1
|
Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shkembi X, Skouridou V, Svobodova M, Leonardo S, Bashammakh AS, Alyoubi AO, Campàs M, O Sullivan CK. Hybrid Antibody-Aptamer Assay for Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish. Anal Chem 2021; 93:14810-14819. [PMID: 34697940 PMCID: PMC8581965 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The marine toxin
tetrodotoxin (TTX) poses a great risk to public
health safety due to its severe paralytic effects after ingestion.
Seafood poisoning caused by the consumption of contaminated marine
species like pufferfish due to its expansion to nonendemic areas has
increased the need for fast and reliable detection of the toxin to
effectively implement prevention strategies. Liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry is considered the most accurate method, although competitive
immunoassays have also been reported. In this work, we sought to develop
an aptamer-based assay for the rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective
detection of TTX in pufferfish. Using capture-SELEX combined with
next-generation sequencing, aptamers were identified, and their binding
properties were evaluated. Finally, a highly sensitive and user-friendly
hybrid antibody–aptamer sandwich assay was developed with superior
performance compared to several assays reported in the literature
and commercial immunoassay kits. The assay was successfully applied
to the quantification of TTX in pufferfish extracts, and the results
obtained correlated very well with a competitive magnetic bead-based
immunoassay performed in parallel for comparison. This is one of the
very few works reported in the literature of such hybrid assays for
small-molecule analytes whose compatibility with field samples is
also demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xhensila Shkembi
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Vasso Skouridou
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Marketa Svobodova
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Abdulaziz S Bashammakh
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman O Alyoubi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, 21589 Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
| | - Ciara K O Sullivan
- Interfibio, Nanobiotechnology and Bioanalysis Group, Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Avinguda Paisos Catalans 26, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.,Institució Catalana de Recerca I Estudis Avancats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Biessy L, Boundy MJ, Smith KF, Harwood DT, Hawes I, Wood SA. Tetrodotoxin in marine bivalves and edible gastropods: A mini-review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 236:124404. [PMID: 31545201 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for countless human intoxications and deaths around the world. The distribution of TTX and its analogues is diverse and the toxin has been detected in organisms from both marine and terrestrial environments. Increasing detections seafood species, such as bivalves and gastropods, has drawn attention to the toxin, reinvigorating scientific interest and regulatory concerns. There have been reports of TTX in 21 species of bivalves and edible gastropods from ten countries since the 1980's. While TTX is structurally dissimilar to saxitoxin (STX), another neurotoxin detected in seafood, it has similar sodium channel blocking action and potency and both neurotoxins have been shown to have additive toxicities. The global regulatory level for the STX group toxins applied to shellfish is 800 μg/kg. The presence of TTX in shellfish is only regulated in one country; The Netherlands, with a regulatory level of 44 μg/kg. Due to the recent interest surrounding TTX in bivalves, the European Food Safety Authority established a panel to assess the risk and regulation of TTX in bivalves, and their final opinion was that a concentration below 44 μg of TTX per kg of shellfish would not result in adverse human effects. In this article, we review current knowledge on worldwide TTX levels in edible gastropods and bivalves over the last four decades, the different methods of detection used, and the current regulatory status. We suggest research needs that will assist with knowledge gaps and ultimately allow development of robust monitoring and management protocols.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | | | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - D Tim Harwood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand; New Zealand Food Safety Science & Research Centre, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Ian Hawes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Estevez P, Castro D, Pequeño-Valtierra A, Giraldez J, Gago-Martinez A. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in Seafood from European Coasts: Incidence and Analytical Challenges. Foods 2019; 8:E149. [PMID: 31052406 PMCID: PMC6560407 DOI: 10.3390/foods8050149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of emerging contaminants in food and the sources of the contamination are relevant issues in food safety. The impact of climate change on these contaminations is a topic widely debated; however, the consequences of climate change for the food system is not as deeply studied as other human and animal health and welfare issues. Projections of climate change in Europe have been evaluated through the EU Commission, and the impact on the marine environment is considered a priority issue. Marine biotoxins are produced by toxic microalgae and are natural contaminants of the marine environment. They are considered to be an important contaminant that needs to be evaluated. Their source is affected by oceanographic and environmental conditions; water temperature, sunlight, salinity, competing microorganisms, nutrients, and wind and current directions affect the growth and proliferation of microalgae. Although climate change should not be the only reason for this increase and other factors such as eutrophication, tourism, fishery activities, etc. could be considered, the influence of climate change has been observed through increased growth of dinoflagellates in areas where they have not been previously detected. An example of this is the recent emergence of ciguatera fish poisoning toxins, typically found in tropical or subtropical areas from the Pacific and Caribbean and in certain areas of the Atlantic Sea such as the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal). In addition, the recent findings of the presence of tetrodotoxins, typically found in certain areas of the Pacific, are emerging in the EU and contaminating not only the fish species where these toxins had been found before but also bivalve mollusks. The emergence of these marine biotoxins in the EU is a reason for concern in the EU, and for this reason, the risk evaluation and characterization of these toxins are considered a priority for the European Food Safety Authorities (EFSA), which also emphasize the search for occurrence data using reliable and efficient analytical methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Estevez
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - David Castro
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Ana Pequeño-Valtierra
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Jorge Giraldez
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Ana Gago-Martinez
- Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, University of Vigo, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
- EU Reference Laboratory for marine biotoxins, Campus Universitario de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Reverté L, Campbell K, Rambla-Alegre M, Elliott CT, Diogène J, Campàs M. Immunosensor array platforms based on self-assembled dithiols for the electrochemical detection of tetrodotoxins in puffer fish. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 989:95-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
6
|
Reverté L, Rambla-Alegre M, Leonardo S, Bellés C, Campbell K, Elliott CT, Gerssen A, Klijnstra MD, Diogène J, Campàs M. Development and validation of a maleimide-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of tetrodotoxin in oysters and mussels. Talanta 2017; 176:659-666. [PMID: 28917804 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The recent detection of tetrodotoxins (TTXs) in puffer fish and shellfish in Europe highlights the necessity to monitor the levels of TTXs in seafood by rapid, specific, sensitive and reliable methods in order to protect human consumers. A previous immunoassay for TTX detection in puffer fish, based on the use of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) for the immobilization of TTX on maleimide plates (mELISA), has been modified and adapted to the analysis of oyster and mussel samples. Changing dithiol for cysteamine-based SAMs enabled reductions in the assay time and cost, while maintaining the sensitivity of the assay. The mELISA showed high selectivity for TTX since the antibody did not cross-react with co-occurring paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins and no interferences were observed from arginine (Arg). Moreover, TTX-coated maleimide plates stored for 3 months at -20°C and 4°C were stable, thus when pre-prepared, the time to perform the assay is reduced. When analyzing shellfish samples, matrix effects and toxin recovery values strongly depended on the shellfish type and the sample treatment. Blank oyster extracts could be directly analyzed without solid-phase extraction (SPE) clean-up, whereas blank mussel extracts showed strong matrix effects and SPE and subsequent solvent evaporation were required for removal. However, the SPE clean-up and evaporation resulted in toxin loss. Toxin recovery values were taken as correction factors (CFs) and were applied to the quantification of TTX contents in the analysis of naturally-contaminated shellfish samples by mELISA. The lowest effective limits of detection (eLODs) were about 20 and 50µg/kg for oyster extracts without and with SPE clean-up, respectively, and about 30µg/kg for mussel extracts with both protocols, all of them substantially below the eLOD attained in the previous mELISA for puffer fish (230µg/kg). Analysis of naturally-contaminated samples by mELISA and comparison with LC-MS/MS quantifications demonstrated the viability of the approach. This mELISA is a selective and sensitive tool for the rapid detection of TTX in oyster and mussel samples showing promise to be implemented in routine monitoring programs to protect human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laia Reverté
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Maria Rambla-Alegre
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Sandra Leonardo
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Carlos Bellés
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT (Institute of Food Safety) - Wageningen University and Research, 6700 AE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Mirjam D Klijnstra
- RIKILT (Institute of Food Safety) - Wageningen University and Research, 6700 AE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Shalabai VV, Taranchenko VF, Rybal’chenko IV, Aksenov AV, Antokhin AM, Semchenko FM, Krymchak MS. Use of high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry for the identification and quantitative determination of tetrodotoxin in pharmaceuticals. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934817060144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
8
|
Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Arnich N, Benford D, Botana L, Viviani B, Arcella D, Binaglia M, Horvath Z, Steinkellner H, van Manen M, Petersen A. Risks for public health related to the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04752. [PMID: 32625458 PMCID: PMC7010203 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are produced by marine bacteria and have been detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of TTX and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain reviewed the available literature but did not find support for the minimum lethal dose for humans of 2 mg, mentioned in various reviews. Some human case reports describe serious effects at a dose of 0.2 mg, corresponding to 4 μg/kg body weight (bw). However, the uncertainties on the actual exposure in the studies preclude their use for derivation of an acute reference dose (ARfD). Instead, a group ARfD of 0.25 μg/kg bw, applying to TTX and its analogues, was derived based on a TTX dose of 25 μg/kg bw at which no apathy was observed in an acute oral study with mice, applying a standard uncertainty factor of 100. Estimated relative potencies for analogues are lower than that of TTX but are associated with a high degree of uncertainty. Based on the occurrence data submitted to EFSA and reported consumption days only, average and P95 exposures of 0.00-0.09 and 0.00-0.03 μg/kg bw, respectively, were calculated. Using a large portion size of 400 g bivalves and P95 occurrence levels of TTX, with exception of oysters, the exposure was below the group ARfD in all consumer groups. A concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) methods are the most suitable for identification and quantification of TTX and its analogues, with LOQs between 1 and 25 μg/kg.
Collapse
|
9
|
Bane V, Hutchinson S, Sheehan A, Brosnan B, Barnes P, Lehane M, Furey A. LC-MS/MS method for the determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX) on a triple quadruple mass spectrometer. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1728-1740. [PMID: 27619502 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1235801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), often referred to as the 'puffer fish' poison, is a marine toxin and it has been identified as the agent responsible for many food poisoning incidents around the world. It is a neurotoxin that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels, resulting in respiratory paralysis and even death in severe cases. It is known to occur in many different species of fish and other organisms. The toxin is mainly found in the Southeast Asia region. Worryingly, TTX is starting to appear in European waters. It is suspected that this is a consequence of Lessepsian migration, also known as the Erythrean invasion. Therefore, straightforward and reliable extraction and analytical methods are now urgently required to monitor seafood of European origin for TTX. This paper provides a versatile, dependable and robust method for the analysis of TTX in puffer fish and trumpet shellfish using LC-MS/MS. A three-stage approach was implemented involving: (1) the screening of samples using fast multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mass spectral analysis to identify quickly positive samples on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QqQMS/MS), the API 3000; (2) a Fourier-transform (FT)-MS full-scan analysis of positive samples to collect qualitative data; and (3) a method with a longer chromatography run to identify and quantitate the positive samples using the QqQMS. The quantitative LC-QqQMS method delivered excellent linearity for solvent-based standards (0.01-7.5 µg ml-1; R2 ≥ 0.9968) as well as for matrix-matched standards (0.05-37.50 µg g-1; R2 ≥ 0.9869). Good inter-day repeatability was achieved for all the relevant analytes with %RSD values (n = 9) ranging from 1.11% to 4.97% over a concentration range of 0.01-7.5 µg ml-1. A sample clean-up procedure for the puffer fish and trumpet shellfish was developed to ensure acceptable and reproducible recoveries to enable accurate and precise determination of TTX in a myriad of tissues types. Blank mackerel matrix was used for the TTX standard spiking studies in order to calculate the recoveries of the toxin during the extraction procedure. The recovery was 61.17% ± 5.42% for the extraction protocol. MS/MS studies were performed on a linear-trap quadruple-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (LTQ-Orbitrap) to obtain high-mass-accuracy data of the target analytes and their characteristic fragment ions in the puffer fish and trumpet shellfish samples. This facilitated identification of TTX and its associated analogues. These high-mass-accuracy studies facilitated the development of a rapid MRM-based quantitative method for TTX determination on the LC-QqQMS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Bane
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Sharon Hutchinson
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Aisling Sheehan
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Brid Brosnan
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Paul Barnes
- b Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute - Stormont , Belfast , UK
| | - Mary Lehane
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| | - Ambrose Furey
- a Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC), Department of Chemistry , Cork Institute of Technology , Cork , Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Turner AD, Higgins C, Higman W, Hungerford J. Potential Threats Posed by Tetrodotoxins in UK Waters: Examination of Detection Methodology Used in Their Control. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7357-76. [PMID: 26690455 PMCID: PMC4699243 DOI: 10.3390/md13127070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is a neurotoxin responsible for many human fatalities, most commonly following the consumption of pufferfish. Whilst the source of the toxin has not been conclusively proven, it is thought to be associated with various species of marine bacteria. Whilst the toxins are well studied in fish and gastropods, in recent years, there have been a number of reports of tetrodotoxin occurring in bivalve shellfish, including those harvested from the UK and other parts of Europe. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of tetrodotoxins in the UK together with methodologies currently available for testing. Biological, biomolecular and chemical methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work. With the recent development of quantitative chromatographic methods for these and other hydrophilic toxins, as well as the commercial availability of rapid testing kits, there are a number of options available to ensure consumers are protected against this threat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - James Hungerford
- Pacific Laboratory Northwest, United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 22201 23rd Dr, S.E., Bothell, WA 98021, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Reverté L, de la Iglesia P, del Río V, Campbell K, Elliott CT, Kawatsu K, Katikou P, Diogène J, Campàs M. Detection of Tetrodotoxins in Puffer Fish by a Self-Assembled Monolayer-Based Immunoassay and Comparison with Surface Plasmon Resonance, LC-MS/MS, and Mouse Bioassay. Anal Chem 2015; 87:10839-47. [PMID: 26424329 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b02158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The increasing occurrence of puffer fish containing tetrodotoxin (TTX) in the Mediterranean could represent a major food safety risk for European consumers and threaten the fishing industry. The work presented herein describes the development of a new enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (mELISA) based on the immobilization of TTX through dithiol monolayers self-assembled on maleimide plates, which provides an ordered and oriented antigen immobilization and favors the antigen-antibody affinity interaction. The mELISA was found to have a limit of detection (LOD) of TTX of 0.23 mg/kg of puffer fish matrix. The mELISA and a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) immunosensor previously developed were employed to establish the cross-reactivity factors (CRFs) of 5,6,11-trideoxy-TTX, 5,11-deoxy-TTX, 11-nor-TTX-6-ol, and 5,6,11-trideoxy-4-anhydro-TTX, as well as to determine TTX equivalent contents in puffer fish samples. Results obtained by both immunochemical tools were correlated (R(2) = 0.977). The puffer fish samples were also analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and the corresponding CRFs were applied to the individual TTX contents. Results provided by the immunochemical tools, when compared with those obtained by LC-MS/MS, showed a good degree of correlation (R(2) = 0.991 and 0.979 for mELISA and SPR, respectively). The mouse bioassay (MBA) slightly overestimated the CRF adjusted TTX content of samples when compared with the data obtained from the other techniques. The mELISA has been demonstrated to be fit for the purpose for screening samples in monitoring programs and in research activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laia Reverté
- IRTA , Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Pablo de la Iglesia
- IRTA , Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Vanessa del Río
- IRTA , Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University , Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University , Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland
| | - Kentaro Kawatsu
- Division of Bacteriology, Osaka Prefectural Institute of Public Health , 3-69, Nakamichi 1-chome, Higashinari-ku, Osaka 537-0025, Japan
| | - Panagiota Katikou
- National Reference Laboratory on Marine Biotoxins, Ministry of Rural Development and Food , 54627 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA , Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA , Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Xu XM, Yu XW, Lu M, Huang BF, Ren YP. Study of the matrix effects of tetrodotoxin and its content in cooked seafood by liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2015; 38:3374-82. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201500617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-min Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Hangzhou China
| | - Xin-wei Yu
- Zhoushan Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Zhoushan China
| | - Meiling Lu
- Agilent Technologies (China) Co; Ltd; Beijing China
| | - Bai-fen Huang
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Hangzhou China
| | - Yi-ping Ren
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Hangzhou China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Reverté L, Soliño L, Carnicer O, Diogène J, Campàs M. Alternative methods for the detection of emerging marine toxins: biosensors, biochemical assays and cell-based assays. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:5719-63. [PMID: 25431968 PMCID: PMC4278199 DOI: 10.3390/md12125719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of marine toxins in water and seafood may have a considerable impact on public health. Although the tendency in Europe is to consolidate, when possible, official reference methods based on instrumental analysis, the development of alternative or complementary methods providing functional or toxicological information may provide advantages in terms of risk identification, but also low cost, simplicity, ease of use and high-throughput analysis. This article gives an overview of the immunoassays, cell-based assays, receptor-binding assays and biosensors that have been developed for the screening and quantification of emerging marine toxins: palytoxins, ciguatoxins, cyclic imines and tetrodotoxins. Their advantages and limitations are discussed, as well as their possible integration in research and monitoring programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laia Reverté
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain.
| | - Lucía Soliño
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain.
| | - Olga Carnicer
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain.
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain.
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Carretera Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bane V, Lehane M, Dikshit M, O'Riordan A, Furey A. Tetrodotoxin: chemistry, toxicity, source, distribution and detection. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:693-755. [PMID: 24566728 PMCID: PMC3942760 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6020693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a naturally occurring toxin that has been responsible for human intoxications and fatalities. Its usual route of toxicity is via the ingestion of contaminated puffer fish which are a culinary delicacy, especially in Japan. TTX was believed to be confined to regions of South East Asia, but recent studies have demonstrated that the toxin has spread to regions in the Pacific and the Mediterranean. There is no known antidote to TTX which is a powerful sodium channel inhibitor. This review aims to collect pertinent information available to date on TTX and its analogues with a special emphasis on the structure, aetiology, distribution, effects and the analytical methods employed for its detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Bane
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Groups, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Mary Lehane
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Groups, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| | | | - Alan O'Riordan
- Nanotechnology Group, Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Ambrose Furey
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Groups, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Campbell K, Barnes P, Haughey SA, Higgins C, Kawatsu K, Vasconcelos V, Elliott CT. Development and single laboratory validation of an optical biosensor assay for tetrodotoxin detection as a tool to combat emerging risks in European seafood. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7753-63. [PMID: 23812877 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7106-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin emerging in European waters due to increasing ocean temperatures. Its detection in seafood is currently performed as a consequence of using the Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) mouse bioassay (MBA) for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, but TTX is not monitored routinely in Europe. Due to ethical and performance-related issues associated with this bioassay, the European Commission has recently published directives extending procedures that may be used for official PSP control. An AOAC-accredited high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method has now been accepted by the European Union as a first action screening method for PSP toxins to replace the MBA. However, this AOAC HPLC method is not capable of detecting TTX, so this potent toxin would be undetected; thereby, a separate method of analysis is required. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical biosensor technology has been proven as a potential alternative screening method to detect PSP toxins in seafood. The addition of a similar SPR inhibition assay for TTX would complement the PSP assay in removing the MBA. The present report describes the development and single laboratory validation in accordance with AOAC and IUPAC guidelines of an SPR method to be used as a rapid screening tool to detect TTX in the sea snail Charonia lampas lampas, a species which has been implicated in 2008 in the first case of human TTX poisoning in Europe. As no current regulatory limits are set for TTX in Europe, single laboratory validation was undertaken using those for PSP toxins at 800 μg/kg. The decision limit (CCα) was 100 μg/kg, with the detection capability (CCβ) found to be ≤200 μg/kg. Repeatability and reproducibility were assessed at 200, 400, and 800 μg/kg and showed relative standard deviations of 8.3, 3.8, and 5.4% and 7.8, 8.3, and 3.7% for both parameters at each level, respectively. At these three respective levels, the recovery of the assay was 112, 98, and 99%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK,
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nzoughet JK, Campbell K, Barnes P, Cooper KM, Chevallier OP, Elliott CT. Comparison of sample preparation methods, validation of an UPLC–MS/MS procedure for the quantification of tetrodotoxin present in marine gastropods and analysis of pufferfish. Food Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
|
17
|
Stokes AN, Williams BL, French SS. An improved competitive inhibition enzymatic immunoassay method for tetrodotoxin quantification. Biol Proced Online 2012; 14:3. [PMID: 22410273 PMCID: PMC3337821 DOI: 10.1186/1480-9222-14-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been a challenge in both ecological and medical research due to the cost, time and training required of most quantification techniques. Here we present a modified Competitive Inhibition Enzymatic Immunoassay for the quantification of TTX, and to aid researchers in the optimization of this technique for widespread use with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amber N Stokes
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-5305, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Chen XW, Liu HX, Jin YB, Li SF, Bi X, Chung S, Zhang SS, Jiang YY. Separation, identification and quantification of tetrodotoxin and its analogs by LC-MS without calibration of individual analogs. Toxicon 2011; 57:938-43. [PMID: 21419154 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Revised: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We report here a simple and rapid method of separation, identification and quantification of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogs in partially purified extract by LC-MS. Except for the main component calibration of individual components was not necessary. TTX and four of its analogs in the puffer fish extract were identified and quantified. The limits of detection and quantification, the linear range and accuracy of the protocol were validated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Wu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Guangdong Province, Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518057, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Yakes BJ, Deeds J, White K, Degrasse SL. Evaluation of surface plasmon resonance biosensors for detection of tetrodotoxin in food matrices and comparison to analytical methods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:839-46. [PMID: 21192708 DOI: 10.1021/jf103779k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a low molecular weight neurotoxin found in a number of animal species, including pufferfish. One emerging method for TTX detection employs surface plasmon resonance (SPR) immunosensors. SPR, an optical technique that allows for label-free, real-time, multiplexed analysis, can have detection limits that rival many of the conventional transduction methods. Preliminary SPR approaches for TTX were successful, yet suffered from low throughput and used noncommercial instrumentation. To advance this method for broader use, the immunoassay was transferred to a commercial instrument and optimized for improved detection. This manuscript outlines the assay development and results for complex matrices relevant to seafood safety (pufferfish) and food adulteration (milk, apple juice). In addition, results are compared to those obtained using receptor binding assay, ELISA, HPLC-FD, and LC/MS/MS detection techniques. Results highlight the advantages of SPR assays, including rapid screening capability with low reagent consumption and low- to subppb detection limits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Betsy Jean Yakes
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland 20740, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Tao J, Wei W, Nan L, Lei L, Hui H, Fen G, Jun L, Jing Z, Rong J. Development of competitive indirect ELISA for the detection of tetrodotoxin and a survey of the distribution of tetrodotoxin in the tissues of wild puffer fish in the waters of south-east China. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2010; 27:1589-97. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2010.504237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
21
|
Man CN, Noor NM, Harn GL, Lajis R, Mohamad S. Screening of tetrodotoxin in puffers using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:7455-9. [PMID: 20950812 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.09.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Revised: 09/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/23/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a toxic compound found in some puffers can cause death to humans through consumption. We have developed a simplified method for the screening of TTX in puffers using GC-MS. A puffer tissue of 0.5g was treated with 5mL of 0.1% acetic acid, followed by alkaline hydrolysis, LLE or liquid-liquid extraction and N-methyl-N-TMS-trifluoroacetamide derivatization. The developed method used only a small sample and solvent, simplified LLE and derivatization procedures and short chromatographic analysis (8.2min). All of these contribute to cost-saving, enhanced sample throughput and high sensitivity of the screening assay. The developed method was validated and proved to be within the acceptable range.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Che Nin Man
- National Poison Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Yakes BJ, Etheridge SM, Mulvaney SP, Tamanaha CR. Fluidic force discrimination assays: a new technology for tetrodotoxin detection. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:565-76. [PMID: 20411115 PMCID: PMC2857369 DOI: 10.3390/md8030565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a low molecular weight (approximately 319 Da) neurotoxin found in a number of animal species, including pufferfish. Protection from toxin tainted food stuffs requires rapid, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tests. An emerging technique for the detection of both proteins and nucleic acids is Fluidic Force Discrimination (FFD) assays. This simple and rapid method typically uses a sandwich immunoassay format labeled with micrometer-diameter beads and has the novel capability of removing nonspecifically attached beads under controlled, fluidic conditions. This technique allows for near real-time, multiplexed analysis at levels of detection that exceed many of the conventional transduction methods (e.g., ELISAs). In addition, the large linear dynamic range afforded by FFD should decrease the need to perform multiple sample dilutions, a common challenge for food testing. By applying FFD assays to an inhibition immunoassay platform specific for TTX and transduction via low magnification microscopy, levels of detection of approximately 15 ng/mL and linear dynamic ranges of 4 to 5 orders of magnitude were achieved. The results from these studies on the first small molecule FFD assay, along with the impact to detection of seafood toxins, will be discussed in this manuscript.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Betsy Jean Yakes
- US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5100 Paint Branch Parkway, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Behavioral and chemical ecology of marine organisms with respect to tetrodotoxin. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:381-98. [PMID: 20411104 PMCID: PMC2857358 DOI: 10.3390/md8030381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The behavioral and chemical ecology of marine organisms that possess tetrodotoxin (TTX) has not been comprehensively reviewed in one work to date. The evidence for TTX as an antipredator defense, as venom, as a sex pheromone, and as an attractant for TTX-sequestering organisms is discussed. Little is known about the adaptive value of TTX in microbial producers; thus, I focus on what is known about metazoans that are purported to accumulate TTX through diet or symbioses. Much of what has been proposed is inferred based on the anatomical distribution of TTX. Direct empirical tests of these hypotheses are absent in most cases.
Collapse
|
24
|
Zhou Y, Li Y, Pan F, Liu Z, Wang Z. Identification of tetrodotoxin antigens and a monoclonal antibody. Food Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
25
|
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is one of the most potent and oldest known neurotoxins. The poisoning cases due to ingestion of TTX-containing marine animals, especially for puffer, have frequently occurred in Asia since a long time ago. This chapter describes various topics on TTX poisoning including the tendency of poisoning incidents, typical case report, treatment and prevention, biology distribution, original source, infestation mechanism, detection methods, characteristics of chemistry and pharmacology, and therapeutic application. Furthermore, the protocols for how to make puffer safe to eat and how to prevent puffer products made from toxic puffers have been suggested. Finally, the biological significance and neurophysiological role of TTX have been elucidated and TTX may act as an important drug like anesthetic in future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Fwu Hwang
- Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University Taiwan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Oliveira JS, Fernandes SCR, Schwartz CA, Bloch C, Melo JAT, Rodrigues Pires O, de Freitas JC. Toxicity and toxin identification in Colomesus asellus, an Amazonian (Brazil) freshwater puffer fish. Toxicon 2006; 48:55-63. [PMID: 16822534 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 04/20/2006] [Accepted: 04/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity and toxin identification in Colomesus asellus, an Amazonian (Brazil) freshwater puffer fish. By using four different techniques--mouse bioassay, ELISA, HPLC and mass spectrometry-we evaluated the toxicity in the extracts of C. asellus, a freshwater puffer fish from the rivers of the Amazon, and identified for the first time the components responsible for its toxicity. The T20G10 monoclonal antibody raised against TTX, and employed in an indirect competitive enzyme immunoassay, showed very low affinity for the C. asellus extracts, indicating that TTX and its analogs are not the main toxic components of the extracts. This antibody was efficient in detecting presence of TTX in a total extract of Sphoeroides spengleri, which is one of the most toxic puffer fish found in the Atlantic coast. Extracts of C. asellus were toxic when administered intraperitonially into mice with an average toxicity of 38.6+/-12 mouse unit (MU)/g, while HPLC analysis indicated a lower toxin content (7.6+/-0 5MU/g). The HPLC profile showed no traces of TTX, but only the presence of PSPs (STX, GTX 2 and GTX 3). These toxins were also confirmed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joacir Stolarz Oliveira
- Department of Physiology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo, Rua do Matão 101, Travessa 14, 05508 900 São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
|
28
|
Hamasaki K, Kogure K, Ohwada K. A biological method for the quantitative measurement of tetrodotoxin (TTX): tissue culture bioassay in combination with a water-soluble tetrazolium salt. Toxicon 1996; 34:490-5. [PMID: 8735249 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(95)00151-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A tissue culture bioassay, using the mouse neuroblastoma cell line (Neuro2A), was improved to provide a simple and sensitive bioassay for TTX or sodium channel-blocking toxins (SCB). The water-soluble tetrazolium salt, 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfophenyl)-2H-tetraz olium, monosodium salt (WST-1), was applied to replace the time-consuming and subjective cell-counting procedure of the cells with automatic measurement, using a microplate reader. It was also confirmed that this method is directly applicable to bacterial culture supernatants, with the precaution of possible interference.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Hamasaki
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Soka University
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Rivera VR, Poli MA, Bignami GS. Prophylaxis and treatment with a monoclonal antibody of tetrodotoxin poisoning in mice. Toxicon 1995; 33:1231-7. [PMID: 8585093 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(95)00060-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The ability of a tetrodotoxin (TTX)-specific monoclonal antibody to confer passive protection against lethal TTX challenge was investigated. The monoclonal antibody, T20G10, has an estimated affinity for TTX of approximately 10(-9) M and is about 50-fold less reactive with anhydrotetrodotoxin and unreactive with tetrodonic acid by competitive immunoassay. T20G10 specifically inhibited TTX binding in an in vitro radioligand receptor binding assay, but had no effect on the binding of saxitoxin to the sodium channel on rat brain membranes. In prophylaxis studies, mice were administered T20G10 via the tail vein 30 min prior to i.p. TTX challenge (10 micrograms/kg). Under these conditions, 100 micrograms T20G10 protected 6/6 mice, whereas 3/6 mice were protected with 50 micrograms T20G10. Non-specific control monoclonal antibody did not protect against lethality. Therapy studies simulating oral intoxication were performed with mice given a lethal dose of TTX by gavage in a suspension of non-fat dry milk in phosphate-buffered saline. Death occurred within 25-35 min in 6/6 mice not treated with T20G10. However, 500 micrograms T20G10 administered via the tail vein 10-15 min after oral TTX exposure prevented death in 6/6 mice. Lower doses of mAb conferred less protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V R Rivera
- U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Park DL. Surveillance programmes for managing risks from naturally occurring toxicants. FOOD ADDITIVES AND CONTAMINANTS 1995; 12:361-71. [PMID: 7664929 DOI: 10.1080/02652039509374316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic metabolites produced by moulds that grow on food and feed. Their toxicity has caused severe health and economic problems worldwide. Other mycotoxins which have been associated with human health risks include ergot alkaloids, citreoviridin, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, citrinin, tremorgenic mycotoxins and the fumonisins. Many phycotoxins have also been associated with human illnesses; these phycotoxins include paralytic shellfish poisons, diarrhoeic shellfish poisons, ciguatera-related toxins, neurotoxic shellfish poisons, tetrodotoxin and, the more recently discovered, domoic acid which is associated with amnesic shellfish poisoning. Human exposure to these naturally occurring toxins can be from direct consumption of contaminated commodities or from foods derived from animals previously exposed to these toxins in their feed. Food safety monitoring programmes for selected toxins have been established for raw and finished products susceptible to contamination. Components of these control programme include the establishment of regulatory limits or guidelines, monitoring susceptible products for specific compounds, and the diversion of the contaminated products to lower-risk uses and/or decontamination procedures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D L Park
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721, USA
| |
Collapse
|