = 20), namely, Sham group, THS group, crocin group, and Sodium Acetate Ringer group. A rat model of THS was induced by hemorrhage from the left femur fracture. The effects of crocin on hemodynamics, cardiac output, blood gas, animal survival rate, and liver function in the rats with THS were determined, and its relationship with oxidative stress was also explored.

RESULTS

Crocin significantly improved the survival rate, hemodynamic parameters, increased tissue blood flow, and promoted the liver function of the THS rats. Further results indicated that crocin significantly inhibited oxidative stress in serum and liver tissue of THS rats, with increased levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione, and also reduced levels of malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase levels. In addition, crocin greatly increased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 level in liver tissues of THS rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The protective mechanism of crocin on the liver of THS rats may be attributed to its abilities to stabilize hemodynamics, improve cardiac output and blood gas, increase antioxidant enzyme activity, reduce serum liver enzyme levels, and promote nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway, thereby reducing oxidative stress.

Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory potential of crocin in COVID-19 treatment

The current COVID‐19 pandemic is one of the most devastating events in recent history. In the lack of a specific treatment and vaccine for this novel infection, finding effective drugs against this infection is crucial. We suggest the hypothesis that crocin, the main carotenoid of saffron, has the potential to limit the progression and severity of the SARS‐CoV2 infection for several reasons: (a) crocin possesses powerful antioxidant properties, (b) crocin can alleviate the uncontrolled cytokine production responsible for acute lung injury, (c) crocin can upregulate PPARγ and downregulate NF‐κB expression which leads to a wide range of immunomodulatory and anti‐inflammatory effects, and (d) crocin can reduce the viral‐induced oxidative stress and downregulates ACE2 expression by activating Nrf2 pathway. We hope our hypothesis, corroborated by preclinical evidence, will inspire further targeted studies to test crocin as a beneficial drug against the SARS‐CoV2 infection.

Practical applications

Crocin is a natural antioxidant and the main active carotenoid components of saffron. We suggest the hypothesis that crocin has the potential to limit the progression and severity of the SARS‐CoV2 infection because of its antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory properties. Furthermore, this compound may prevent viral entry to host cells and reduce SARS‐CoV2‐induced lung injury. Therefore, we suggest further clinical studies on the effects of crocin against SARS‐Cov‐2 infection.

Crocin mitigates γ-rays-induced hepatic toxicity in rats

Crocin (C₄₄H₆₄O₂₄) is an isolated bioactive molecule of saffron extract. It has different pharmacological effects such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In the present study, radioprotective property of crocin was investigated in the rat liver. Thirty-two rats were equally divided into four groups: (1) control (normal saline), (2) crocin (200 mg/kg), (3) γ-rays (6Gy), and (4) crocin plus γ-rays-treated groups. The liver histopathology, serum transaminases (ALT and AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and hepatic lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) have been assessed. The histopathological result of hepatic tissue in group 3 showed hydropic degeneration and this progressed to focal or spotty necrosis through the lobule. Moreover, some sinusoids are distended with blood or with leukocytic infiltrations. Other cases in group 3 showed periportal leukocytic infiltrations and necrosis extended out from the portal tract to involve hepatic lobules with fibrinous necrosis in portal vessels, while the examination of hepatic tissues of group 4 showed reduced deformities, irregular arrangement, congested hepatic vessels, and necrosis in hepatocytes. The results also showed significant decreased level of liver function activities, inflammatory markers, lipid peroxidation, and increased levels of liver antioxidants enzymes in group 4. Crocin showed moderate protective effect against γ-rays-induced liver toxicity. The antioxidant effect of crocin may be a major reason for its positive impact on liver parameters. Graphical abstract .

Effects of crocin on inflammatory activities in human fibroblast-like synoviocytes and collagen-induced arthritis in mice

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease, characterized by the irreversible joint destruction resulted from the attack of inflammatory cells to the joints. Recent studies demonstrated that crocin is able to alleviate arthritis and suppress inflammatory responses, implying crocin as a potential promising antiarthritic agent. In this study, we confirmed the effect of crocin on RA and revealed its underlying mechanism by measuring lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated cytokine production in presence or absence of crocin. The effect of crocin was also tested in vivo using a mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). It was found that crocin significantly repressed the LPS-induced expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 in human fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS). We tested the effect of crocin on nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling and observed that cells pre-treated with 500 μM of crocin exhibited lower levels of LPS-induced p-IκBα, p-IκB kinase (IKK) α/β, and p65 expression than those of untreated cells. In addition, we found when cells were stimulated with IKKβ, crocin pre-treatment showed significantly inhibitory effect on the luciferase activity of IL-1β. In vivo results also showed that crocin treatment dramatically reduced plasma levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in CIA mice. Crocin is efficient to suppress the productions of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β by blocking NF-κB signal activation through its interaction with IKK, suggesting that crocin could be an efficient treatment for RA.

Antidiabetic potential of saffron and its active constituents

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is growing rapidly worldwide. This metabolic disorder affects many physiological pathways and is a key underlying cause of a multitude of debilitating complications. There is, therefore, a critical need for effective diabetes management. Although many synthetic therapeutic glucose-lowering agents have been developed to control glucose homeostasis, they may have unfavorable side effects or limited efficacy. Herbal-based hypoglycemic agents present an adjunct treatment option to mitigate insulin resistance, improve glycemic control and reduce the required dose of standard antidiabetic medications. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), whilst widely used as a food additive, is a natural product with insulin-sensitizing and hypoglycemic effects. Saffron contains several bioactive β carotenes, which exert their pharmacological effects in various tissues without any obvious side effects. In this study, we discuss how saffron and its major components exert their hypoglycemic effects by induction of insulin sensitivity, improving insulin signaling and preventing β-cell failure, all mechanisms combining to achieve better glycemic control.

Delineation of 3D dose-time-toxicity in human pulmonary epithelial Beas-2B cells induced by decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209)

Due to frequent detection in environment as well as in the human body, the adverse effects of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209) have been extensively studied in the past few years. However, information regarding the inhalation toxicity of BDE209 to humans is currently limited. In this study, the cytotoxicity, cell damage, and inflammation markers including IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α in the Beas-2B cell line induced by BDE209 were measured using a central composite design. Results showed that as BDE209 concentrations (5-65 μg mL^-1) and exposure time (6-30 h) were increased, cell viability sharply decreased from 99.7% to 29.7% and LDH activity increased from 0.1% to 13.1%. Furthermore, expression of IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α transcripts were enhanced from 4.7 to 29.1 fold, 3.4-68.9 fold, and 2.8-47.0 fold, respectively, and the concentration of IL-6 and IL-8 proteins increased from 5.4 to 16.7 pg mL^-1 and 71.0-550.0 pg mL^-1, respectively. Results indicate that BDE209 exposure can inhibit cell viability, increase LDH leakage, and upregulate the transcript (mRNA) and protein levels of inflammatory markers of IL-6 and IL-8 in Beas-2B cells. Moreover, these effects were both dose- and time-dependent, and dose and time had a synergistic effect - enhancing toxicity when in combination. Cell density affected both LDH activity and IL-8 release but had little effect on cell activity and IL-6 release in the Beas-2B cells. In contrast, TNF-α protein was not detected but its mRNA expression level was upregulated. This study will provide a reference for human health risk assessment, especially for the toxic damage that BDE209 exposure can elicit in the respiratory tract.

Protective effect of crocin on ultraviolet B‑induced dermal fibroblast photoaging

Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in the aging of dermal fibroblasts. Crocin, a bioactive constituent of Crocus sativus, possesses anti‑oxidation effects. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of crocin on UVB‑induced dermal fibroblast photoaging. Human dermal fibroblasts were isolated and cultured with different concentrations of crocin prior to and following exposure to UVB irradiation. The senescent phenotypes of cells were evaluated, including cell proliferation, cell cycle, senescence‑associated β‑galactosidase (SA‑β‑gal) expression, intracellular ROS, expression of antioxidant protein glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX‑1) and extracellular matrix protein collagen type 1 (Col‑1). Crocin rescued the cell proliferation inhibited by UVB irradiation, prevented cell cycle arrest and markedly decreased the number of SA‑β‑gal‑positive cells. In addition, crocin reduced UVB‑induced ROS by increasing GPX‑1 expression and other direct neutralization effects. Furthermore, crocin promoted the expression of the extracellular matrix protein Col‑1. Crocin could effectively prevent UVB‑induced cell damage via the reduction of intracellular ROS; thus, it could potentially be used in the prevention of skin photoaging.