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Killeen PR. Hyperbolae. J Exp Anal Behav 2024; 122:72-86. [PMID: 38785258 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Hyperbolic relations between independent and dependent variables are ubiquitous in the experimental analysis of behavior, mentioned in over 150 articles in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. There are two principal forms of hyperbolae: The first describes the relation between response rate and reinforcement rate on variable-interval schedules of reinforcement; it rises asymptotically toward a maximum. The second describes the relation between the current equivalent value of an incentive and its delay or (im)probability; it falls from a maximum toward an asymptote of 0. Where do these come from? What do their parameters mean? How are they related? This article answers the first two questions and addresses the last.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Killeen
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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2
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Smith TR, Southern R, Kirkpatrick K. Mechanisms of impulsive choice: Experiments to explore and models to map the empirical terrain. Learn Behav 2023; 51:355-391. [PMID: 36913144 PMCID: PMC10497727 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-023-00577-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Impulsive choice is preference for a smaller-sooner (SS) outcome over a larger-later (LL) outcome when LL choices result in greater reinforcement maximization. Delay discounting is a model of impulsive choice that describes the decaying value of a reinforcer over time, with impulsive choice evident when the empirical choice-delay function is steep. Steep discounting is correlated with multiple diseases and disorders. Thus, understanding the processes underlying impulsive choice is a popular topic for investigation. Experimental research has explored the conditions that moderate impulsive choice, and quantitative models of impulsive choice have been developed that elegantly represent the underlying processes. This review spotlights experimental research in impulsive choice covering human and nonhuman animals across the domains of learning, motivation, and cognition. Contemporary models of delay discounting designed to explain the underlying mechanisms of impulsive choice are discussed. These models focus on potential candidate mechanisms, which include perception, delay and/or reinforcer sensitivity, reinforcement maximization, motivation, and cognitive systems. Although the models collectively explain multiple mechanistic phenomena, there are several cognitive processes, such as attention and working memory, that are overlooked. Future research and model development should focus on bridging the gap between quantitative models and empirical phenomena.
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Johnson BN, Allen MI, Reboussin BA, LaValley C, Nader MA. Delay discounting as a behavioral phenotype associated with social rank in female and male cynomolgus monkeys: Correlation with kappa opioid receptor availability. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2023; 225:173545. [PMID: 37004977 PMCID: PMC10732250 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2023.173545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Cocaine use disorder (CUD) is a significant problem worldwide, with no FDA-approved treatments. Epidemiological data indicate that only about 17 % of people that use cocaine will meet DSM criteria for CUD. Thus, the identification of biomarkers predictive of eventual cocaine use may be of great value. Two potentially useful predictors of CUD are social hierarchies in nonhuman primates and delay discounting. Both social rank and preference for a smaller, immediate reinforcer relative to a larger, delayed reinforcer have been predictive of CUD. Therefore, we wanted to determine if there was also a relationship between these two predictors of CUD. In the present study, monkeys cocaine-naive responded under a concurrent schedule of 1- vs. 3-food pellets and delivery of the 3-pellet option was delayed. The primary dependent variable was the indifference point (IP), which is the delay that results in 50 % choice for both options. In the initial determination of IP, there were no differences based on sex or social rank of the monkeys. When the delays were redetermined after ~25 baseline sessions (range 5-128 sessions), dominant females and subordinate males showed the largest increases in IP scores from the first determination to the second. Because 13 of these monkeys had prior PET scans of the kappa opioid receptor (KOR), we examined the relationship between KOR availability and IP values and found that the change in IP scores from the first to the second determination significantly negatively predicted average KOR availability in most brain regions. Future studies will examine acquisition to cocaine self-administration in these same monkeys, to determine if IP values are predictive of vulnerability to cocaine reinforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard N Johnson
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States of America
| | - Mia I Allen
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States of America
| | - Beth A Reboussin
- Department of Biostatistics, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States of America
| | - Christina LaValley
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States of America
| | - Michael A Nader
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, United States of America.
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Haynes JM, Odum AL. Testing delay of gratification in rats using a within-session increasing-delay task. J Exp Anal Behav 2022; 118:3-23. [PMID: 35485644 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In delay discounting, preference reversals refer to shifts in preference from a larger-later reward to a smaller-sooner reward. Steep hyperbolic discounting predicts a preference reversal when a smaller-sooner and larger-later reward both become temporally proximal; prior research is consistent with this prediction. Hyperbolic discounting does not predict a preference reversal, however, after an individual chooses a larger-later reward over a smaller-immediate reward; prior research is inconsistent with this prediction. We sought to replicate and extend these findings using a delay of gratification task in rats. The task included a defection response which allowed rats to reverse their preference after choosing a larger-later sucrose reinforcer to instead obtain a smaller-immediate sucrose reinforcer. In Experiment 1, we found that rats would defect on their choice of the larger-later reinforcer, systematically replicating prior research. We also found that experience on the delay of gratification task led to decreases in defection responses. In Experiment 2, we found that prior experience on an intertemporal choice task, with no opportunity to defect, also led to few defection responses on the delay of gratification task. We discuss our findings in the context of whether inhibitory control or temporal learning could be involved in delay of gratification.
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Peck S, Preston E, Smith KB, Madden GJ. Reducing impulsive choice: VIII. Effects of delay-exposure training in female rats. Behav Processes 2022; 197:104622. [PMID: 35301066 PMCID: PMC9013280 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice may play an important role in serious health-related decisions, like addiction tendencies. Thus, there is merit in exploring interventions that reduce impulsive choice. Delay-exposure training involves extended experience with delayed reinforcement. Following training, delay-exposed rats make fewer impulsive choices than control rats. The reducing effects of delay exposure training on impulsive choice have been replicated in male rats seven times. For the first time, this study evaluated the effects of delay exposure training in female rats. Thirty-six rats were randomly assigned to either delay-exposure or immediacy-exposure training. Then, rats underwent two impulsive choice assessments in which they chose between one immediate pellet or three delayed pellets. In the first assessment, delays increased within-sessions, across trial blocks from 0, 8, 16, to 32 s. In the second assessment, delays to the larger reward increased between-sessions, from 8, 16, 32, to 4 s. Unlike findings with male rats, delay-exposure training produced a reduction in impulsive choice only in the initial five sessions in female rats. Possible reasons for the lack of lasting effect in female rats are discussed and future research directions are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Peck
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, United States.
| | - Emma Preston
- Department of Special Education, Utah State University, United States
| | - Kelsey B Smith
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, United States
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Smith TR, Panfil K, Kirkpatrick K. Generalizability of time-based interventions: Effects of choice procedure and smaller-sooner delay. Behav Processes 2022; 196:104584. [PMID: 35033629 PMCID: PMC8897259 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Interventions exposing rats to delayed-reward contingencies attenuate suboptimal impulsive choices, a preference for a smaller-sooner (SS) over a larger-later (LL) reward. Interventions may potentially improve delay-tolerance, timing of delays, and/or discrimination of reward magnitudes. Generalization from the intervention to impulsive choice under different procedures can provide insights into the processes that underlie the intervention effects. Experiment 1 tested intervention effects on systematic-delay (SYS) and adjusting-delay (ADJ) procedures, predicting that intervention effects would be more effective on the SYS procedure with predictable delays. The ADJ procedure did not benefit significantly from intervention, but the SYS procedure, unexpectedly, showed greater impulsive choices following intervention. Experiment 2 tested whether short (5 s) SS intervention delays may have promoted greater impulsivity in the SYS impulsive choice procedure in Experiment 1. Short SS delays in choice and intervention procedures increased impulsive choices in comparison to longer (10 s) delays. Incongruent SS delays in the intervention/choice procedures resulted in negative intervention effects. The results suggest that short SS delays are detrimental to self-control and that specific temporal information generalizes from the intervention to the SYS choice task, but not the ADJ choice task.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelsey Panfil
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, United States.
| | - Kimberly Kirkpatrick
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, United States.
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Renda CR, Rung JM, Peck S, Madden GJ. Reducing impulsive choice VII: effects of duration of delay-exposure training. Anim Cogn 2020; 24:11-21. [PMID: 32642864 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01412-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Impulsive choice is related to substance use disorders, obesity, and other behaviors that negatively impact human health. Reducing impulsive choice may prove beneficial in ameliorating these maladaptive behaviors. Preclinical research in rats indicates that one reliable method for producing large and lasting reductions in impulsive choice is delay-exposure (DE) training. In all six of the prior DE-training experiments, rats were given extensive experience (~ 120 training sessions) with a delayed reinforcement contingency. The present experiment evaluated if similar large and lasting reductions in impulsive choice could be achieved with less training. The duration of DE training between groups of male Wistar rats was 0 sessions (training ended after a lever-pressing acquisition criterion was met), 30, 60, or 120 sessions. Comparison groups were given the same durations of training with immediate reinforcement. A post-training assessment of impulsive choice was completed using an increasing-delay procedure. For rats assigned to the 60-session condition, impulsive choice was reassessed at a 120-day follow-up. DE training reduced impulsive choice but, contrary to expectation, reductions in impulsive choice did not increase with DE-training duration (no significant training-duration by group interaction). Importantly, 60 sessions of DE training produced reductions in impulsive choice that were comparable to prior published findings and this effect remained significant at the 120-day follow-up. Procedural elements that may be responsible for the DE-training effect, and how they could be improved in future experiments, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Renee Renda
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84341, USA.
| | - Jillian M Rung
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, School of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Sara Peck
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
| | - Gregory J Madden
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT, 84341, USA
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Punishment and reinforcement by opioid receptor agonists in a choice procedure in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2020; 30:335-342. [PMID: 30320606 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Intravenous (i.v.) drug self-administration remains the 'gold standard' for assessing abuse potential of drugs. Failure of a drug to maintain self-administration might indicate merely the absence of positive-reinforcing effects but might also indicate presence of aversive effects. Sensitivity to aversive effects is thought to affect the initiation and maintenance of drug use as well as relapse. Choice procedures are used to study positive-reinforcing effects of drugs and to a much lesser extent to study punishing effects of drugs. Experiment 1 compared the μ-opioid receptor agonist remifentanil (0.001-0.01 mg/kg/infusion), the κ-opioid receptor agonist spiradoline (0.0056-0.056 mg/kg/infusion), and histamine (1.0 mg/kg/infusion) in rats choosing between a food pellet only and an i.v. infusion+a food pellet. To test whether a history with one punishing drug affects the punishing effects of a second drug, experiment 2 compared sensitivity with spiradoline in rats with and without a history of histamine punishment. All rats predominantly chose a pellet alone when histamine+a pellet was the alternative, and they predominantly chose remifentanil+a pellet over a pellet alone. In experiment 2, spiradoline was punishing in rats with a history of histamine punishment but not drug-naive rats. This food choice procedure is sensitive to reinforcing and punishing effects of different drugs in the same subjects, suggesting that the procedure is well-suited for studying drug mixtures (e.g. μ and κ agonists) and the impact of different physiological conditions (e.g. pain) on reinforcement and punishment.
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Panfil K, Bailey C, Davis I, Mains A, Kirkpatrick K. A time-based intervention to treat impulsivity in male and female rats. Behav Brain Res 2020; 379:112316. [PMID: 31655096 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Time-based interventions have emerged as promising treatments for disorders associated with impulsivity. These interventions can be implemented to test their efficacy in preventing or treating impulsive choice in animal models of diseases related to impulsivity such as drug abuse. Impulsive choice is typically defined as choosing a smaller-sooner (SS) reward over a larger-later (LL) reward when the LL is relatively more optimal. Previous research has shown that these interventions promote LL choices in males and females, but sex differences have not been assessed. Because sex differences can complicate the application of therapies, it is critical to compare the effects of the intervention in males and females. The intervention group received exposure to 10-s and 30-s interval schedules, and the control rats received no delay to reward. Different impulsive choice tasks were used to assess the intervention efficacy across the two experiments. Following the intervention, reductions in impulsive choice were found in male and female rats, but the degree of improvement was inconsistent across sex and task. Bayesian analyses that combined the results revealed robust evidence of an overall intervention effect with the intervention group showing greater self-control, but there was no evidence for the intervention affecting males and females differently. Taken together, these results suggest that time-based interventions are effective tools to treat impulsivity in both males and females and offer promising translational capability to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Panfil
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States.
| | - Carrie Bailey
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States; University of Missouri, KS, United States
| | - Ian Davis
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, United States
| | - Anne Mains
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States
| | - Kimberly Kirkpatrick
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States
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García-Leal Ó, Barrón E, Camarena-Pérez H, Vílchez Z. Response rate correlates with indifference points in a delay-discounting procedure. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 112:167-176. [PMID: 31523830 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
To study how effort affects reward value, we replicated Fortes, Vasconcelos and Machado's (2015) study using an adjusting-delay task. Nine pigeons chose between a standard alternative that gave access to 4 s of food, after a 10 s delay, and an adjusting-delay alternative that gave access to 12 s of food after a delay that changed dynamically with the pigeons' choices, decreasing when they preferred the standard alternative, and increasing when they preferred the adjusting alternative. The delay value at which preference stabilized defined the indifference point, a measure of reward value. To manipulate effort across phases, we varied the response rate required during the delay of the standard alternative. Results showed that a) the indifference point increased in the higher-response-rate phases, suggesting that reward value decreased with effort, and b) in the higher-response-rate phases, response rate in the standard alternative was linearly related to the indifference point. We advance several conceptions of how effort may change perceived delay or amount and thereby affect reward value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Óscar García-Leal
- Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones en Comportamiento, Universidad de Guadalajara
| | - Erick Barrón
- Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones en Comportamiento, Universidad de Guadalajara
| | | | - Zirahuén Vílchez
- Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones en Comportamiento, Universidad de Guadalajara
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Peck S, Rung JM, Hinnenkamp JE, Madden GJ. Reducing impulsive choice: VI. Delay-exposure training reduces aversion to delay-signaling stimuli. PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS 2019; 34:147-155. [PMID: 31343195 DOI: 10.1037/adb0000495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Delay-exposure (DE) training consistently and robustly reduces impulsive choice in rats, but the behavioral mechanisms behind this effect are not yet understood. The present study evaluated if DE training works by mitigating aversion to delay-signaling stimuli-those encountered when rats chose the larger-later reward in impulsive choice assessments. Fifty-seven rats were randomly assigned to 120 days of training with delayed reinforcement, training with immediate reinforcement (IE), or to a no-training Control group. Consistent with prior experiments, DE rats made significantly fewer impulsive choices than IE or Control rats. Subsequently, in a separate assessment of delay aversion, rats were given the opportunity to press a lever to temporarily escape from stimuli correlated with long or short time-intervals to food. When these escape opportunities terminated delay-signaling stimuli in the impulsive-choice task, DE rats escaped significantly less than IE and Control rats. When escapes terminated FI-signaling stimuli (a procedure in which there is no response-reinforcer delay), the difference only approached significance. These results support the hypothesis that DE training reduces impulsive choice, in part, by reducing aversion to delay-signaling stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Yohn SE, Galbraith J, Calipari ES, Conn PJ. Shared Behavioral and Neurocircuitry Disruptions in Drug Addiction, Obesity, and Binge Eating Disorder: Focus on Group I mGluRs in the Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:2125-2143. [PMID: 30933466 PMCID: PMC7898461 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulated data from clinical and preclinical studies suggest that, in drug addiction and states of overeating, such as obesity and binge eating disorder (BED), there is an imbalance in circuits that are critical for motivation, reward saliency, executive function, and self-control. Central to these pathologies and the extensive topic of this Review are the aberrations in dopamine (DA) and glutamate (Glu) within the mesolimbic pathway. Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlus) are highly expressed in the mesolimbic pathway and are poised in key positions to modulate disruptions in synaptic plasticity and neurotransmitter release observed in drug addiction, obesity, and BED. The use of allosteric modulators of group I mGlus has been studied in drug addiction, as they offer several advantages over traditional orthosteric agents. However, they have yet to be studied in obesity or BED. With the substantial overlap between the neurocircuitry involved in drug addiction and eating disorders, group I mGlus may also provide novel targets for obesity and BED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha E. Yohn
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
| | - Jordan Galbraith
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
| | - Erin S. Calipari
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
| | - P. Jeffrey Conn
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, United States
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Changing Delay Discounting and Impulsive Choice: Implications for Addictions, Prevention, and Human Health. Perspect Behav Sci 2019; 42:397-417. [PMID: 31650104 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-019-00200-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Delay discounting describes the tendency to devalue delayed consequences or future prospects. The degree to which an individual discounts delayed events appears trait-like in that it is stable over time and across functionally similar situations. Steeply discounting delayed rewards is correlated with most substance-use disorders, the severity of these disorders, rates of relapse to drug use, and a host of other maladaptive decisions impacting human health. Longitudinal data suggest steep delay discounting and high levels of impulsive choice are predictive of subsequent drug taking, which suggests (though does not establish) that reducing delay discounting could have a preventive health-promoting effect. Experimental manipulations that produce momentary or long-lasting reductions in delay discounting or impulsive choice are reviewed, and behavioral mechanisms that may underlie these effects are discussed. Shortcomings of each manipulation technique are discussed and areas for future research are identified. While much work remains, it is clear that impulsive decision-making can be reduced, despite its otherwise trait-like qualities. Such findings invite technique refinement, translational research, and hope.
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Yang W, Liu Y. Improving Maladaptive Behavior: The Effect of Episodic Foresight on Delay Discounting and Its Mechanism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.4236/psych.2019.101002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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15
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Fox AE, Visser EJ, Nicholson AM. Interventions aimed at changing impulsive choice in rats: Effects of immediate and relatively long delay to reward training. Behav Processes 2018; 158:126-136. [PMID: 30468886 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A relatively strong preference for smaller-sooner rewards (SSR) over larger-later rewards (LLR) is associated with a host of maladaptive behavioral patterns. As such, the clinical implications for increasing preference for LLR are profound. There is a growing body of literature that suggests extended exposure to delayed reward may increase preference for LLR in rats. However, questions remain about the underlying mechanism driving this effect and the extent to which extended exposure to immediate rewards may decrease LLR choice. In Experiment 1, we tested effects of a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rates schedule (DRL) to increase LLR choice using a pretest/posttest design with Wistar rats as subjects. We compared this group to a group of rats exposed to a differential-reinforcement-of-high-rates schedule (DRH). The DRH intervention has never been employed in this research context, but explicitly programs an immediate response-reinforcement requirement. In Experiment 2, we tested effects of an intervention with a delay longer than those used in the delay discounting pretest and posttest. No previous research has tested effects of an intervention delay this long, relative to the delay discounting task. We compared this group to a group exposed to a delay that was part of the delay discounting pretest and posttest and to a group exposed to a traditional no-delay, fixed-ratio (FR) 2 control intervention. In both experiments, we found that exposure to delayed rewards in the intervention phase significantly increased LLR choice relative to pretest performance. These findings replicate and extend a growing body of literature showing that delay exposure increases preference for LLR. We also found significant decreases in LLR choice from pretest to posttest in the DRH and no-delay intervention groups in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. This is the first report of such an effect and has implications for understanding and interpreting effects of delay exposure training in past and future research. Our results also suggested no relationship between improved temporal tracking of reward and increases in LLR choice as a result of delay exposure training.
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Stuebing SL, Marshall AT, Triplett A, Kirkpatrick K. Females in the forefront: time-based intervention effects on impulsive choice and interval timing in female rats. Anim Cogn 2018; 21:759-772. [PMID: 30109539 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-1208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice has been implicated in substance abuse, gambling, obesity, and other maladaptive behaviors. Deficits in interval timing may increase impulsive choices, and therefore, could serve as an avenue through which suboptimal impulsive choices can be moderated. Temporal interventions have successfully attenuated impulsive choices in male rats, but the efficacy of a temporal intervention has yet to be assessed in female rats. As such, this experiment examined timing and choice behavior in female rats, and evaluated the ability of a temporal intervention to mitigate impulsive choice behavior. The temporal intervention administered in this study was successful in reducing impulsive choices compared to a control group. Results of a temporal bisection task indicated that the temporal intervention increased long responses at the shorter durations. Further, results from the peak trials within the choice task combined with the progressive interval task suggest that the intervention increased sensitivity to delay and enhanced timing confidence. Overall, these results indicate that a temporal intervention can be a successful avenue for reducing impulsive choice behavior in female rats, and could contribute to the development of behavioral interventions to prevent impulsive choice and maladaptive behaviors that can be applied to both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Stuebing
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, 492 Bluemont Hall, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA.
| | - Andrew T Marshall
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, 492 Bluemont Hall, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, and Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90027, USA
| | - Ashton Triplett
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, 492 Bluemont Hall, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA.,Department of Counseling and Psychological Services, State University of New York-Oswego, Oswego, NY, 13126, USA
| | - Kimberly Kirkpatrick
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, 492 Bluemont Hall, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
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Rung JM, Buhusi CV, Madden GJ. Reducing impulsive choice: V. The role of timing in delay-exposure training. Behav Processes 2018; 157:557-561. [PMID: 29704551 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive decision-making is common in addiction-related disorders, with some research suggesting it plays a causal role in their development. Therefore, reducing impulsive decision-making may prevent or reduce addiction-related behaviors. Recent research shows that prolonged experience with response-contingent delayed reward (delay exposure [DE] training) reduces impulsive choice in rats, but it is unclear what behavioral mechanisms underlie this effect. The present study evaluated whether improvements in interval timing mediate the effects of DE training on impulsive choice. Thirty-nine Long-Evans rats were randomly assigned to groups completing DE, immediacy-, or no-exposure training, followed by impulsive-choice and timing tasks (temporal bisection). Despite replicating the DE effect on impulsive choice, timing accuracy and precision were unaffected by DE training and unrelated to impulsive choice. The present findings did not replicate previous reports that timing precision and impulsive choice are related, which may be due to between-laboratory differences in impulsive choice tasks. Continued research to identify candidate behavioral mechanisms of DE training may assist in improving training efficacy and facilitating translational efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian M Rung
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, United States.
| | - Catalin V Buhusi
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Utah State University, United States
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18
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Renee Renda C, Rung JM, Hinnenkamp JE, Lenzini SN, Madden GJ. Impulsive choice and pre-exposure to delays: iv. effects of delay- and immediacy-exposure training relative to maturational changes in impulsivity. J Exp Anal Behav 2018; 109:587-599. [PMID: 29683190 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice describes preference for smaller, sooner rewards over larger, later rewards. Excessive delay discounting (i.e., rapid devaluation of delayed rewards) underlies some impulsive choices, and is observed in many maladaptive behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, gambling). Interventions designed to reduce delay discounting may provide therapeutic gains. One such intervention provides rats with extended training with delayed reinforcers. When compared to a group given extended training with immediate reinforcers, delay-exposed rats make significantly fewer impulsive choices. To what extent is this difference due to delay-exposure training shifting preference toward self-control or immediacy-exposure training (the putative control group) shifting preference toward impulsivity? The current study compared the effects of delay- and immediacy-exposure training to a no-training control group and evaluated within-subject changes in impulsive choice across 51 male Wistar rats. Delay-exposed rats made significantly fewer impulsive choices than immediacy-exposed and control rats. Between-group differences in impulsive choice were not observed in the latter two groups. While delay-exposed rats showed large, significant pre- to posttraining reductions in impulsive choice, immediacy-exposed and control rats showed small reductions in impulsive choice. These results suggest that extended training with delayed reinforcers reduces impulsive choice, and that extended training with immediate reinforcers does not increase impulsive choice.
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Eckard ML, Kyonka EGE. Differential reinforcement of low rates differentially decreased timing precision. Behav Processes 2018; 151:111-118. [PMID: 29608943 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Timing processes have been implicated as potential mechanisms that underlie self-controlled choice. To investigate the impact of an intervention that has been shown to increase self-controlled choice on timing processes, accuracy and precision of temporal discrimination were assessed in an 18-s peak procedure (18-s fixed interval trials; 54-s peak trials). During an intervention phase, mice in three treatment groups experienced differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) schedules of reinforcement of 27 s, 18 s, or 9 s. A fourth group received continued exposure to the peak procedure. After the DRL intervention, timing was reassessed using the peak procedure. In contrast to previous reports, the DRL intervention resulted in less precise timing as indicated by increased peak spread and disrupted single-trial measures of temporal control. These effects were only detected just after the DRL intervention suggesting a transient effect of DRL exposure on timing. The increase in peak spread in the present experiment suggests delay exposure via DRL schedules may produce a "dose-dependent" effect on temporal discrimination, which may also increase self-controlled choice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth G E Kyonka
- Psychology and Behavioural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.
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20
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Bailey C, Peterson JR, Schnegelsiepen A, Stuebing SL, Kirkpatrick K. Durability and generalizability of time-based intervention effects on impulsive choice in rats. Behav Processes 2018; 152:54-62. [PMID: 29544866 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice involves choosing a smaller-sooner (SS) reward over a larger-later (LL) reward. Due to the importance of timing processes in impulsive choice, time-based interventions have been developed to decrease impulsive choice. The present set of experiments assessed the durability and generalizability of time-based interventions. Experiment 1 assessed fixed interval (FI) or variable interval (VI) intervention efficacy over 9 months. The FI intervention decreased impulsive choice, and this effect persisted over time, but the VI intervention effects were only apparent when tested immediately after the intervention. Experiment 2 examined the generalizability of the FI and VI interventions on choice tasks manipulating the SS delay, LL delay, or LL magnitude. The FI intervention decreased sensitivity to delay, promoting LL choices in both delay tasks, but the VI intervention only altered choices when manipulating the SS delay. Experiment 3 further examined the FI intervention effects on tasks that manipulated the LL delay or magnitude immediately following the intervention. The intervention decreased sensitivity to both delay and magnitude. The experiments indicate that the FI intervention is effective at decreasing impulsive choice behavior for an extended period across changing delays and magnitudes, suggesting a relatively broad effect on choice behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie Bailey
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States.
| | - Jennifer R Peterson
- Department of Psychology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, 99775, United States
| | - Aaron Schnegelsiepen
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States
| | - Sarah L Stuebing
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States
| | - Kimberly Kirkpatrick
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, United States
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21
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Ahmed SH. Individual decision-making in the causal pathway to addiction: contributions and limitations of rodent models. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 164:22-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Revised: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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22
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Peterson JR, Kirkpatrick K. The effects of a time-based intervention on experienced middle-aged rats. Behav Processes 2016; 133:44-51. [PMID: 27826006 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Impulsive behavior is a common symptom in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, schizophrenia, drug abuse, smoking, obesity and compulsive gambling. Stable levels of impulsive choice have been found in humans and rats and a recent study reported significant test-retest reliability of impulsive choice behavior after 1 and 5 months in rats. Time-based behavioral interventions have been successful in decreasing impulsive choices. These interventions led to improvements in the ability to time and respond more appropriately to adventitious choices. The current study examined the use of a time-based intervention in experienced, middle-aged rats. This intervention utilized a variable interval schedule previously found to be successful in improving timing and decreasing impulsive choice. This study found that the intervention led to a decrease in impulsive choices and there was a significant correlation between the improvement in self-control and post-intervention temporal precision in middle-aged rats. Although there were no overall group differences in bisection performance, individual differences were observed, suggesting an improvement in timing. This is an important contribution to the field because previous studies have utilized only young rats and because previous research indicates a decrease in general timing abilities with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Peterson
- Kansas State University, United States; University of Alaska, Fairbanks, United States.
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23
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Stein JS, Wilson AG, Koffarnus MN, Daniel TO, Epstein LH, Bickel WK. Unstuck in time: episodic future thinking reduces delay discounting and cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:3771-3778. [PMID: 27553824 PMCID: PMC9812225 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4410-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Delay discounting, or the devaluation of delayed outcomes, appears to play an etiological role in tobacco and other substance-use disorders. OBJECTIVES No human studies to our knowledge have been designed to examine whether experimental reductions in delay discounting produce concomitant reduction in drug use. METHODS Using methods from prior studies on delay discounting and obesity, we examined the effects of episodic future thinking (EFT; a form of mental prospection) on delay discounting and cigarette self-administration in smokers. RESULTS Consistent with prior data, EFT significantly reduced both delay discounting (Cohen's d effect size = 0.65) and the number of cigarette puffs earned in a cigarette self-administration task (d = 0.58). CONCLUSIONS The effects of EFT on delay discounting generalize to smokers; EFT also reduces laboratory-based cigarette self-administration. Potential mechanisms of EFT's effects are discussed as well as implications of EFT for clinical treatment of substance-use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Stein
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | | | - Mikhail N Koffarnus
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | | | | | - Warren K Bickel
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA.
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Renda CR, Madden GJ. Impulsive choice and pre-exposure to delays: III. Four-month test-retest outcomes in male wistar rats. Behav Processes 2016; 126:108-12. [PMID: 27016155 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Delay discounting describes the tendency for organisms to devalue outcomes because they are delayed. Robust, positive correlations exist between excessive delay discounting and many maladaptive behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, obesity). Several studies have demonstrated that delay discounting can be reduced and this may hold promise for improving treatment outcomes. One method of reducing delay discounting provides rats with extended training with delayed reinforcement (i.e., delay-exposure training) and this significantly reduces impulsive choices, relative to rats trained with an equal number of immediate-reinforcement sessions (i.e., immediate-exposure training). To evaluate the stability of this effect, 12 weanling male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to receive either delay-exposure or immediate-exposure training for 120 sessions. Impulsive choice was assessed using an increasing-delay procedure immediately following training and 120 days after completion of the initial assessment. Delay-exposed rats discounted delayed food rewards significantly less than immediate-exposed rats in the initial assessment and the reassessment conducted 120 days later. These results are encouraging as they suggest that the effects of delay-exposure training are robust to the passage of time and intervening experience.
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Peterson JR, Hill CC, Marshall AT, Stuebing SL, Kirkpatrick K. I can't wait: Methods for measuring and moderating individual differences in impulsive choice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 13:89-99. [PMID: 27695664 DOI: 10.1515/jafio-2015-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Impulsive choice behavior occurs when individuals make choices without regard for future consequences. This behavior is often maladaptive and is a common symptom in many disorders, including drug abuse, compulsive gambling, and obesity. Several proposed mechanisms may influence impulsive choice behavior. These mechanisms provide a variety of pathways that may provide the basis for individual differences that are often evident when measuring choice behavior. This review provides an overview of these different pathways to impulsive choice, and the behavioral intervention strategies being developed to moderate impulsive choice. Because of the compelling link between impulsive choice behavior and the near-epidemic pervasiveness of obesity in the United States, we focus on the relationship between impulsive choice behavior and obesity as a test case for application of the multiple pathways approach. Choosing immediate gratification over healthier long term food choices is a contributing factor to the obesity crisis. Behavioral interventions can lead to more self controlled choices in a rat pre-clinical model, suggesting a possible gateway for translation to human populations. Designing and implementing effective impulsive choice interventions is crucial to improving the overall health and well-being of impulsive individuals.
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26
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Stein JS, Renda CR, Barker SM, Liston KJ, Shahan TA, Madden GJ. Impulsive choice predicts anxiety-like behavior, but not alcohol or sucrose consumption, in male Long-Evans rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 39:932-40. [PMID: 25828240 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prior human research indicates robust, positive relations between impulsive choice (i.e., preference for smaller, immediate over larger, delayed rewards) and alcohol use disorders. However, varied findings in the nonhuman literature reveal a relatively ambiguous relation between impulsive choice and alcohol consumption in rodents. In addition, few rodent studies have investigated potential relations between impulsive choice and common covariates of alcohol consumption (e.g., avidity for sweet substances or anxiety-like behavior). METHODS Ninety-two male Long-Evans rats completed an impulsive-choice task. From this larger sample, extreme high- and low-impulsive groups (n = 30 each) were retained for further testing. In separate tests, subsequent open-field behavior and consumption of oral alcohol (12% w/v) and isocaloric sucrose were examined. Impulsive choice was then retested to examine whether behavior remained stable over the course of the experiment. RESULTS No significant relations emerged between impulsive choice and either alcohol or sucrose consumption. However, impulsive choice predicted greater anxiety-like behavior (avoidance of the center field, defecation) in the open-field test. In turn, greater anxiety predicted lower alcohol and sucrose consumption. Finally, choice remained generally stable across the experiment, although high-impulsive rats tended toward less impulsive choice in the retest. CONCLUSIONS Although impulsive choice and alcohol consumption appear to share some variance with anxiety-like behavior, the present data offer no support for a relation between impulsive choice and alcohol consumption in Long-Evans rats. Together with mixed rodent data from prior reports, these findings attenuate cross-species comparisons to human relations between impulsive choice and alcohol use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Stein
- the Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
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27
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Ashe ML, Newman MG, Wilson SJ. Delay discounting and the use of mindful attention versus distraction in the treatment of drug addiction: a conceptual review. J Exp Anal Behav 2015; 103:234-48. [PMID: 25545725 PMCID: PMC4410050 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, researchers have integrated measurements of delay discounting, how the subjective valuation of a reward changes as a function of time, into their study of addiction. Research has begun to explore the idea that delay discounting may serve as both a marker for the effectiveness of existing treatments for addiction and a potential target for novel intervention strategies. As this work is in its infancy, many potentially significant connections between the construct of delay discounting and the treatment of addiction have yet to be explored. Here, we present a conceptual review highlighting novel points of intersection between delay discounting and two approaches to treating addiction that have become increasingly popular in recent years: those that focus on the development of mindfulness skills and those that emphasize the use of distraction techniques. Viewing these two techniques through the lens of delay discounting is particularly intriguing because of the very different way that they address the experience of drug cravings in the present moment (nonjudgmentally attending to vs. shifting attention away from subjective cravings, respectively). We propose that these opposing strategies for dealing with cravings may interact with delay discounting in ways that have important implications for treatment effectiveness.
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