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Han H, Qian C, Song M, Zhong C, Zhao Y, Lu Y. Fibroblasts: invigorated targets in pre-metastatic niche formation. Int J Biol Sci 2024; 20:1110-1124. [PMID: 38322116 PMCID: PMC10845297 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.87680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
At present, tumor metastasis still remains the leading contributor to high recurrence and mortality in cancer patients. There have been no clinically effective therapeutic strategies for treating patients with metastatic cancer. In recent years, a growing body of evidence has shown that the pre-metastatic niche (PMN) plays a crucial role in driving tumor metastasis. Nevertheless, a clear and detailed understanding of the formation of PMN is still lacking given the fact that PMN formation involves in a wealth of complicated communications and underlying mechanisms between primary tumors and metastatic target organs. Despite that the roles of numerous components including tumor exosomes and extracellular vesicles in influencing the evolution of PMN have been well documented, the involvement of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in the tumor microenvironment for controlling PMN formation is frequently overlooked. It has been increasingly recognized that fibroblasts trigger the formation of PMN by virtue of modulating exosomes, metabolism and so on. In this review, we mainly summarize the underlying mechanisms of fibroblasts from diverse origins in exerting impacts on PMN evolution, and further highlight the prospective strategies for targeting fibroblasts to prevent PMN formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongkuan Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
- Jiangsu Joint International Research Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Regenerative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Cheng Qian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
- Jiangsu Joint International Research Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Regenerative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Mengyao Song
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
- Jiangsu Joint International Research Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Regenerative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Chongjin Zhong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine & Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yang Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine & Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yin Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
- Jiangsu Joint International Research Laboratory of Chinese Medicine and Regenerative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
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Feng X, Liu X, Xiang J, Xu J, Yin N, Wang L, Liu C, Liu Y, Zhao T, Zhao Z, Gao Y. Exosomal ITGB6 from dormant lung adenocarcinoma cells activates cancer-associated fibroblasts by KLF10 positive feedback loop and the TGF-β pathway. Transl Lung Cancer Res 2023; 12:2520-2537. [PMID: 38205211 PMCID: PMC10775012 DOI: 10.21037/tlcr-23-707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Background Dormant cancer cells are commonly known to play a pivotal role in cancer recurrence and metastasis. However, the mechanism of tumor dormancy and recurrence remains largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism by which exosomes derived from dormant lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) cells activate cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) to reconstruct the extracellular matrix (ECM), providing a novel idea for decoding the mechanism of tumor dormancy. Methods In this study, high-dose cisplatin was used to induce the dormant LUAD cells. Exosomes were extracted from the culture supernatant of normal and dormant cancer cells. The effects of selected exosomal proteins on the fibroblasts were evaluated. RNA-seq for fibroblasts and exosomal proteomics for normal and dormant cancer cells were used to identify and verify the mechanism of activating fibroblasts. Results We demonstrated that exosomes derived from dormant A549 cells could be taken by fibroblasts. Exosomal ITGB6 transferred into fibroblasts induced the activation of CAFs by activating the KLF10 positive feedback loop and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) pathway. High ITGB6 expression was associated with activation of the TGF-β pathway and ECM remodeling. Conclusions In all, we demonstrated that CAFs were activated by exosomes from dormant lung cancer cells and reconstruct ECM. ITGB6 may be a critical molecule for activating the TGF-β pathway and remodeling ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Feng
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xianling Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Juanjuan Xiang
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jiaqi Xu
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Na Yin
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lujuan Wang
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chaoyuan Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuyao Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Tiantian Zhao
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zengyi Zhao
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yawen Gao
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
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3
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Kim JK, Chang I, Jung Y, Kaplan Z, Hill EE, Taichman RS, Krebsbach PH. Mycoplasma hyorhinis infection promotes TNF-α signaling and SMAC mimetic-mediated apoptosis in human prostate cancer. Heliyon 2023; 9:e20655. [PMID: 37867861 PMCID: PMC10585237 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests an association between Mycoplasma infections and the development and progression of prostate cancer (PCa). In this study, we report that chronic and persistent M. hyorhinis infection induced robust TNF-α secretion from PCa cells. TNF-α secreted from M. hyorhinis-infected PCa cells subsequently led to activation of the NF-κB pathway. Chronic M. hyorhinis infection induced gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in a NF-κB-dependent manner and promoted cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in PCa cells. The elimination of M. hyorhinis in PCa cells significantly blocked TNF-α secretion, gene expression of cytokines and chemokines, migration, and invasion in PCa cells, suggesting M. hyorhinis-induced TNF-α plays an important role to promote malignant transformation of PCa. Furthermore, second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC) mimetics potentiated caspase activation and cell death in M. hyorhinis-infected PCa by antagonizing inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) activity. Tissue microarray analysis indicated that TNF-α is co-expressed in M. hyorhinis-infected human patient tissues. Findings from this study advance our understanding of the mycoplasma-oncogenesis process and suggest the potential for new approaches for preventions, diagnosis, and therapeutic approaches against prostate cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Koo Kim
- Division of Oral and Systemic Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Insoon Chang
- Section of Endodontics, University of California, Los Angeles School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Younghun Jung
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zach Kaplan
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Elliott E. Hill
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Russell S. Taichman
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Periodontics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Paul H. Krebsbach
- Division of Oral and Systemic Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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4
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Hegde M, Naliyadhara N, Unnikrishnan J, Alqahtani MS, Abbas M, Girisa S, Sethi G, Kunnumakkara AB. Nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer metastases: Current and future perspectives. Cancer Lett 2023; 556:216066. [PMID: 36649823 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis accounts for greater than 90% of cancer-related deaths. Despite recent advancements in conventional chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and their rational combinations, metastatic cancers remain essentially untreatable. The distinct obstacles to treat metastases include their small size, high multiplicity, redundancy, therapeutic resistance, and dissemination to multiple organs. Recent advancements in nanotechnology provide the numerous applications in the diagnosis and prophylaxis of metastatic diseases, including the small particle size to penetrate cell membrane and blood vessels and their capacity to transport complex molecular 'cargo' particles to various metastatic regions such as bones, brain, liver, lungs, and lymph nodes. Indeed, nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated a significant ability to target specific cells within these organs. In this regard, the purpose of this review is to summarize the present state of nanotechnology in terms of its application in the diagnosis and treatment of metastatic cancer. We intensively reviewed applications of NPs in fluorescent imaging, PET scanning, MRI, and photoacoustic imaging to detect metastasis in various cancer models. The use of targeted NPs for cancer ablation in conjunction with chemotherapy, photothermal treatment, immuno therapy, and combination therapy is thoroughly discussed. The current review also highlights the research opportunities and challenges of leveraging engineering technologies with cancer cell biology and pharmacology to fabricate nanoscience-based tools for treating metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mangala Hegde
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Nikunj Naliyadhara
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Jyothsna Unnikrishnan
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Mohammed S Alqahtani
- Radiological Sciences Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia; BioImaging Unit, Space Research Centre, Michael Atiyah Building, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Mohamed Abbas
- Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia; Computers and Communications Department, College of Engineering, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, 35712, Egypt
| | - Sosmitha Girisa
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.
| | - Ajaikumar B Kunnumakkara
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India.
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5
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Johnson RP, Ratnacaram CK, Kumar L, Jose J. Combinatorial approaches of nanotherapeutics for inflammatory pathway targeted therapy of prostate cancer. Drug Resist Updat 2022; 64:100865. [PMID: 36099796 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2022.100865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) is the most prevalent male urogenital cancer worldwide. PC patients presenting an advanced or metastatic cancer succumb to the disease, even after therapeutic interventions including radiotherapy, surgery, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), and chemotherapy. One of the hallmarks of PC is evading immune surveillance and chronic inflammation, which is a major challenge towards designing effective therapeutic formulations against PC. Chronic inflammation in PC is often characterized by tumor microenvironment alterations, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and extracellular matrix modifications. The inflammatory events are modulated by reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Major signaling pathways in PC includes androgen receptor, PI3K and NF-κB pathways and targeting these inter-linked pathways poses a major therapeutic challenge. Notably, many conventional treatments are clinically unsuccessful, due to lack of targetability and poor bioavailability of the therapeutics, untoward toxicity and multidrug resistance. The past decade witnessed an advancement of nanotechnology as an excellent therapeutic paradigm for PC therapy. Modern nanovectorization strategies such as stimuli-responsive and active PC targeting carriers offer controlled release patterns and superior anti-cancer effects. The current review initially describes the classification, inflammatory triggers and major inflammatory pathways of PC, various PC treatment strategies and their limitations. Subsequently, recent advancement in combinatorial nanotherapeutic approaches, which target PC inflammatory pathways, and the mechanism of action are discussed. Besides, the current clinical status and prospects of PC homing nanovectorization, and major challenges to be addressed towards the advancement PC therapy are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renjith P Johnson
- Polymer Nanobiomaterial Research Laboratory, Nanoscience and Microfluidics Division, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Karnataka 575018, India
| | - Chandrahas Koumar Ratnacaram
- Cell Signaling and Cancer Biology Division, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Karnataka 575018, India
| | - Lalit Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Udupi, Karnataka 576 104, India
| | - Jobin Jose
- NITTE Deemed-to-be University, NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics, Mangalore 575018, India.
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Tajaldini M, Saeedi M, Amiriani T, Amiriani AH, Sedighi S, Mohammad Zadeh F, Dehghan M, Jahanshahi M, Zanjan Ghandian M, Khalili P, Poorkhani AH, Alizadeh AM, Khori V. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs); where do they stand in tumorigenesis and how they can change the face of cancer therapy? Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 928:175087. [PMID: 35679891 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.175087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) and its components have recently attracted tremendous attention in cancer treatment strategies, as alongside the genetic and epigenetic alterations in tumor cells, TME could also provide a fertile background for malignant cells to survive and proliferate. Interestingly, TME plays a vital role in the mediation of cancer metastasis and drug resistance even against immunotherapeutic agents. Among different cells that are presenting in TME, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have shown to have significant value in the regulation of angiogenesis, tumor metastasis, and drug-resistance through manipulating the composition as well as the organization of extracellular matrix (ECM). Evidence has shown that the presence of both TAMs and CAFs in TME is associated with poor prognosis and failure of chemotherapeutic agents. It seems that these cells together with ECM form a shield around tumor cells to protect them from the toxic agents and even the adaptive arm of the immune system, which is responsible for tumor surveillance. Given this, targeting TAMs and CAFs seems to be an essential approach to potentiate the cytotoxic effects of anti-cancer agents, either conventional chemotherapeutic drugs or immunotherapies. In the present review, we aimed to take a deep look at the mechanobiology of CAFs and TAMs in tumor progression and to discuss the available therapeutic approaches for harnessing these cells in TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahboubeh Tajaldini
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Mohsen Saeedi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Taghi Amiriani
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Amiriani
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Sima Sedighi
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Mohammad Zadeh
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Dehghan
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Jahanshahi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Maziar Zanjan Ghandian
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Pedram Khalili
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | | | - Ali Mohammad Alizadeh
- Cancer Research Center, Cancer Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Vahid Khori
- Ischemic Disorder Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran.
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7
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Saw PE, Chen J, Song E. Targeting CAFs to overcome anticancer therapeutic resistance. Trends Cancer 2022; 8:527-555. [PMID: 35331673 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The view of cancer as a tumor cell-centric disease is now replaced by our understanding of the interconnection and dependency of tumor stroma. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the most abundant stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), are involved in anticancer therapeutic resistance. As we unearth more solid evidence on the link between CAFs and tumor progression, we gain insight into the role of CAFs in establishing resistance to cancer therapies. Herein, we review the origin, heterogeneity, and function of CAFs, with a focus on how CAF subsets can be used as biomarkers and can contribute to therapeutic resistance in cancer. We also depict current breakthroughs in targeting CAFs to overcome anticancer therapeutic resistance and discuss emerging CAF-targeting modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phei Er Saw
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Guangdong-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for RNA Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China; Medical Research Center, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Jianing Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Guangdong-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for RNA Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China; Medical Research Center, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Erwei Song
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Guangdong-Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for RNA Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China; Medical Research Center, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China; Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 510005, China; Fountain-Valley Institute for Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China.
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8
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Sheikh A, Md S, Kesharwani P. RGD engineered dendrimer nanotherapeutic as an emerging targeted approach in cancer therapy. J Control Release 2021; 340:221-242. [PMID: 34757195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A bird's eye view is now demanded in the area of cancer research to suppress the suffering of cancer patient and mediate the lack of treatment related to chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is always preferred over surgery or radiation therapy, but they never met the patient's demand of safe medication. Targeted therapy has now been in research that could hinder the unnecessary effect of drug on normal cells but could affect the tumor cells in much efficient manner. Angiogenesis is process involved in development of new blood vessel that nourishes tumor growth. Integrin receptors are over expressed on cancer cells that play vital role in angiogenesis for growth and metastasis of tumor cell. A delivery of RGD based peptide to integrin targeted site could help in its successful binding and liberation of drug in tumor vasculature. Dendrimers, in addition to its excellent pharmacokinetic properties also helps to carry targeting ligand to site of tumor by successfully conjugating with them. The aim of this review is to bring light upon the role of integrin in cancer progression, interaction of RGD to integrin receptor and more importantly the RGD-dendrimer based targeted therapy for the treatment of various cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afsana Sheikh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, India
| | - Shadab Md
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; Center of Excellence for Drug Research & Pharmaceutical Industries, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Prashant Kesharwani
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi 110062, India.
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9
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Li M, Wang Y, Li M, Wu X, Setrerrahmane S, Xu H. Integrins as attractive targets for cancer therapeutics. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:2726-2737. [PMID: 34589393 PMCID: PMC8463276 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Integrins are transmembrane receptors that have been implicated in the biology of various human physiological and pathological processes. These molecules facilitate cell–extracellular matrix and cell–cell interactions, and they have been implicated in fibrosis, inflammation, thrombosis, and tumor metastasis. The role of integrins in tumor progression makes them promising targets for cancer treatment, and certain integrin antagonists, such as antibodies and synthetic peptides, have been effectively utilized in the clinic for cancer therapy. Here, we discuss the evidence and knowledge on the contribution of integrins to cancer biology. Furthermore, we summarize the clinical attempts targeting this family in anti-cancer therapy development.
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Key Words
- ADAMs, adisintegrin and metalloproteases
- AJ, adherens junctions
- Antagonists
- CAFs, cancer-associated fibroblasts
- CAR, chimeric antigen receptor
- CRC, colorectal cancer
- CSC, cancer stem cell
- Clinical trial
- ECM, extracellular matrix
- EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor
- EMT, epithelial–mesenchymal transition
- ERK, extracellular regulated kinase
- Extracellular matrix
- FAK, focal adhesion kinase
- FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration
- HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α
- HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells
- ICAMs, intercellular adhesion molecules
- IGFR, insulin-like growth factor receptor
- IMD, integrin-mediated death
- Integrins
- JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase 16
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MMP2, matrix metalloprotease 2
- NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB
- NSCLC, non-small cell lung cancer
- PDGFR, platelet-derived growth factor receptor
- PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
- RGD, Arg-Gly-Asp
- RTKs, receptor tyrosine kinases
- SAPKs, stress-activated MAP kinases
- SDF-1, stromal cell-derived factor-1
- SH2, Src homology 2
- STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3
- TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas
- TICs, tumor initiating cells
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- Targeted drug
- Tumor progression
- VCAMs, vascular cell adhesion molecules
- VEGFR, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor
- mAb, monoclonal antibodies
- sdCAR-T, switchable dual-receptor CAR-engineered T
- siRNA, small interference RNA
- uPA, urokinase-type plasminogen activator
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Laskaratos FM, Levi A, Schwach G, Pfragner R, Hall A, Xia D, von Stempel C, Bretherton J, Thanapirom K, Alexander S, Ogunbiyi O, Watkins J, Luong TV, Toumpanakis C, Mandair D, Caplin M, Rombouts K. Transcriptomic Profiling of In Vitro Tumor-Stromal Cell Paracrine Crosstalk Identifies Involvement of the Integrin Signaling Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Mesenteric Fibrosis in Human Small Intestinal Neuroendocrine Neoplasms. Front Oncol 2021; 11:629665. [PMID: 33718208 PMCID: PMC7943728 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.629665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim Analysis of the pathophysiology of mesenteric fibrosis (MF) in small intestinal neuroendocrine tumors (SI-NETs) in an in vitro paracrine model and in human SI-NET tissue samples. Methods An indirect co-culture model of SI-NET cells KRJ-I and P-STS with stromal cells HEK293 was designed to evaluate the paracrine effects on cell metabolic activity, gene expression by RT2 PCR Profilers to analyse cancer and fibrosis related genes, and RNA sequencing. The integrin signaling pathway, a specific Ingenuity enriched pathway, was further explored in a cohort of human SI-NET tissues by performing protein analysis and immunohistochemistry. Results RT Profiler array analysis demonstrated several genes to be significantly up- or down-regulated in a cell specific manner as a result of the paracrine effect. This was further confirmed by employing RNA sequencing revealing multiple signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis and fibrogenesis that were significantly affected in these cell lines. A significant upregulation in the expression of various integrin pathway – related genes was identified in the mesenteric mass of fibrotic SI-NET as confirmed by RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Protein analysis demonstrated downstream activation of the MAPK and mTOR pathways in some patients with fibrotic SI-NETs. Conclusion This study has provided the first comprehensive analysis of the crosstalk of SI-NET cells with stromal cells. A novel pathway – the integrin pathway – was identified and further validated and confirmed in a cohort of human SI-NET tissue featured by a dual role in fibrogenesis/carcinogenesis within the neoplastic fibrotic microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faidon-Marios Laskaratos
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, ENETS Centre of Excellence, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom.,Regenerative Medicine and Fibrosis Group, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Royal Free Hospital, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Levi
- Regenerative Medicine and Fibrosis Group, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Royal Free Hospital, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gert Schwach
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Roswitha Pfragner
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Andrew Hall
- Academic Centre for Cellular Pathology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dong Xia
- Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Conrad von Stempel
- Radiology Department, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Josephine Bretherton
- Radiology Department, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kessarin Thanapirom
- Regenerative Medicine and Fibrosis Group, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Royal Free Hospital, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Alexander
- Academic Centre for Cellular Pathology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Olagunju Ogunbiyi
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Watkins
- Academic Centre for Cellular Pathology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tu Vinh Luong
- Academic Centre for Cellular Pathology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christos Toumpanakis
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, ENETS Centre of Excellence, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dalvinder Mandair
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, ENETS Centre of Excellence, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martyn Caplin
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, ENETS Centre of Excellence, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Krista Rombouts
- Regenerative Medicine and Fibrosis Group, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Royal Free Hospital, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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11
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Zhou P, Zheng ZH, Wan T, Wu J, Liao CW, Sun XJ. Vitexin Inhibits Gastric Cancer Growth and Metastasis through HMGB1-mediated Inactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α Signaling Pathway. J Gastric Cancer 2021; 21:439-456. [PMID: 35079445 PMCID: PMC8753280 DOI: 10.5230/jgc.2021.21.e40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhou
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People's Republic of China
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Nanchang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zi-Han Zheng
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Nanchang, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Wan
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Nanchang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Wu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Nanchang, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuan-Wen Liao
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Jiangxi Provincial People’s Hospital, Nanchang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Jun Sun
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People's Republic of China
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12
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Anbazhagan R, Muthusamy G, Krishnamoorthi R, Kumaresan S, Rajendra Prasad N, Lai JY, Yang JM, Tsai HC. PAMAM G4.5 dendrimers for targeted delivery of ferulic acid and paclitaxel to overcome P-glycoprotein-mediated multidrug resistance. Biotechnol Bioeng 2020; 118:1213-1223. [PMID: 33289076 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we prepared ferulic acid (FA) and paclitaxel (PTX) co-loaded polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers conjugated with arginyl-glycyl-aspartic acid (RGD) to overcome P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated multidrug resistance (MDR). FA was released in greater extent (80%) from the outer layer of the dendrimers compared with PTX (70%) from the interior of the dendrimers. FA improved intracellular availability of PTX via P-gp modulation in drug-resistant cells. In vitro drug uptake data show higher PTX delivery with RGD-PAMAM-FP than with PAMAM-FP in drug resistant KB CH-R 8-5 cell lines. This indicates that RGD facilitates intracellular PTX accumulation through active targeting in multidrug-resistant KB CH-R 8-5 cells. The terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase 2'-deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate nick-end labeling assay data and membrane potential analysis in mitochondria confirm the enhanced anticancer potential of RGD-PAMAM-FP nanoaggregates in drug-resistant cells. We also confirmed by the increased protein levels of proapoptotic factors such as caspase 3, caspase 9, p53, and Bax after treatment with RGD-PAMAM-FP nanoaggregates and also downregulates antiapoptotic factors. Hence, FA-PTX co-loaded, RGD-functionalized PAMAM G4.5 dendrimers may be considered as an effective therapeutic strategy to induce apoptosis in P-gp-overexpressing, multidrug-resistant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeshkumar Anbazhagan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ganesan Muthusamy
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Rajakumari Krishnamoorthi
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Swedha Kumaresan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Chemistry, Women's Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Nagarajan Rajendra Prasad
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Juin-Yih Lai
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,R&D Center for Membrane Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jen-Ming Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of General Dentistry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsieh-Chih Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Advanced Membrane Materials Center, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,R&D Center for Membrane Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chungli, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
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13
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Zhou N, Ma X, Hu W, Ren P, Zhao Y, Zhang T. Effect of RGD content in poly(ethylene glycol)-crosslinked poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic acid) hydrogels on the expansion of ovarian cancer stem-like cells. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2020; 118:111477. [PMID: 33255056 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) affects cell behaviors, such as survival, proliferation, motility, invasion, and differentiation. The arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) sequence is present in several ECM proteins, such as fibronectin, collagen type I, fibrinogen, laminin, vitronectin, and osteopontin. It is very critical to develop ECM-like substrates with well-controlled features for the investigation of influence of RGD on the behavior of tumor cells. In this study, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-crosslinked poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic acid) (P(MVE-alt-MA)) hydrogels (PEMM) with different RGD contents were synthesized, fully characterized, and established as in vitro culture platforms to investigate the effects of RGD content on cancer stem cell (CSC) enrichment. The morphology, proliferation, and viability of SK-OV-3 ovarian cancer cells cultured on hydrogels with different RGD contents, the expression of CSC markers and malignant signaling pathway-related genes, and drug resistance were systematically evaluated. The cell aggregates formed on the hydrogel surface with a lower RGD content acquired certain CSC-like properties, thus drug resistance was enhanced. In contrast, the drug sensitivity of cells on the higher RGD content surface increased because of less CSC-like properties. However, the presence of RGD in the stiff hydrogels (PEMM2) had less effect on the stemness expression than did its presence in the soft hydrogels (PEMM1). The results suggest that RGD content and matrix stiffness can lead to synergetic effects on the expression of cancer cell stemness and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and Wnt pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naizhen Zhou
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Xiaoe Ma
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Wanjun Hu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Pengfei Ren
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Youliang Zhao
- Suzhou Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Design and Precision Synthesis, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Design and Application, State and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for Novel Functional Polymeric Materials, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Tianzhu Zhang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
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14
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Panda PK, Saraf S, Tiwari A, Verma A, Raikwar S, Jain A, Jain SK. Novel Strategies for Targeting Prostate Cancer. Curr Drug Deliv 2020; 16:712-727. [PMID: 31433757 DOI: 10.2174/1567201816666190821143805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is a worldwide issue, with a rapid increase in its occurrence and mortality. Over the years, various strategies have been implemented to overcome the hurdles that exist in the treatment of PCa. Consistently, there is a change in opinion about the methodologies in clinical trial that have engrossed towards the treatment of PCa. Currently, there is a need to resolve these newly recognized challenges by developing newer rational targeting systems. The ongoing clinical protocol for the therapy using different targeting systems is undertaken followed by local targeting to cancer site. A number of new drug targeting systems like liposomes, nanoemulsions, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), solid lipid nanoparticles, drug-peptide conjugate systems, drug-antibody conjugate systems, epigenetic and gene therapy approaches, and therapeutic aptamers are being developed to suit this protocol. Recent advancements in the treatment of PCa with various nanocarriers have been reported with respect to newly identified biological barriers and intended to solve the contexts. This review encompasses the input of nanotechnology in particular targeting of PCa which might escape the lifethreatening side effects and potentially contribute to bring fruitful clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritish Kumar Panda
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
| | - Shivani Saraf
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
| | - Ankita Tiwari
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
| | - Amit Verma
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
| | - Sarjana Raikwar
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
| | - Ankit Jain
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, NH-2, Mathura-Delhi Road, Mathura (U.P.), 281 406, India
| | - Sanjay K Jain
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar (M.P.), 470 003, India
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15
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Gieniec KA, Butler LM, Worthley DL, Woods SL. Cancer-associated fibroblasts-heroes or villains? Br J Cancer 2019; 121:293-302. [PMID: 31289350 PMCID: PMC6738083 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-019-0509-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) were originally presumed to represent a homogeneous population uniformly driving tumorigenesis, united by their morphology and peritumoural location. Our understanding of CAFs has since been shaped by sophisticated in vitro and in vivo experiments, pathological association and, more recently, ablation, and it is now widely appreciated that CAFs form a group of highly heterogeneous cells with no single overarching marker. Studies have demonstrated that the CAF population contains different subtypes based on the expression of marker proteins with the capacity to promote or inhibit cancer, with their biological role as accomplices or adversaries dependent on many factors, including the cancer stage. So, while CAFs have been endlessly shown to promote the growth, survival and spread of tumours via improvements in functionality and an altered secretome, they are also capable of retarding tumorigenesis via largely unknown mechanisms. It is important to reconcile these disparate results so that the functions of, or factors produced by, tumour-promoting subtypes can be specifically targeted to improve cancer patient outcomes. This review will dissect out CAF complexity and CAF-directed cancer treatment strategies in order to provide a case for future, rational therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna A Gieniec
- School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Precision Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Lisa M Butler
- School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Precision Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Daniel L Worthley
- Precision Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Susan L Woods
- School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia. .,Precision Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
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16
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Czech T, Lalani R, Oyewumi MO. Delivery Systems as Vital Tools in Drug Repurposing. AAPS PharmSciTech 2019; 20:116. [PMID: 30771030 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-019-1333-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of developing an old drug for new indications is now a widely accepted strategy of shortening drug development time, reducing drug costs, and improving drug availability, especially for rare and neglected diseases. In this mini-review, we highlighted the impact of drug delivery systems in the fulfillment of crucial aspects of drug repurposing such as (i) maximizing the repurposed drug effects on a new target, (ii) minimizing off-target effects, (iii) modulating the release profiles of drug at the site of absorption, (iv) modulating the pharmacokinetics/in vivo biodistribution of the repurposed drug, (v) targeting/modulating drug retention at the sites of action, and (vi) providing a suitable platform for therapeutic application of combination drugs.
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