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Ketterer-Sykes EB, Saraceno E, Hough F, Wyse M, Restifo-Bernstein G, Blais AY, Khondokar M, Hoen P, López HH. Anxiolytic treatment of a trapped rat reduces helping and anxiogenic treatment increases helping: Evidence for emotional contagion in altruism. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 244:173846. [PMID: 39127241 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2024] [Revised: 08/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024]
Abstract
The present experiment used the trapped rat model to explore whether pharmacological manipulation of distress affects the likelihood of helping behavior. 120 Sprague-Dawley rats (30 male pairs and 30 female pairs) completed 12 consecutive, daily trials assessing helping behavior. During an individual trial, a trapped rat was placed in a restrainer in the center of an open field, while its cagemate could move around freely and possibly open the restrainer by lifting a door. Trapped rats received an intraperitoneal injection of either 1) physiological saline, 2) the anxiolytic midazolam (1.5 mg/kg), or 3) the anxiogenic yohimbine (2.5 mg/kg) 30 min prior to the start of each trial. Dependent variables measured were: 1) door opening latency (sec), 2) percentage of trials in which a door opening occurred, and 3) the number of free rats classified as "openers." Based on emotional contagion theory, we predicted that 1) free rats paired with midazolam-subjects would show attenuated helping behavior (e.g., higher door opening latency) compared to controls, and conversely 2) free rats paired with yohimbine-subjects would show enhanced helping behavior. First, a significant sex-difference was observed, in that more females were classified as openers than males. This supports previous evidence that females express higher altruistic motivation and experience stronger emotional contagion than males. Second, midazolam-treatment significantly attenuated helping behavior. From trials 4-12, free rats paired with midazolam-subjects expressed slower door opening latencies compared to controls. Third, yohimbine-treatment significantly increased helping behavior (e.g., reduced door opening latencies) - but only on trials 1-3; by trials 9-12, this pattern was reversed. These results are consistent with emotional contagion theory and indicate that intensity of distress directly modulates altruistic motivation through vicarious state-matching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor B Ketterer-Sykes
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Elisabeth Saraceno
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Frances Hough
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Maya Wyse
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Gabriella Restifo-Bernstein
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Allison Y Blais
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Maisha Khondokar
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Penn Hoen
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America
| | - Hassan H López
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States of America.
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Nugroho DAA, Kusrohmaniah S, Pilz E, Krikorian C, Kearns D, Slotnick B, Gomez M, Silberberg A. No evidence tube entrapment distresses rodents in typical empathy tests. Anim Cogn 2024; 27:29. [PMID: 38558203 PMCID: PMC10984888 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01863-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
In the first two experiments an empty tube open at one end was placed in different locations. Male hamsters, tested one at a time, tended to stay close to the tube or in it. During the first minute of the first 4 sessions of Experiment 3, the hamster was unrestrained. If it entered the tube, it was locked within the tube. If it did not enter the tube during the first min, it was placed in it, and the tube was locked. Fifteen min later, the tube was opened, and the hamster was unrestrained for a further 20 min. The tube remained open during Session 5. Hamsters spent more time near the tube than predicted by chance and continued to enter the tube although tube-occupancy duration did not differ from chance levels. In Experiment 4, male rats were tested in two groups: rats in one group had been previously trapped in a tube and rats in the other group allowed to freely explore the test space. For the first two min of each of four 20-min sessions, trapped-group subjects were permitted to move about the chamber unless they entered the tube. In that case, they were locked in for the remainder of the session. If, after two min, they did not enter the tube, they were locked in it for the remaining 18 min. Free rats were unrestricted in all sessions. In Session 5, when both groups were permitted to move freely in the chamber, trapped and free rats spent more time in and near the tube than predicted by chance. These data show tube restraint does not seem to distress either hamsters or rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sri Kusrohmaniah
- Fakultas Psikologi, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Emma Pilz
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - Clare Krikorian
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - David Kearns
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - Burton Slotnick
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - Maria Gomez
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA
| | - Alan Silberberg
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20016, USA.
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3
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Lattal KA, Okouchi H. Stimulus control of a social operant. J Exp Anal Behav 2023; 120:330-343. [PMID: 37750037 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Three pigeon dyads were exposed to a two-component multiple schedule comprised of two tandem variable-interval 30-s interresponse time (IRT) > 3-s schedules in the presence of different stimuli. Pecks to keys by both pigeons of a dyad occurring within 500 ms of one another were required for reinforcement under one tandem schedule (the coordination component), and such coordinated responses were not required under the other (the control component). The terminal link of each schedule ensured that the reinforced coordination response was an IRT > 3 s. Rates of coordinated IRTs > 3 s and total rates of coordinated responses (composed of IRTs > 3 s and IRTs ≤ 3 s) were higher in the coordination components than in either of two different control components in which coordination was not required for reinforcement. This difference in coordinated responses in the presence and absence of the coordination requirement under stimulus control transitorily deteriorated and then was reestablished when the relation between the stimulus and the coordination contingency or its absence was reversed. The results show coordinated responding to function as a discriminated social operant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kennon A Lattal
- Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Hiroto Okouchi
- Department of Psychology, Osaka Kyoiku University, Osaka, Japan
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4
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Enghelhardt SC, Paulsson NI, Taborsky M. Assessment of help value affects reciprocation in Norway rats. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:231253. [PMID: 37885980 PMCID: PMC10598426 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Wild-type Norway rats reciprocate help received in a well-replicated experimental food-giving task, but the criteria to appraise the received help's value are unclear. We tested whether quality or quantity of received help is more important when deciding to return help, and whether partner familiarity and own current need affect this evaluation. We experimentally varied recipients of help's hunger state, and familiar or unfamiliar partners provided either higher caloric food (enhanced quantity; carrots) or food higher in protein and fat (enhanced quality; cheese). Reciprocation of received help was our criterion for the rats' value assessment. Familiarity, food type and hunger state interacted and affected help returned by rats. Rats returned less help to familiar partners than to unfamiliar partners. With unfamiliar partners, rats returned more help to partners that had donated preferred food (cheese) than to partners that had donated less preferred food (carrots), and they returned help earlier if they were satiated and had received cheese. With familiar partners, food-deprived rats that had received cheese returned more help than satiated rats that had received carrots. Our results suggest that Norway rats assess the received help's value based on its quality, their current need and partner familiarity before reciprocating received help.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sacha C. Enghelhardt
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Niklas I. Paulsson
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Taborsky
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, 78467 Konstanz, Germany
- Institute for Advanced Study (Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin), 14193 Berlin, Germany
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Schulingkamp R, Wan H, Hackenberg TD. Social familiarity and reinforcement value: a behavioral-economic analysis of demand for social interaction with cagemate and non-cagemate female rats. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1158365. [PMID: 37251070 PMCID: PMC10213623 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1158365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Rats were studied in social reinforcement procedures in which lever presses opened a door separating two adjacent spaces, permitting access to social interaction with a partner rat. The number of lever presses required for social interaction was systematically increased across blocks of sessions according to fixed-ratio schedules, generating demand functions at three different social reinforcement durations: 10 s, 30 s, and 60 s. The social partner rats were cagemates in one phase, and non-cagemates in a second phase. The rate at which social interactions were produced declined with the fixed-ratio price, and was well described by an exponential model that has been successfully employed with a range of social and non-social reinforcers. None of the main parameters of the model varied systematically with social interaction duration or with the social familiarity of the partner rat. On the whole, the results provide further evidence of the reinforcing value of social interaction, and its functional parallels with non-social reinforcers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Haoran Wan
- Department of Psychology, Reed College, Portland, OR, United States
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
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Chen YQ, Han S, Yin B. Why help others? Insights from rodent to human early childhood research. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1058352. [PMID: 37025110 PMCID: PMC10070705 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1058352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Helping behavior are actions aiming at assisting another individual in need or to relieve their distress. The occurrence of this behavior not only depends on automated physiological mechanisms, such as imitation or emotional contagion, that is, the individual's emotion and physiological state matching with others, but also needs motivation to sustain. From a comparative and developmental perspective, we discover that the motivation for helping behavior has a deep foundation both phylogenetically and ontogenetically. For example, empathic concern for others, relieving personal distress and the desire for social contact are universal motivations across rodents, non-human primates and human early childhoods. Therefore, a circle-layered model integrating evidences for motivation for helping behavior from rodent to human early childhood research is proposed: the inner circle contains the emotional-behavioral system and the outer circle contains the affective-cognitive system. The application of this model has significance for both behavioral neuroscience research and cultivating prosocial behavior in human society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qin Chen
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shu Han
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Bin Yin
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- *Correspondence: Bin Yin,
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Imam AA. Remarkably reproducible psychological (memory) phenomena in the classroom: some evidence for generality from small-N research. BMC Psychol 2022; 10:274. [PMID: 36419180 PMCID: PMC9685964 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-022-00982-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mainstream psychology is experiencing a crisis of confidence. Many of the methodological solutions offered in response have focused largely on statistical alternatives to null hypothesis statistical testing, ignoring nonstatistical remedies that are readily available within psychology; namely, use of small-N designs. In fact, many classic memory studies that have passed the test of replicability used them. That methodological legacy warranted a retrospective look at nonexperimental data to explore the generality of the reported effects. METHOD Various classroom demonstrations were conducted over multiple semesters in introductory psychology courses with typical, mostly freshman students from a predominantly white private Catholic university in the US Midwest based on classic memory experiments on immediate memory span, chunking, and depth of processing. RESULTS Students tended to remember 7 ± 2 digits, remembered more digits of π following an attached meaningful story, and remembered more words after elaborative rehearsal than after maintenance rehearsal. These results amount to replications under uncontrolled classroom environments of the classic experiments originally conducted largely outside of null hypothesis statistical testing frameworks. CONCLUSIONS In light of the ongoing replication crisis in psychology, the results are remarkable and noteworthy, validating these historically important psychological findings. They are testament to the reliability of reproducible effects as the hallmark of empirical findings in science and suggest an alternative approach to commonly proffered solutions to the replication crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulrazaq A. Imam
- grid.258192.50000 0001 2295 5682Department of Psychology, John Carroll University, 1 John Carroll Blvd, University Heights, OH 44118 USA
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8
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Lattal KA, Fernandez EJ. Grounding applied animal behavior practices in the experimental analysis of behavior. J Exp Anal Behav 2022; 118:186-207. [PMID: 36043528 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Some of the earliest applications outside the laboratory of principles derived from the experimental analysis of behavior (EAB), such as the pioneering work of Keller and Marian Breland, involved animals. This translational tradition continues to the present as EAB-related behavior principles are applied with increasing frequency to behavior management and training practices with animals in nonlaboratory settings. Such translations, and those populations to which they are applied, benefit from a rigorous experimental analysis of practices that are promulgated in popular outlets. These translations both affirm the generality of those principles and serve as goads for laboratory and field research that can further articulate extant principles, develop new ones, and refine methods of application and assessment. This review considered several areas of basic EAB research and contemporary applied animal behavior (AAB) practices in relation to one another: (1) response establishment and maintenance, (2) response reduction and elimination, (3) chaining and conditioned reinforcement, and (4) discriminative stimulus control. Within each topic, a selection of processes and procedures in both EAB and AAB work were reviewed in relation to one another.
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9
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Kirkman C, Wan H, Hackenberg TD. A behavioral-economic analysis of demand and preference for social and food reinforcement in rats. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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10
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Blystad MH. An opinion on the interpretation of social release in rats. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20210355. [PMID: 34784801 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This commentary concerns a controversial animal model in rodent social release research wherein one rat releases another rat from entrapment in a plastic tube. Release from the plastic tube has been proposed as a model to study empathically motivated behaviour. However, empathic motivations have been contested by others who have provided evidence for social reinforcement motivating release behaviour. Furthermore, helping, or other forms of pro-social behaviour could exist independent of empathy or empathetic motivation and the stimuli occasioning this helping behaviour are not known. In addition, there is a dearth in the citations of published studies whose results fail to support this model. In other words, the controversial aspect of the rodent social release model is often overlooked. This controversy is described in the current opinion piece.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Blystad
- Department of Psychology, Oslo New University College, Lovisenberggata 13, N-0456 Oslo, Norway.,Oslo Metropolitan University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Behavioural Science, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
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11
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Miler K, Turza F. "O Sister, Where Art Thou?"-A Review on Rescue of Imperiled Individuals in Ants. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:1079. [PMID: 34827072 PMCID: PMC8614747 DOI: 10.3390/biology10111079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Altruism is defined as an action that decreases the lifetime direct fitness of an actor and benefits one or more recipients. This phenomenon, which is generally difficult to understand and explain, requires special research attention. The subject of this review, rescue, is a type of altruistic behavior in which the actor puts itself at risk to save another individual, the recipient, that is in danger. The highest numbers of published empirical works have been devoted to rescue behavior in ants and they have enormous potential for further study. We review studies devoted to the subject and group them into four main areas of research on ant rescue actions: (1) variation in rescue behavior activity on a between-individual scale, (2) factors contributing to the evolution of rescue behavior on a between-species scale, (3) rescue behavior releaser signals and (4) rescue behavior benefits and costs. We highlight the progress in research on rescue behavior in ants, indicate that this behavior is probably much more common than previously thought yet thus far demonstrated in only a few species, and uncover research gaps and open questions that remain unexplored. We additionally point out some gaps in knowledge that become evident when research devoted to rescue behavior in rats, the second most studied group of animals in this context, is briefly overviewed. We hope to help navigate among studies on rescue behavior and provide the most up-to-date summary of the relevant literature. Moreover, we hope to encourage and facilitate researchers in behavioral ecology and other subdisciplines to further experimentally analyze rescue behavior, not only in ants but also in other taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Miler
- Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-016 Kraków, Poland
| | - Filip Turza
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
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12
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Kalamari A, Kentrop J, Hinna Danesi C, Graat EAM, van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Joëls M, van der Veen R. Complex Housing, but Not Maternal Deprivation Affects Motivation to Liberate a Trapped Cage-Mate in an Operant Rat Task. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:698501. [PMID: 34512284 PMCID: PMC8427758 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.698501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Early life environment influences the development of various aspects of social behavior, particularly during sensitive developmental periods. We studied how challenges in the early postnatal period or (early) adolescence affect pro-social behavior. To this end, we designed a lever-operated liberation task, to be able to measure motivation to liberate a trapped conspecific (by progressively increasing required lever pressing for door-opening). Liberation of the trapped rat resulted either in social contact or in liberation into a separate compartment. Additionally, a condition was tested in which both rats could freely move in two separate compartments and lever pressing resulted in social contact. When partners were not trapped, rats were more motivated to press the lever for opening the door than in either of the trapped configurations. Contrary to our expectations, the trapped configuration resulted in a reduced motivation to act. Early postnatal stress (24 h maternal deprivation on postnatal day 3) did not affect behavior in the liberation task. However, rearing rats from early adolescence onwards in complex housing conditions (Marlau cages) reduced the motivation to door opening, both in the trapped and freely moving conditions, while the motivation for a sucrose reward was not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Kalamari
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jiska Kentrop
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Chiara Hinna Danesi
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Evelien A M Graat
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Marinus H van IJzendoorn
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,Primary Care Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Marian Joëls
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen University, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Rixt van der Veen
- Brain Plasticity group, SILS Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Abstract
Here, we provide unique photo documentation and observational evidence of rescue behaviour described for the first time in wild boar. Rescue behaviour represents an extreme form of prosocial behaviour that has so far only been demonstrated in a few species. It refers to a situation when one individual acts to help another individual that finds itself in a dangerous or stressful situation and it is considered by some authors as a complex form of empathy. We documented a case in which an adult female wild boar manipulated wooden logs securing the door mechanism of a cage trap and released two entrapped young wild boars. The whole rescue was fast and particular behaviours were complex and precisely targeted, suggesting profound prosocial tendencies and exceptional problem-solving capacities in wild boar. The rescue behaviour might have been motivated by empathy because the rescuer female exhibited piloerection, a sign of distress, indicating an empathetic emotional state matching or understanding the victims. We discuss this rescue behaviour in the light of possible underlying motivators, including empathy, learning and social facilitation.
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14
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Wan H, Kirkman C, Jensen G, Hackenberg TD. Failure to Find Altruistic Food Sharing in Rats. Front Psychol 2021; 12:696025. [PMID: 34239487 PMCID: PMC8259949 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.696025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior research has found that one rat will release a second rat from a restraint in the presence of food, thereby allowing that second rat access to food. Such behavior, clearly beneficial to the second rat and costly to the first, has been interpreted as altruistic. Because clear demonstrations of altruism in rats are rare, such findings deserve a careful look. The present study aimed to replicate this finding, but with more systematic methods to examine whether, and under what conditions, a rat might share food with its cagemate partner. Rats were given repeated choices between high-valued food (sucrose pellets) and 30-s social access to a familiar rat, with the (a) food size (number of food pellets per response), and (b) food motivation (extra-session access to food) varied across conditions. Rats responded consistently for both food and social interaction, but at different levels and with different sensitivity to the food-access manipulations. Food production and consumption was high when food motivation was also high (food restriction) but substantially lower when food motivation was low (unlimited food access). Social release occurred at moderate levels, unaffected by the food-based manipulations. When food was abundant and food motivation low, the rats chose food and social options about equally often, but sharing (food left unconsumed prior to social release) occurred at low levels across sessions and conditions. Even under conditions of low food motivation, sharing occurred on only 1% of the sharing opportunities. The results are therefore inconsistent with claims in the literature that rats are altruistically motivated to share food with other rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Wan
- Department of Psychology, Reed College, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Cyrus Kirkman
- Department of Psychology, Reed College, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Greg Jensen
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Zuckerman Institute, New York, NY, United States
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15
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Ebbesen CL, Froemke RC. Body language signals for rodent social communication. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 68:91-106. [PMID: 33582455 PMCID: PMC8243782 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Integration of social cues to initiate adaptive emotional and behavioral responses is a fundamental aspect of animal and human behavior. In humans, social communication includes prominent nonverbal components, such as social touch, gestures and facial expressions. Comparative studies investigating the neural basis of social communication in rodents has historically been centered on olfactory signals and vocalizations, with relatively less focus on non-verbal social cues. Here, we outline two exciting research directions: First, we will review recent observations pointing to a role of social facial expressions in rodents. Second, we will review observations that point to a role of 'non-canonical' rodent body language: body posture signals beyond stereotyped displays in aggressive and sexual behavior. In both sections, we will outline how social neuroscience can build on recent advances in machine learning, robotics and micro-engineering to push these research directions forward towards a holistic systems neurobiology of rodent body language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian L Ebbesen
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, Neuroscience Institute, Departments of Otolaryngology, Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA; Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
| | - Robert C Froemke
- Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, Neuroscience Institute, Departments of Otolaryngology, Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA; Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute Faculty Scholar, USA.
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16
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No preference for prosocial helping behavior in rats with concurrent social interaction opportunities. Learn Behav 2021; 49:397-404. [PMID: 33829419 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-021-00471-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Helping behavior tasks are proposed to assess prosocial or "empathic" behavior in rodents. This paradigm characterizes the behavior of subject animals presented with the opportunity to release a conspecific from a distressing situation. Previous studies found a preference in rats for releasing restrained or distressed conspecifics over other controls (e.g., empty restrainers or inanimate objects). An empathy account was offered to explain the observed behaviors, claiming subjects were motivated to reduce the distress of others based on a rodent homologue of empathy. An opposing account attributes all previous results to subjects seeking social contact. To dissociate these two accounts for helping behavior, we presented subject rats with three simultaneous choice alternatives: releasing a restrained conspecific, engaging a nonrestrained conspecific, or not socializing. Subjects showed an initial preference for socializing with the nonrestrained conspecific, and no preference for helping. This result contradicts the empathy account, but is consistent with the social-contact account of helping behavior.
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Abstract
Empathy is a complex phenomenon critical for group survival and societal bonds. In addition, there is mounting evidence demonstrating empathic behaviors are dysregulated in a multitude of psychiatric disorders ranging from autism spectrum disorder, substance use disorders, and personality disorders. Therefore, understanding the underlying drive and neurobiology of empathy is paramount for improving the treatment outcomes and quality of life for individuals suffering from these psychiatric disorders. While there is a growing list of human studies, there is still much about empathy to understand, likely due to both its complexity and the inherent limitations of imaging modalities. It is therefore imperative to develop, validate, and utilize rodent models of empathic behaviors as translational tools to explore this complex topic in ways human research cannot. This review outlines some of the more prevailing theories of empathy, lists some of the psychiatric disorders with disrupted empathic processes, describes rat and mouse models of empathic behaviors currently used, and discusses ways in which these models have elucidated social, environmental, and neurobiological factors that may modulate empathy. The research tools afforded to rodent models will provide an increasingly clear translational understanding of empathic processes and consequently result in improvements in care for those diagnosed with any one of the many psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart S. Cox
- Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC, USA
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18
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Hackenberg TD, Vanderhooft L, Huang J, Wagar M, Alexander J, Tan L. Social preference in rats. J Exp Anal Behav 2021; 115:634-649. [PMID: 33713441 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Rats were given repeated choices between social and nonsocial outcomes, and between familiar and unfamiliar social outcomes. Lever presses on either of 2 levers in the middle chamber of a 3-chamber apparatus opened a door adjacent to the lever, permitting 45-s access to social interaction with the rat in the chosen side chamber. In Experiment 1, rats preferred (a) social over nonsocial options, choosing their cagemate rat over an empty chamber, and (b) an unfamiliar over a familiar rat, choosing a non-cagemate over their cagemate. These findings were replicated in Experiment 2 with 2 different non-cagemate rats. Rats preferred both non-cagemate rats to a similar degree when pitted against their cagemate, but were indifferent when the 2 non-cagemates were pitted against each other. Similar preference for social over nonsocial and non-cagemate over cagemate was seen in Experiment 3, with new non-cagemate rats introduced after every third session. Response rates (for both cagemate and non-cagemate rats) were elevated under conditions of nonsocial (isolated) housing compared to conditions of social (paired) housing, demonstrating a social deprivation effect. Together, the experiments contribute to an experimental analysis of social preference within a social reinforcement framework, drawing on methods with proven efficacy in the analysis of reinforcement more generally.
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19
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Towards a unified theory of emotional contagion in rodents—A meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 132:1229-1248. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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20
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Silva PRR, Silva RH, Lima RH, Meurer YS, Ceppi B, Yamamoto ME. Are There Multiple Motivators for Helping Behavior in Rats? Front Psychol 2020; 11:1795. [PMID: 32849060 PMCID: PMC7403447 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Empathy is the ability to (a) be affected by and share the emotional state of another; (b) assess the reasons for the other’s state; and (c) identify with the other, adopting their perspective. This phenomenon has been shown to exist in several species and is proposed as a motivator for prosocial behavior. The experimental study of this feature in laboratory rodents is a more viable alternative in comparison to wild animals. A recent report showed that rats opened a door to free their cage mate from a restraint box. Although this behavior has been suggested to be motivated by empathy, this fact has been questioned by several studies that proposed other motivators for the releasing behavior. In the present study, we use an adaptation of the protocol of releasing behavior to investigate aspects of empathy and pro-sociality such as familiarity and reciprocity. In addition, we addressed some potential motivational factors that could influence this behavior. The main results showed that (1) rats opened the restraint box to free conspecifics most of the time; (2) direct reciprocity or past restriction experience did not improve releasing performance, probably due to a ceiling effect; (3) after a series of trials in the presence of a restricted conspecific, the free rat continues to open the restraint box even if it is empty; (4) in general, the opening performance improves across trials and phases, resembling learning curves; (5) if the first series of trials occurs with the empty box, the opening behavior does not occur and is modest in subsequent trials with a trapped animal; (6) the exploratory drive toward the restraint box and desire for social contact do not seem to function as key motivators for releasing behavior. In conclusion, our findings do not support that the opening behavior is exclusively related to empathic motivation. While multiple factors might be involved, our study suggests that task learning triggered (and possibly reinforced) by the presence of the restricted rat can function as a motivator. Further investigations are required to fully understand the mechanisms and motivation factors guiding the releasing behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phietica R R Silva
- Laboratory of Evolution of Human Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Psychobiology, Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Regina H Silva
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ramón Hypolito Lima
- Postgraduate Program in Psychobiology, Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Neuroengineering, Edmond and Lily Safra International Institute of Neuroscience, Santos Dumont Institute, Macaiba, Brazil
| | - Ywlliane S Meurer
- Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Psychology, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Bruno Ceppi
- Neuroscience and Behavior Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Maria Emilia Yamamoto
- Laboratory of Evolution of Human Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Psychobiology, Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
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21
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Rats display empathic behavior independent of the opportunity for social interaction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1097-1104. [PMID: 31752014 PMCID: PMC7235244 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-019-0572-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Empathy, the capacity for shared emotional valence with others, can allow for cooperativity and social bonding between individuals. However, clinical studies indicate it is dysregulated in neuropsychiatric disorders like autism and addiction, making a translationally relevant model of empathy extremely important. The evolutionary basis of the empathic behaviors observed across numerous species can be described using the Perception Action Model (PAM), in which shared affect can promote an action that eliminates the distress of both the "Target" and, by extension, the "Observer". Increasing evidence suggests rodents will work to reduce the distress of a conspecific, but current models of helping behavior are unable to completely parse apart whether the reported behavior is driven by empathy or social reward. The current study demonstrates, using a novel behavioral model, rats learn to aid a distressed conspecific in the absence of social reward, retain the task over time, and previous experience increases the rate of task acquisition. Further, our model suggests that empathic behavior is subject to low effort as compared to a social reward. We next validated the specificity of this model to study empathic processes, characterized the importance of both the Target's level of distress and the impact of the Observer's familiarity with the Target on empathic behavior. Overall, we believe this model adheres to the PAM of empathy by eliminating the influence of social interaction. Importantly, it can be used to directly evaluate the neurocircuitry of empathy and explore the interplay between blunted empathic behavior and neuropsychiatric disorders.
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22
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Conformity-like behaviour in mice observing the freezing of other mice: a model of empathy. BMC Neurosci 2020; 21:19. [PMID: 32357830 PMCID: PMC7195716 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-020-00566-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Empathy refers to the ability to recognise and share emotions with others. Several research groups have recognised observational fear in mice as a useful behavioural model for assessing their ability to empathise. However, in these observation systems, it remains unclear whether the observer mouse truly recognises the movements of, and empathises with, the demonstrator mouse. We examined changes in the behaviour of an observer mouse when a demonstrator mouse was anaesthetised, when the demonstrator’s activity was increased, and when the interval of electrical stimulation was altered. If mice exhibit an ability to empathise, then the observer should display empathic behaviour when the demonstrator experiences pain or discomfort under any circumstances. Results Relative to low-frequency stimulation, frequent electrical stimulation reduced immobility time among observer mice. Moreover, when demonstrators exhibited excessive activity, the activity of the observers significantly increased. In addition, the proportion of immobility time among observer mice significantly increased when demonstrator mice exhibited fear learning and excessive immobility. Conclusion Although our results indicate that observer mice change their behaviour based on the movements of demonstrator mice, increases in immobility time may reflect conformity-like behaviour rather than emotional empathy. Thus, not only visual but also auditory and odour information additionally influenced the conformity-like behaviour shown by observer mice. Thus, our findings suggest that methods other than the fear observation system should be used to investigate rodent empathy-like behaviour.
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23
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Hachiga Y, Silberberg A, Slotnick B, Gomez M. Rats (
Rattus norvegicus
) find occupancy of a restraint tube rewarding. J Exp Anal Behav 2020; 113:644-656. [DOI: 10.1002/jeab.596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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24
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Neilands P, Claessens S, Ren I, Hassall R, Bastos APM, Taylor AH. Contagious yawning is not a signal of empathy: no evidence of familiarity, gender or prosociality biases in dogs. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192236. [PMID: 32075525 PMCID: PMC7031662 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Contagious yawning has been suggested to be a potential signal of empathy in non-human animals. However, few studies have been able to robustly test this claim. Here, we ran a Bayesian multilevel reanalysis of six studies of contagious yawning in dogs. This provided robust support for claims that contagious yawning is present in dogs, but found no evidence that dogs display either a familiarity or gender bias in contagious yawning, two predictions made by the contagious yawning-empathy hypothesis. Furthermore, in an experiment testing the prosociality bias, a novel prediction of the contagious yawning-empathy hypothesis, dogs did not yawn more in response to a prosocial demonstrator than to an antisocial demonstrator. As such, these strands of evidence suggest that contagious yawning, although present in dogs, is not mediated by empathetic mechanisms. This calls into question claims that contagious yawning is a signal of empathy in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Neilands
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1010, New Zealand
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25
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Not by the same token: A female orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is selectively prosocial. Primates 2019; 61:237-247. [PMID: 31813075 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-019-00780-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Studies of prosocial behavior in nonhumans have focused on group-living social animals. Despite being highly social and closely related to humans, chimpanzees have rarely exhibited prosocial preferences in experimental tasks. Fewer studies have provided their non group-living relatives-orangutans-with the opportunity to express prosocial preferences. Here, we allowed a single female orangutan to provide rewards for herself and for her mother, sister, or both, across various phases, using a token economy task. The orangutan was more likely to choose prosocially when she could provide rewards to her sister and herself compared to when she could provide rewards to her mother and herself. However, when presented with the simultaneous options of providing rewards for self, self and mother, or self and sister, she chose prosocially equally often to her mother and sister. She made the largest number of prosocial choices in a phase when she could provide rewards to all participants (herself, her sister, and her mother) rather than providing rewards only to herself or only to herself and one other participant. Despite the obvious limitations of a single case study, the study adds to the limited information on prosocial preferences in less social primate species, particularly when given the chance to share food items with different kin.
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26
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Blystad MH, Andersen D, Johansen EB. Female rats release a trapped cagemate following shaping of the door opening response: Opening latency when the restrainer was baited with food, was empty, or contained a cagemate. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223039. [PMID: 31574116 PMCID: PMC6772091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on pro-social rat behaviour is growing within the fields of comparative psychology and social neuroscience. However, much work remains on mapping important variables influencing this behaviour, and there is even disagreement on whether this behaviour is empathetically motivated and correctly labelled pro-social, or whether the behaviour is motivated by social contact. The present study used the helping behaviour paradigm where a rat can release a familiar cagemate from a restrainer. Prior to testing with a trapped cagemate, restrainer door opening was trained and baseline opening latencies when the restrainer was empty or baited with food were established. The findings show that the first-time release occurred sooner than in previous research and that rats used a previously demonstrated response to release the trapped cagemate. Further, rats opened the restrainer door more often and with shorter latencies when the restrainer contained a cagemate than when the restrainer was empty, but less often and with longer latencies than when the restrainer contained food. The test of whether illumination levels affect door-opening included in the study showed no effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus H. Blystad
- Department of Behavioural Sciences, OsloMet—Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Danielle Andersen
- Department of Behavioural Sciences, OsloMet—Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Espen B. Johansen
- Department of Behavioural Sciences, OsloMet—Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
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27
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Ueno H, Suemitsu S, Murakami S, Kitamura N, Wani K, Takahashi Y, Matsumoto Y, Okamoto M, Ishihara T. Rescue-like Behaviour in Mice is Mediated by Their Interest in the Restraint Tool. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10648. [PMID: 31375693 PMCID: PMC6677799 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46128-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Acting without the expectation of compensation is called prosocial behaviour. Since prosocial behaviour requires high cognitive and social abilities, it has been thought to be only shown by primates. Although prosocial behaviour has been recently reported in rats, there are still questions regarding this finding. We demonstrated rescue-like behaviour in mice in a previous report. In this study, we investigated the motives underlying rescue-like behaviour for constrained cage-mates among mice. We prepared either a tube containing a ball of yarn or an opaque tube and assessed whether mice displayed the same rescue-like behaviour shown in the case of tube-restrained cage-mates. Mice did not open the lid of the tube containing the ball of yarn but opened the opaque tube lid. Mice showed a high interest in the tube in which the cage-mate had been restrained and prioritized staying in this tube rather than rescuing additional cage-mates. Oxytocin, which increases empathy, had no effect on the lid-opening behaviour. Thus, the rescue-like behaviour of mice is not based on empathy but is related to social interest in the cage-mate and the tube itself. These results suggest that rodent lid-opening behaviour may not conclusively prove the presence of prosocial behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ueno
- Department of Medical Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, Okayama, 701-0193, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Suemitsu
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Shinji Murakami
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Naoya Kitamura
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Kenta Wani
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Yu Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Yosuke Matsumoto
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Motoi Okamoto
- Department of Medical Technology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ishihara
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
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Helping-Like Behaviour in Mice Towards Conspecifics Constrained Inside Tubes. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5817. [PMID: 30967573 PMCID: PMC6456590 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42290-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Prosocial behaviour, including helping behaviour, benefits others. Recently, helping-like behaviour has been observed in rats, but whether it is oriented towards rescue, social contact with others, or other goals remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated whether helping-like behaviour could be observed in mice similar to that in rats. Because mice are social animals widely used in neuroscience, the discovery of helping-like behaviour in mice would be valuable in clarifying the psychological and biological mechanisms underlying pro-sociability. We constrained mice inside tubes. Subject mice were allowed to move freely in cages with tubes containing constrained conspecifics. The subject mice released both cagemates and stranger mice but did not engage in opening empty tubes. Furthermore, the same behaviour was observed under aversive conditions and with anesthetised conspecifics. Interestingly, hungry mice opened the tubes containing food before engaging in tube-opening behaviour to free constrained conspecifics. Mice showed equal preferences for constrained and freely moving conspecifics. We demonstrated for the first time that mice show tube-opening behaviour. Furthermore, we partly clarified the purpose and motivation of this behaviour. An effective mouse model for helping-like behaviour would facilitate research on the mechanisms underlying prosocial behaviour.
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29
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Social modulation of drug use and drug addiction. Neuropharmacology 2019; 159:107545. [PMID: 30807753 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This review aims to demonstrate how social science and behavioral neurosciences have highlighted the influence of social interactions on drug use in animal models. In neurosciences, the effect of global social context that are distal from drug use has been widely studied. For human and other social animals such as monkeys and rodents, positive social interactions are rewarding, can overcome drug reward and, in all, protect from drug use. In contrast, as other types of stress, negative social experiences facilitate the development and maintenance of drug abuse. However, interest recently emerged in the effect of so-called "proximal" social factors, that is, social interactions during drug-taking. These recent studies have characterized the role of the drug considered, the sharing of drug experience and the familiarity of the peer which interaction are made with. We also examine the few studies regarding the sensorial mediator of social behaviors and critically review the neural mediation of social factors on drug use. However, despite considerable characterization of the factors modulating distal influences, the mechanisms for proximal influences on drug use remain largely unknown. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'The neuropharmacology of social behavior: from bench to bedside'.
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