S-100 proteins in the human peripheral nervous system

S100B actions on glial and neuronal cells in the developing brain: an overview

The S100B is a member of the S100 family of "E" helix-loop- "F" helix structure (EF) hand calcium-binding proteins expressed in diverse glial, selected neuronal, and various peripheral cells, exerting differential effects. In particular, this review compiles descriptions of the detection of S100B in different brain cells localized in specific regions during the development of humans, mice, and rats. Then, it summarizes S100B's actions on the differentiation, growth, and maturation of glial and neuronal cells in humans and rodents. Particular emphasis is placed on S100B regulation of the differentiation and maturation of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes (OL), and the stimulation of dendritic development in serotoninergic and cerebellar neurons during embryogenesis. We also summarized reports that associate morphological alterations (impaired neurite outgrowth, neuronal migration, altered radial glial cell morphology) of specific neural cell groups during neurodevelopment and functional disturbances (slower rate of weight gain, impaired spatial learning) with changes in the expression of S100B caused by different conditions and stimuli as exposure to stress, ethanol, cocaine and congenital conditions such as Down's Syndrome. Taken together, this evidence highlights the impact of the expression and early actions of S100B in astrocytes, OL, and neurons during brain development, which is reflected in the alterations in differentiation, growth, and maturation of these cells. This allows the integration of a spatiotemporal panorama of S100B actions in glial and neuronal cells in the developing brain.

Hippocampal HDAC6 promotes POCD by regulating NLRP3-induced microglia pyroptosis via HSP90/HSP70 in aged mice

BACKGROUND

Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction (POCD) has attracted increased attention, but its precise mechanism remains to be explored. This study aimed to figure out whether HDAC6 could regulate NLRP3-induced pyroptosis by modulating the functions of HSP70 and HSP90 in microglia to participate in postoperative cognitive dysfunction in aged mice.

METHODS

Animal models of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in aged mice were established by splenectomy under sevoflurane anesthesia. Morris water maze was used to examine the cognitive function and motor ability. Sixteen-months-old C57BL/6 male mice were randomly divided into six groups: control group (C group), sham surgery group (SA group), splenectomy group (S group), splenectomy + HDAC6 inhibitor ACY-1215 group (ACY group), splenectomy + HDAC6 inhibitor ACY-1215 + HSP70 inhibitor Apoptozole group (AP group), splenectomy + solvent control group (SC group). The serum and hippocampus of mice were taken after mice were executed. The protein levels of HDAC6, HSP90, HSP70, NLRP3, GSDMD-N, cleaved-Caspase-1 (P20), IL-1β were detected by western blotting. Serum IL-1β, IL-6 and S100β were measured using ELISA assay, and cell localization of HDAC6 was detected by immunofluorescence. In vitro experiments, BV2 cells were used to validate whether this mechanism worked in microglia. The protein levels of HDAC6, HSP90, HSP70, NLRP3, GSDMD-N, P20, IL-1β were detected by western blotting and the content of IL-1β in the supernatant was measured using ELISA assay. The degree of acetylation of HSP90, the interaction of HSP70, HSP90 and NLRP3 were analyzed by coimmunoprecipitation assay.

RESULTS

Splenectomy under sevoflurane anesthesia in aged mice could prolong the escape latency, reduce the number of crossing platforms, increase the expression of HDAC6 and activate the NLRP3 inflammasome to induce pyroptosis in hippocampus microglia. Using ACY-1215 could reduce the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, the pyroptosis of microglia and the degree of spatial memory impairment. Apoptozole could inhibit the binding of HSP70 to NLRP3, reduce the degradation of NLRP3 and reverse the protective effect of HDAC6 inhibitors. The results acquired in vitro experiments closely resembled those in vivo, LPS stimulation led to the pyroptosis of BV2 microglia cells and the release of IL-1β due to the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, ACY-1215 showed the anti-inflammatory effect and Apoptozole exerted the opposite effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that hippocampal HDAC6 promotes POCD by regulating NLRP3-induced microglia pyroptosis via HSP90/HSP70 in aged mice.

S100 proteins: a new frontier in fibromyalgia research

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic condition that causes widespread pain, fatigue, and other symptoms that significantly affect quality of life. The underlying mechanisms of fibromyalgia involve both the immune system and the central nervous system. It has been proposed that changes in multiple ascending and descending pathways in the central nervous system may contribute to increased pain sensitivity in individuals with this condition. Recent research has identified S100 proteins as a new area of interest in fibromyalgia studies. These proteins are a group of small molecular weight proteins involved in inflammation and various functions inside and outside of cells, and they may play a critical role in the development and progression of FM. Although S100B has been the most studied in FM patients, other studies have reported that S100A7, S100A8, S100A9, and S100A12 may also be useful as potential biomarkers or for a deeper understanding of FM pathophysiology. The potential role of S100 proteins in the pathophysiology of fibromyalgia could be mediated by RAGE and TLR4, which signal through JNK, ERK, and p38 to activate AP-1 and NF-κB and induce the release of proinflammatory cytokines, thereby producing the inflammation, fatigue, and chronic pain characteristic of fibromyalgia. To gain new perspectives on targeted therapeutic approaches, it is crucial to understand how S100 proteins could impact the pathophysiology of fibromyalgia. This review examines the potential role of S100 proteins in fibromyalgia and their impact on improving our comprehension of the condition, as well as facilitating further research on this interesting topic.

Changes in the expression of satellite glial cell-specific markers during postnatal development of rat sympathetic ganglia

The sympathetic ganglia represent a final motor pathway that mediates homeostatic "fight and flight" responses in the visceral organs. Satellite glial cells (SGCs) form a thin envelope close to the neuronal cell body and synapses in the sympathetic ganglia. This unique morphological feature suggests that neurons and SGCs form functional units for regulation of sympathetic output. In the present study, we addressed whether SGC-specific markers undergo age-dependent changes in the postnatal development of rat sympathetic ganglia. We found that fatty acid-binding protein 7 (FABP7) is an early SGC marker, whereas the S100B calcium-binding protein, inwardly rectifying potassium channel, Kir4.1 and small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel, SK3 are late SGC markers in the postnatal development of sympathetic ganglia. Unlike in sensory ganglia, FABP7 + SGC was barely detectable in adult sympathetic ganglia. The expression of connexin 43, a gap junction channel gradually increased with age, although it was detected in both SGCs and neurons in sympathetic ganglia. Glutamine synthetase was expressed in sensory, but not sympathetic SGCs. Unexpectedly, the sympathetic SGCs expressed a water-selective channel, aquaporin 1 instead of aquaporin 4, a pan-glial marker. However, aquaporin 1 was not detected in the SGCs encircling large neurons. Nerve injury and inflammation induced the upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein, suggesting that this protein is a hall marker of glial activation in the sympathetic ganglia. In conclusion, our findings provide basic information on the in vivo profiles of specific markers for identifying sympathetic SGCs at different stages of postnatal development in both healthy and diseased states.

Sensory innervation of the human shoulder joints in healthy and in chronic pain shoulder syndromes

BACKGROUND

Afferent innervation of shoulder joints plays a fundamental role in nociception and mechanoception and its alteration result in shoulder´s disease that course with pain and functional disability.

METHODS

Joints shoulder from healthy subjects (n = 20) and with chronic pain shoulder syndromes (n = 17) were analyzed using immunohistochemistry for S100 protein to identify nerve structures (nerve fibers and sensory corpuscles), coupled with a quantification of the sensory formations. Sensory nerve formations were quantified in 13 distinct areas in healthy joint shoulder and in the available equivalent areas in the pathological joints. Statistical analyses were conducted to assess differences between healthy shoulder and pathological shoulder joint (p< 0.05).

RESULTS

All analyzed structures, i.e., glenohumeral capsule, acromioclavicular capsule, the extraarticular structures (subcoracoid region and subacromio-subdeltoid bursa) and intraarticular structures (biceps brachii tendon and labrum articulare) are variably innervated except the extrinsic coracoacromial ligament, which was aneural. The afferent innervation of healthy human shoulder joints consists of free nerve endings, simple lamellar corpuscles and Ruffini's corpuscles. Occasionally, Golgi-Mazzoni's and Pacinian corpuscles were found. However, the relative density of each one varied among joints and/or the different zones within the same joint. As a rule, the upper half and anterior half of healthy glenohumeral capsules have a higher innervation compared to the lower and posterior respectably. On the other hand, in joints from subjects suffering chronic shoulder pain, a reduced innervation was found, involving more the corpuscles than free nerve endings.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings report a global innervation map of the human shoulder joints, especially the glenohumeral one, and this knowledge might be of interest for arthroscopic surgeons allowing to develop more selective and unhurt treatments, controlling the pain, and avoiding the loss of afferent innervation after surgical procedures. To the light of our results the postero-inferior glenohumeral capsular region seems to be the more adequate to be a surgical portal (surgical access area) to prevent nerve lesions.

Three-dimensional architecture of the subepithelial corpuscular nerve ending in the rat epiglottis reconstructed by array tomography with scanning electron microscopy

In the rat laryngeal mucosa, subepithelial corpuscular nerve endings, called laminar nerve endings, are distributed in the epiglottis and arytenoid region and are activated by the pressure changes of the laryngeal cavity. They are also suggested to play a role in efferent regulation because of secretory vesicles in the axoplasm. In the present study, the laminar nerve endings in the rat laryngeal mucosa were analyzed by 3D reconstruction from serial ultrathin sections in addition to immunohistochemistry for synapsin 1. In the light microscopy, synapsin 1-immunoreactive flattened or bulbous terminal parts of the laminar endings were also immunoreactive with VGLUT1, and were surrounded by S100- or S100B-immunoreactive Schwann cells and vimentin-immunoreactive fibroblasts. In the electron microscopy, 3D reconstruction views showed that laminar endings were composed of flattened terminal parts sized 2-5 μm in longitudinal length, overlapping in three to five multiple layers. The terminal parts of the endings were incompletely wrapped by flat cytoplasmic processes of the Schwann cells. In addition, the fibroblast network surrounded the complex of nerve endings and the Schwann cells. Several terminal parts entered through the basement membrane into the epithelial layer and attached to the basal epithelial cells, suggesting that interaction between epithelial cells and laminar nerve endings plays an important role in sensing the pressure changes in the laryngeal cavity. Secretory vesicles were unevenly distributed throughout the terminal part of the laminar nerve endings. The secretory vesicles were frequently observed in the peripheral limb of the terminal parts. It suggests that the laminar nerve endings in the larynx may release glutamate to maintain continuous discharge during the stretching of the laryngeal mucosa.

Mechanical stimulation of human hair follicle outer root sheath cultures activates adjacent sensory neurons

Mechanical stimuli, such as stroking or pressing on the skin, activate mechanoreceptors transmitting information to the sensory nervous system and brain. It is well accepted that deflection of the hair fiber that occurs with a light breeze or touch directly activates the sensory neurons surrounding the hair follicle, facilitating transmission of mechanical information. Here, we hypothesized that hair follicle outer root sheath cells act as transducers of mechanical stimuli to sensory neurons surrounding the hair follicle. Using electrochemical analysis on human hair follicle preparations in vitro, we were able to show that outer root sheath cells release ATP and the neurotransmitters serotonin and histamine in response to mechanical stimulation. Using calcium imaging combined with pharmacology in a coculture of outer root sheath cells with sensory neurons, we found that the release of these three molecules from hair follicle cells leads to activation of sensory neurons.

Thermoelectric Freeze-Casting of Biopolymer Blends: Fabrication and Characterization of Large-Size Scaffolds for Nerve Tissue Engineering Applications

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) are detrimental to the quality of life of affected individuals. Patients are often left with life-long ailments that affect them physically and psychologically. Autologous nerve transplant is still the gold standard treatment for PNIs despite limited donor site and partial recovery of nerve functions. Nerve guidance conduits are used as a nerve graft substitute and are efficient for the repair of small nerve gaps but require further improvement for repairs exceeding 30 mm. Freeze-casting is an interesting fabrication method for the conception of scaffolds meant for nerve tissue engineering since the microstructure obtained comprises highly aligned micro-channels. The present work focuses on the fabrication and characterization of large scaffolds (35 mm length, 5 mm diameter) made of collagen/chitosan blends by freeze-casting via thermoelectric effect instead of traditional freezing solvents. As a freeze-casting microstructure reference, scaffolds made from pure collagen were used for comparison. Scaffolds were covalently crosslinked for better performance under load and laminins were further added to enhance cell interactions. Microstructural features of lamellar pores display an average aspect ratio of 0.67 ± 0.2 for all compositions. Longitudinally aligned micro-channels are reported as well as enhanced mechanical properties in traction under physiological-like conditions (37 °C, pH = 7.4) resulting from crosslinking treatment. Cell viability assays using a rat Schwann cell line derived from sciatic nerve (S16) indicate that scaffold cytocompatibility is similar between scaffolds made from collagen only and scaffolds made from collagen/chitosan blend with high collagen content. These results confirm that freeze-casting via thermoelectric effect is a reliable manufacturing strategy for the fabrication of biopolymer scaffolds for future peripheral nerve repair applications.

Release of 6-nitrodopamine from human popliteal artery and vein

6-Nitrodopamine (6-ND) is a novel catecholamine that is released from human umbilical cord vessels, and it causes vascular relaxation by acting as a dopamine D₂-receptor antagonist. Here it was investigated whether human peripheral vessels obtained from patients who have undergone surgery for leg amputation release 6-ND, and its action in these tissues. Popliteal artery and vein strips present basal release of 6-ND, as measure by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The release was significantly reduced when the tissues were pre-treated with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME (100 μM), or when the endothelium was mechanically removed. In U-46619 (3 nM) pre-contracted rings, 6-ND induced concentration-dependent relaxations (pEC50 8.18 ± 0.05 and 8.40 ± 0.08, in artery and vein rings, respectively). The concentration-dependent relaxations induced by 6-ND were unaffected in tissues pre-treated with L-NAME, but significantly reduced in tissues where the endothelium has been mechanically removed. In U-46619 (3 nM) pre-contracted rings, the selective dopamine D₂ receptor antagonist L-741,626 also caused concentration-dependent relaxations (pEC₅₀ 8.92 ± 0.22 and 8.79 ± 0.19, in artery and vein rings, respectively). The concentration-dependent relaxations induced by L-741,626 were unaffected in tissues pre-treated with L-NAME, but significantly reduced in tissues where the endothelium has been mechanically removed. This is the first demonstration that 6-nitrodopamine is released from human peripheral artery and vein rings. The results also indicate that endothelium-derived dopamine is a major contractile agent in the popliteal artery and vein, and that selective dopamine D₂-receptor antagonists such as 6-ND, may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of human peripheral vascular diseases.

Study of tumor necrosis factor receptor in the inflammatory bowel disease

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD) are part of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) and have pathophysiological processes such as bowel necrosis and enteric neurons and enteric glial cells. In addition, the main inflammatory mediator is related to the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). TNF-α is a me-diator of the intestinal inflammatory processes, thus being one of the main cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, however, its levels, when measured, are present in the serum of patients with IBD. In addition, TNF-α plays an important role in promoting inflammation, such as the production of interleukins (IL), for instance IL-1β and IL-6. There are two receptors for TNF as following: The tumor necrosis factor 1 receptor (TNFR1); and the tumor necrosis factor 2 receptor (TNFR2). They are involved in the pathogenesis of IBD and their receptors have been detected in IBD and their expression is correlated with disease activity. The soluble TNF form binds to the TNFR1 receptor with, and its activation results in a signaling cascade effects such as apoptosis, cell proliferation and cytokine secretion. In contrast, the transmembrane TNF form can bind both to TNFR1 and TNFR2. Recent studies have suggested that TNF-α is one of the main pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, since TNF levels are present in the serum of both patients with UC and CD. Intravenous and subcutaneous biologics targeting TNF-α have revolutionized the treatment of IBD, thus becoming the best available agents to induce and maintain IBD remission. The application of antibodies aimed at neutralizing TNF-α in patients with IBD that induce a satisfactory clinical response in up to 60% of patients, and also induced long-term maintenance of disease remission in most patients. It has been suggested that anti-TNF-α agents inactivate the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α by direct neutralization, i.e., resulting in suppression of inflammation. However, anti-TNF-α antibodies perform more complex functions than a simple blockade.

Development of a new histological identification method of human sinoatrial node suitable for immunohistochemical study

Histological identification of the human sinoatrial node (SAN) remains a challenge. Conventional identification methods, such as Lev's method, have certain limitations. The aim of our study was to develop a new histological identification method that could properly identify the sinoatrial node, applicable to the immunohistochemical study of intra-nodal structures. Thirty-nine human autopsied hearts were included in this study. The cases included 23 men and 16 women ranging in age from 20 to 99 years. The sinoatrial area from eight control samples was cut in the vertical section using the conventional Lev's method. In our new method, called the "En face one-block method," the sinoatrial node was cut in "En face" at the junction of the right border of the right appendage and superior vena cava, placed in one long cassette, and serially cut using a microtome. Immunostaining was performed using primary antibodies against CD31, podoplanin (D2-40), S-100, and other proteins. The average area of the SAN on the slide glass in our new method was 32.2 mm²_, which was significantly larger than that (3.59 mm²) of the control samples by Lev's method. The SAN area was positively correlated with age (r = 0.357; p = 0.026), especially in women (r = 0.626; p = 0.0095). The SAN group had significantly lower percentage of CD31-positive blood capillaries, higher percentage of podoplanin-positive lymphatic channels, and S-100-positive peripheral nerves. We successfully developed a novel cutting method applicable to immunohistochemical studies, with which we could provide a bird's-eye view of the sinoatrial nodes.

Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors: Latest Concepts in Disease Pathogenesis and Clinical Management

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST) is an aggressive soft tissue sarcoma with limited therapeutic options and a poor prognosis. Although neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and radiation exposure have been identified as risk factors for MPNST, the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying MPNST pathogenesis have only lately been roughly elucidated. Plexiform neurofibroma (PN) and atypical neurofibromatous neoplasm of unknown biological potential (ANNUBP) are novel concepts of MPNST precancerous lesions, which revealed sequential mutations in MPNST development. This review summarized the current understanding of MPNST and the latest consensus from its diagnosis to treatment, with highlights on molecular biomarkers and targeted therapies. Additionally, we discussed the current challenges and prospects for MPNST management.

Anti-LGI4 Antibody Is a Novel Juxtaparanodal Autoantibody for Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to discover novel nodal autoantibodies in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP).

METHODS

We screened for autoantibodies that bind to mouse sciatic nerves and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) using indirect immunofluorescence (IFA) assays with sera from 113 patients with CIDP seronegative for anti-neurofascin 155 and anticontactin-1 antibodies and 127 controls. Western blotting, IFA assays using HEK293T cells transfected with relevant antigen expression plasmids, and cell-based RNA interference assays were used to identify target antigens. Krox20 and Periaxin expression, both of which independently control peripheral nerve myelination, was assessed by quantitative real-time PCR after application of patient and control sera to Schwann cells.

RESULTS

Sera from 4 patients with CIDP, but not control sera, selectively bound to the nodal regions of sciatic nerves and DRG satellite glia (p = 0.048). The main immunoglobulin G (IgG) subtype was IgG4. IgG from these 4 patients stained a 60-kDa band on Western blots of mouse DRG and sciatic nerve lysates. These features indicated leucine-rich repeat LGI family member 4 (LGI4) as a candidate antigen. A commercial anti-LGI4 antibody and IgG from all 4 seropositive patients with CIDP showed the same immunostaining patterns of DRG and cultured rat Schwann cells and bound to the 60-kDa protein in Western blots of LGI4 overexpression lysates. IgG from 3 seropositive patients, but none from controls, bound to cells cotransfected with plasmids containing LGI4 and a disintegrin and metalloprotease domain-containing protein 22 (ADAM22), an LGI4 receptor. In cultured rat Schwann and human melanoma cells constitutively expressing LGI4, LGI4 siRNA effectively downregulated LGI4 and reduced patients' IgG binding compared with scrambled siRNA. Application of serum from a positive patient to Schwann cells expressing ADAM22 significantly reduced the expression of Krox20, but not Periaxin. Anti-LGI4 antibody-positive patients had a relatively old age at onset (mean age 58 years), motor weakness, deep and superficial sensory impairment with Romberg sign, and extremely high levels of CSF protein. Three patients showed subacute CIDP onset resembling Guillain-Barré syndrome.

DISCUSSION

IgG4 anti-LGI4 antibodies are found in some elderly patients with CIDP who present subacute sensory impairment and motor weakness and are worth measuring, particularly in patients with symptoms resembling Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Relaxation of thoracic aorta and pulmonary artery rings of marmosets (Callithrix spp.) by endothelium-derived 6-nitrodopamine

6-Nitrodopamine is a novel catecholamine released by vascular tissues, heart, and vas deferens. The aim of this study was to investigate whether 6-nitrodopamine is released from the thoracic aorta and pulmonary artery rings of marmosets (Callithrix spp.) and to evaluate the relaxing and anti-contractile actions of this catecholamine. Release of 6-nitrodopamine, dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline was assessed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The relaxations induced by 6-nitrodopamine and by the selective dopamine D2 receptor antagonist L-741,626 were evaluated on U-46619 (3 nM)-pre-contracted vessels. The effects of 6-nitrodopamine and L-741,626 on the contractions induced by electric-field stimulation (EFS), dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline were also investigated. Both aorta and pulmonary artery rings exhibited endothelium-dependent release of 6-nitrodopamine, which was significantly reduced by the NO synthesis inhibitor L-NAME. Addition of 6-nitrodopamine or L-741,626 caused concentration-dependent relaxations of both vascular tissues, which were almost abolished by endothelium removal, whereas L-NAME and the soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor ODQ had no effect on 6-nitrodopamine-induced relaxations. Additionally, pre-incubation with 6-nitrodopamine antagonized the dopamine-induced contractions, without affecting the noradrenaline- and adrenaline-induced contractions. Pre-incubation with L-741,626 antagonized the contractions induced by all catecholamines. The EFS-induced contractions were significantly increased by L-NAME, but unaffected by ODQ. Immunohistochemical assays showed no immunostaining of the neural tissue markers S-100 and calretinin in either vascular tissue. The results indicated that 6-nitrodopamine is the major catecholamine released by marmoset vascular tissues, and it acts as a potent and selective antagonist of dopamine D2-like receptors. 6-nitrodopamine release may be the major mechanism by which NO causes vasodilatation.

Macrophages facilitate peripheral nerve regeneration by organizing regeneration tracks through Plexin-B2

In this study, Li et al. investigated the mechanisms underlying the regeneration of peripheral nerves, which is guided by regeneration tracks formed through an interplay of many cell types. They demonstrate that macrophages are mobilized ahead of Schwann cells in the nerve bridge after transection injury to participate in building regeneration tracks. This requires the function of guidance receptor Plexin-B2, which is robustly up-regulated in infiltrating macrophages in injured nerve.

The regeneration of peripheral nerves is guided by regeneration tracks formed through an interplay of many cell types, but the underlying signaling pathways remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that macrophages are mobilized ahead of Schwann cells in the nerve bridge after transection injury to participate in building regeneration tracks. This requires the function of guidance receptor Plexin-B2, which is robustly up-regulated in infiltrating macrophages in injured nerves. Conditional deletion of Plexin-B2 in myeloid lineage resulted in not only macrophage misalignment but also matrix disarray and Schwann cell disorganization, leading to misguided axons and delayed functional recovery. Plexin-B2 is not required for macrophage recruitment or activation but enables macrophages to steer clear of colliding axons, in particular the growth cones at the tip of regenerating axons, leading to parallel alignment postcollision. Together, our studies unveil a novel reparative function of macrophages and the importance of Plexin-B2-mediated collision-dependent contact avoidance between macrophages and regenerating axons in forming regeneration tracks during peripheral nerve regeneration.

The differentiation state of the Schwann cell progenitor drives phenotypic variation between two contagious cancers

Contagious cancers are a rare pathogenic phenomenon in which cancer cells gain the ability to spread between genetically distinct hosts. Nine examples have been identified across marine bivalves, dogs and Tasmanian devils, but the Tasmanian devil is the only mammalian species known to have given rise to two distinct lineages of contagious cancer, termed Devil Facial Tumour 1 (DFT1) and 2 (DFT2). Remarkably, DFT1 and DFT2 arose independently from the same cell type, a Schwann cell, and while their ultra-structural features are highly similar they exhibit variation in their mutational signatures and infection dynamics. As such, DFT1 and DFT2 provide a unique framework for investigating how a common progenitor cell can give rise to distinct contagious cancers. Using a proteomics approach, we show that DFT1 and DFT2 are derived from Schwann cells in different differentiation states, with DFT2 carrying a molecular signature of a less well differentiated Schwann cell. Under inflammatory signals DFT1 and DFT2 have different gene expression profiles, most notably involving Schwann cell markers of differentiation, reflecting the influence of their distinct origins. Further, DFT2 cells express immune cell markers typically expressed during nerve repair, consistent with an ability to manipulate their extracellular environment, facilitating the cell’s ability to transmit between individuals. The emergence of two contagious cancers in the Tasmanian devil suggests that the inherent plasticity of Schwann cells confers a vulnerability to the formation of contagious cancers.

Cancer can be an infectious pathogen, with nine known cases, infecting bivalves, dogs and two independent tumours circulating in the endangered Tasmanian devil. These cancers, known as Devil Facial Tumour 1 (DFT1) and Devil Facial Tumour 2 (DFT2), spread through the wild population much like parasites, moving between genetically distinct hosts during social biting behaviours and persisting in the population. As DFT1 and DFT2 are independent contagious cancers that arose from the same cell type, a Schwann cell, they provide a unique model system for studying the emergence of phenotypic variation in cancers derived from a single progenitor cell. In this study, we have shown that these two remarkably similar tumours have emerged from Schwann cells in different differentiation states. The differentiation state of the progenitor has altered the characteristics of each tumour, resulting in different responses to external signals. This work demonstrates that the cellular origin of infection can direct the phenotype of a contagious cancer and how it responds to signals from the host environment. Further, the plasticity of Schwann cells may make these cells more prone to forming contagious cancers, raising the possibility that further parasitic cancers could emerge from this cell type.

S100B is selectively expressed by gray matter protoplasmic astrocytes and myelinating oligodendrocytes in the developing CNS

Studies on the development of central nervous system (CNS) primarily rely on the use of specific molecular markers for different types of neural cells. S100B is widely being used as a specific marker for astrocytes in the CNS. However, the specificity of its expression in astrocyte lineage has not been systematically investigated and thus has remained a lingering issue. In this study, we provide several lines of molecular and genetic evidences that S100B is expressed in both protoplasmic astrocytes and myelinating oligodendrocytes. In the developing spinal cord, S100B is first expressed in the ventral neuroepithelial cells, and later in ALDH1L1+/GS+ astrocytes in the gray matter. Meanwhile, nearly all the S100B+ cells in the white matter are SOX10+/MYRF+ oligodendrocytes. Consistent with this observation, S100B expression is selectively lost in the white matter in Olig2-null mutants in which oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) are not produced, and dramatically reduced in Myrf-conditional knockout mutants in which OPCs fail to differentiate. Similar expression patterns of S100B are observed in the developing forebrain. Based on these molecular and genetic studies, we conclude that S100B is not a specific marker for astrocyte lineage; instead, it marks protoplasmic astrocytes in the gray matter and differentiating oligodendrocytes.

Challenges of Cochlear Implantation in Intralabyrinthine Schwannoma Patients: Surgical Procedures and Auditory Outcome

Intralabyrinthine schwannoma (ILS) is a rare benign tumor of the inner ear potentially causing unilateral sensorineural hearing loss and vertigo. This study evaluated the outcome of one surgical session comprising microsurgical ILS resection and cochlear implantation in terms of surgical feasibility, complications, and auditory outcome. Ten clinically and histologically confirmed ILS patients included in this study (three women and seven men; mean age 56.4 ± 8.6) underwent surgery between July 2015 and February 2020. Eight patients had intracochlear tumor location; the remaining two had vestibulocochlear and intravestibular ILS. One of the three following methods was used for tumor removal: an extended cochleostomy, subtotal cochleoectomy, or a translabyrinthine approach. Although negligible improvement was observed in two of the patients, two patients were lost to follow-up, and one opted out from using CI, the speech perception of the five remaining ILS patients improved as per the Freiburg Monosyllable Test (FMT) from 0% before surgery to 45– 50% after the implantation. Our study supports the presented surgical approach’s feasibility and safety, enabling tumor removal and hearing restoration shortly after surgery.

Enteric glia in homeostasis and disease: From fundamental biology to human pathology

Glia, the non-neuronal cells of the nervous system, were long considered secondary cells only necessary for supporting the functions of their more important neuronal neighbors. Work by many groups over the past two decades has completely overturned this notion, revealing the myriad and vital functions of glia in nervous system development, plasticity, and health. The largest population of glia outside the brain is in the enteric nervous system, a division of the autonomic nervous system that constitutes a key node of the gut-brain axis. Here, we review the latest in the understanding of these enteric glia in mammals with a focus on their putative roles in human health and disease.

Circulating Level of Myelin Basic Protein Predicts Postherpetic Neuralgia: A Prospective Study

OBJECTIVES

Patients with herpes zoster (HZ) would benefit from accurate prediction of whether they are likely to develop postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). We investigated whether a circulating biomarker of neuronal damage could be a predictor of PHN in this nonmatched prospective, nested, case-control study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We included patients with HZ who were within 90 days after rash onset. Volunteers without a history of HZ were recruited as controls. We evaluated epidemiologic factors and circulating neuronal damage biomarkers, including cell-free DNA, myelin basic protein (MBP), and soluble protein-100B (S100B). We conducted logistic regression analyses to develop a prediction model of PHN.

RESULTS

We found that cell-free DNA and MBP levels were higher in patients with HZ (n=71) than in controls (n=37). However, only MBP level was higher in patients who developed PHN (n=25), in comparison with those who did not (n=46). MBP level and 3 clinical factors, age, acute pain severity, and response to treatment drugs were identified as independent predictors of PHN. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that the prediction made using a combination of MBP level and clinical factors had an area under ROC curve of 0.853 (95% confidence interval: 0.764 to 0.943), which was better than prediction using clinical factors alone (area under ROC curve: 0.823, 95% confidence interval: 0.728 to 0.917).

DISCUSSION

Our results indicate that circulating MBP level in patients with HZ is a predictor for PHN. The combination of clinical predictors and MBP level enhanced the prediction performance.

Self-healing polyurethane-elastomer with mechanical tunability for multiple biomedical applications in vivo

The unique properties of self-healing materials hold great potential in the field of biomedical engineering. Although previous studies have focused on the design and synthesis of self-healing materials, their application in in vivo settings remains limited. Here, we design a series of biodegradable and biocompatible self-healing elastomers (SHEs) with tunable mechanical properties, and apply them to various disease models in vivo, in order to test their reparative potential in multiple tissues and at physiological conditions. We validate the effectiveness of SHEs as promising therapies for aortic aneurysm, nerve coaptation and bone immobilization in three animal models. The data presented here support the translation potential of SHEs in diverse settings, and pave the way for the development of self-healing materials in clinical contexts.

Immunohistochemical Investigation of Autonomic and Sensory Innervation of Anterior Vaginal Wall Female Periurethral Tissue: A Study of the Surgical Field of Mid-Urethral Sling Surgery Using Cadaveric Simulation

BACKGROUND

Female sexual dysfunction, including female orgasm disorder, has been reported following mid-urethral sling (MUS) surgery to treat bothersome stress urinary incontinence. Anterior vaginal wall-female periurethral tissue (AVW-FPT) likely contains autonomic and sensory innervation involved in the female sexual response, and injury to these nerves may result from MUS implantation.

AIM

To characterize, using fresh cadaveric tissue, autonomic and sensory nerves in AVW- FPT using immunohistochemistry (IHC), and to assess their proximity to an implanted MUS.

METHODS

AVW-FPT was excised following careful dissection from four fresh cadavers. Prior to dissection, one cadaver underwent simulation of the MUS procedure by a urogynegologist, using a fascial sling. All samples were paraffin embedded, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin. Serial sectioning and IHC were performed to identify nerves. IHC markers were used to characterize the sensory and autonomic innervation.

OUTCOMES

IHC localization of autonomic and sensory nerve markers consistent with neural tissue within the region of MUS implantation.

RESULTS

IHC of AVW-FPT using protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5), a general nerve stain, revealed innervation throughout the region targeted by the MUS implantation. More specifically, immunoreactivity for both autonomic (tyrosine hydroxylase, TH) and sensory (Na_v1.8 and S100ß) nerves were found in close proximity (<1 mm) to the implanted MUS. In addition, a subset of S100ß positive nerves also showed immunoreactivity for calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). Combining the IHC findings with the surgical simulation of the MUS implantation revealed the potential for damage to both autonomic and sensory nerves as a direct result of the MUS procedure.

CLINICAL TRANSLATION

The identified autonomic and sensory nerves of the AVW-FPT may contribute to the female sexual response, and yet are potentially negatively impacted by MUS procedures. Given that surgeries performed on male genital tissue, including the prostate, may cause sexual dysfunction secondary to nerve damage, and that urologists routinely provide informed consent regarding this possibility, urogynaecologists are encouraged to obtain appropriate informed consent from prospective patients undergoing the MUS procedure.

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS

This is the first study to characterize the sensory and autonomic innervation within the surgical field of MUS implantation and demonstrate its relationship to an implanted MUS. The small sample size is a limitation of this study.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides evidence of potential injury to autonomic and sensory innervation of AVW-FPT as a consequence of MUS implantation, which may help explain the underlying mechanisms involved in the reported post-operative female sexual dysfunction in some women. Giovannetti O, Tomalty D, Gaudet D, et al. Immunohistochemical Investigation of Autonomic and Sensory Innervation of Anterior Vaginal Wall Female Periurethral Tissue: A Study of the Surgical Field of Mid-Urethral Sling Surgery Using Cadaveric Simulation. J Sex Med 2021;18:1168-1180.

Potential Therapeutic Strategies and Substances for Facial Nerve Regeneration Based on Preclinical Studies

Despite advances in microsurgical technology and an improved understanding of nerve regeneration, obtaining satisfactory results after facial nerve injury remains a difficult clinical problem. Among existing peripheral nerve regeneration studies, relatively few have focused on the facial nerve, particularly how experimental studies of the facial nerve using animal models play an essential role in understanding functional outcomes and how such studies can lead to improved axon regeneration after nerve injury. The purpose of this article is to review current perspectives on strategies for applying potential therapeutic methods for facial nerve regeneration. To this end, we searched Embase, PubMed, and the Cochrane library using keywords, and after applying exclusion criteria, obtained a total of 31 qualifying experimental studies. We then summarize the fundamental experimental studies on facial nerve regeneration, highlighting recent bioengineering studies employing various strategies for supporting facial nerve regeneration, including nerve conduits with stem cells, neurotrophic factors, and/or other therapeutics. Our summary of the methods and results of these previous reports reveal a common feature among studies, showing that various neurotrophic factors arising from injured nerves contribute to a microenvironment that plays an important role in functional recovery. In most cases, histological examinations showed that this microenvironmental influence increased axonal diameter as well as myelination thickness. Such an analysis of available research on facial nerve injury and regeneration represents the first step toward future therapeutic strategies.

Angiogenic hydrogels for dental pulp revascularization

Angiogenesis is critical for tissue healing and regeneration. Promoting angiogenesis in materials implanted within dental pulp after pulpectomy is a major clinical challenge in endodontics. We demonstrate the ability of acellular self-assembling peptide hydrogels to create extracellular matrix mimetic architectures that guide in vivo development of neovasculature and tissue deposition. The hydrogels possess facile injectability, as well as sequence-level functionalizability. We explore the therapeutic utility of an angiogenic hydrogel to regenerate vascularized pulp-like soft tissue in a large animal (canine) orthotopic model. The regenerated soft tissue recapitulates key features of native pulp, such as blood vessels, neural filaments, and an odontoblast-like layer next to dentinal tubules. Our study establishes angiogenic peptide hydrogels as potent scaffolds for promoting soft tissue regeneration in vivo. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A major challenge to endodontic tissue engineering is the lack of in situ angiogenesis within intracanal implants, especially after complete removal of the dental pulp. The lack of a robust vasculature in implants limit integration of matrices with the host tissue and regeneration of soft tissue. We demonstrate the development of an acellular material that promotes tissue revascularization in vivo without added growth factors, in a preclinical canine model of pulp-like soft-tissue regeneration. Such acellular biomaterials would facilitate pulp revascularization approaches in large animal models, and translation into human clinical trials.

Immunohistochemical analysis of sensory corpuscles in human transplants of the anterior cruciate ligament

Background

Sensory nerve endings in ligaments play an important role for the proprioceptive function. Clinical trials show that the sense of body position does not fully recover in the knee joint after reconstructive surgery of the ruptured anterior cruciate ligament. The aim of this study is to identify sensory corpuscles in autogenous and allogenous transplants of the ligament and to compare their quantity between the used allografts and autografts.

Methods

Thirty-three patients were included in this study. Three patellar tendon allografts, 14 patellar tendon autografts and 12 semitendinosus autografts were harvested during revision surgery after traumatic rerupture of the graft. The control consisted of 4 healthy anterior cruciate ligaments after fresh rupture. After haematoxylin staining, immunohistochemical analysis was performed using antibodies against S100, p75 and PGP9.5. Microscopical examination was carried out, and the number of mechanoreceptors was counted. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney U test.

Results

Two types of mechanoreceptors were identified in each graft: Ruffini corpuscles and free nerve endings. The number of Ruffini corpuscles per square centimeter was the highest in the control. Comparing the grafts, the highest number of receptors could be detected in the semitendinosus autograft. The amount of free nerve endings was higher in the semitendinosus and patellar tendon autografts than in the control; the allografts showed the lowest number of receptors. With increasing time after reconstruction, the number of both types of receptors showed a decrease in the semitendinosus graft, whereas it increased in the patellar tendon graft and allograft. The number of mechanoreceptors in the semitendinosus and patellar tendon graft decreased over time after graft-failure, whereas it increased slightly in the allograft.

Conclusion

This study was the first to identify mechanoreceptors in human transplants of the anterior cruciate ligament. The partial increase in the number of receptors over time after reconstruction could indicate a reinnervation of the grafts.

Development of the human prepuce and its innervation

Development of the human prepuce was studied over the course of 9-17 weeks of gestation in 30 specimens. Scanning electron microscopy revealed subtle surface features that were associated with preputial development, namely the appearance of epidermal aggregates that appeared to be associated with formation of the preputial fold. Transverse and sagittal sections revealed that the epidermis of the glans is considerably thicker than that of the penile shaft. We described a novel morphogenetic mechanism of formation of the preputial lamina, namely the splitting of the thick epidermis of the glans into the preputial lamina and the epidermis via the intrusion of mesenchyme containing red blood cells and CD31-positive blood vessels. This process begins at 10-11 weeks of gestation in the proximal aspect of the glans and extends distally. The process is likely to be androgen-dependent and mediated via androgen receptors strategically localized to the morphogenetic process, but signaling through estrogen receptor may play a role. Estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) has a very limited expression in the developing human glans and prepuce, while estrogen receptor beta (ESR2) is expressed more broadly in the developing preputial lamina, epidermis and urethra. Examination of the ontogeny of innervation of the glans penis and prepuce reveals the presence of the dorsal nerve of the penis as early as 9 weeks of gestation. Nerve fibers enter the glans penis proximally and extend distally over several weeks to eventually reach the distal aspect of the glans and prepuce by 14-16 weeks of gestation.

Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth as an alternative cell source in bio-root regeneration

A stem cell-mediated bioengineered tooth root (bio-root) has proven to be a prospective tool for the treatment of tooth loss. As shown in our previous studies, dental follicle cells (DFCs) are suitable seeding cells for the construction of bio-roots. However, the DFCs which can only be obtained from unerupted tooth germ are restricted. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs), which are harvested much more easily through a minimally invasive procedure, may be used as an alternative seeding cell. In this case, we compared the odontogenic characteristics of DFCs and SHEDs in bio-root regeneration. Methods: The biological characteristics of SHEDs and DFCs were determined in vitro. The cells were then induced to secrete abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) and form macroscopic cell sheets. We combined the cell sheets with treated dentin matrix (TDM) for subcutaneous transplantation into nude mice and orthotopic jaw bone implantation in Sprague-Dawley rats to further verify their regenerative potential. Results: DFCs exhibited a higher proliferation rate and stronger osteogenesis and adipogenesis capacities, while SHEDs displayed increased migration ability and excellent neurogenic potential. Both dental follicle cell sheets (DFCSs) and sheets of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDSs) expressed not only ECM proteins but also osteogenic and odontogenic proteins. Importantly, similar to DFCSs/TDM, SHEDSs/TDM also successfully achieved the in vivo regeneration of the periodontal tissues, which consist of periodontal ligament fibers, blood vessels and new born alveolar bone. Conclusions: Both SHEDs and DFCs possessed a similar odontogenic differentiation capacity in vivo, and SHEDs were regarded as a prospective seeding cell for use in bio-root regeneration in the future.

EP4 Antagonist-Elicited Extracellular Vesicles from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Rescue Cognition/Learning Deficiencies by Restoring Brain Cellular Functions

Adult brains have limited regenerative capacity. Consequently, both brain damage and neurodegenerative diseases often cause functional impairment for patients. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), one type of adult stem cells, can be isolated from various adult tissues. MSCs have been used in clinical trials to treat human diseases and the therapeutic potentials of the MSC‐derived secretome and extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been under investigation. We found that blocking the prostaglandin E₂/prostaglandin E₂ receptor 4 (PGE₂/EP₄) signaling pathway in MSCs with EP₄ antagonists increased EV release and promoted the sorting of specific proteins, including anti‐inflammatory cytokines and factors that modify astrocyte function, blood–brain barrier integrity, and microglial migration into the damaged hippocampus, into the EVs. Systemic administration of EP₄ antagonist‐elicited MSC EVs repaired deficiencies of cognition, learning and memory, inhibited reactive astrogliosis, attenuated extensive inflammation, reduced microglial infiltration into the damaged hippocampus, and increased blood–brain barrier integrity when administered to mice following hippocampal damage. stem cells translational medicine2019

Innervation of the human spleen: A complete hilum-embedding approach

INTRODUCTION

The spleen is hypothesized to play a role in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)-mediated control of host defence, but the neuroanatomical evidence for this assumption rests on a sparse number of studies, which mutually disagree with respect to the existence of cholinergic or vagal innervation.

METHODS

We conducted an immuno- and enzyme-histochemical study of the innervation of the human spleen using a complete hilum-embedding approach to ensure that only nerves that entered or left the spleen were studied, and that all splenic nerves were included in the sampled area. Furthermore, a complete embedded spleen was serially sectioned to prepare a 3D reconstruction of the hilar nerve plexus.

RESULTS

All detected nerves entering the spleen arise from the nerve plexus that surrounds branches of the splenic artery and are catecholaminergic. Inside the spleen these nerves continue within the adventitia of the white pulpal central arteries and red pulpal arterioles. Staining for either choline acetyltransferase or acetylcholinesterase did not reveal any evidence for cholinergic innervation of the human spleen, irrespective of the type of fixation (regularly fixed, fresh-frozen post-fixed or fresh-frozen cryoslides). Furthermore, no positive VIP staining was observed (VIP is often co-expressed in postganglionic parasympathetic nerves).

CONCLUSION

Our comprehensive approach did not produce any evidence for a direct cholinergic (or VIP-ergic) innervation of the spleen. This finding does not rule out (indirect) vagal innervation via postganglionic non-cholinergic periarterial fibres.

A Cross-Species Analysis Reveals a General Role for Piezo2 in Mechanosensory Specialization of Trigeminal Ganglia from Tactile Specialist Birds

A major challenge in biology is to link cellular and molecular variations with behavioral phenotypes. Here, we studied somatosensory neurons from a panel of bird species from the family Anatidae, known for their tactile-based foraging behavior. We found that tactile specialists exhibit a proportional expansion of neuronal mechanoreceptors in trigeminal ganglia. The expansion of mechanoreceptors occurs via neurons with intermediately and slowly inactivating mechanocurrent. Such neurons contain the mechanically gated Piezo2 ion channel whose expression positively correlates with the expression of factors responsible for the development and function of mechanoreceptors. Conversely, Piezo2 expression negatively correlates with expression of molecules mediating the detection of temperature and pain, suggesting that the expansion of Piezo2-containing mechanoreceptors with prolonged mechanocurrent occurs at the expense of thermoreceptors and nociceptors. Our study suggests that the trade-off between neuronal subtypes is a general mechanism of tactile specialization at the level of somatosensory system.

Single Local Application of TGF-β Promotes a Proregenerative State Throughout a Chronically Injured Nerve

BACKGROUND

The lack of nerve regeneration and functional recovery occurs frequently when injuries involve large nerve trunks because insufficient mature axons reach their targets in the distal stump and because of the loss of neurotrophic support, primarily from Schwann cells (SCs).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether a single application of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) plus forskolin or forskolin alone can promote and support axonal regeneration through the distal nerve stump.

METHODS

Using a delayed repair rat model of nerve injury, we transected the tibial nerve. After 8 wk, end-to-end repair was done and the repair site was treated with saline, forskolin, or TGF- β plus forskolin. After 6 wk, nerve sections consisting of the proximal stump, distal to the site of repair, and the most distal part of the nerve stump were removed for nerve histology, axon counts, and immunohistochemistry for activated SCs (S100), macrophages (CD68), cell proliferation (Ki67), p75NGFR, and apoptosis (activated caspase-3).

RESULTS

TGF-β plus forskolin significantly increased the numbers of axons regenerated distal to the repair site and the most distal nerve sections. Both treatments significantly increased the numbers of axons regenerated in the most distal nerve sections compared to saline treated. Both treatments exhibited extended expression of regeneration-associated marker proteins.

CONCLUSION

TGF-β plus forskolin treatment of chronically injured nerve improved axonal regeneration and increased expression of regeneration-associated proteins beyond the repair site. This suggests that a single application at the site of repair has mitogenic effects that extended distally and may potentially overcome the decrease in regenerated axon over long distance.

Low-intensity extracorporeal shockwave therapy ameliorates diabetic underactive bladder in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the therapeutic effect of once-weekly low-intensity extracorporeal shock wave therapy (Li-ESWT) on underactive bladder (UAB) in the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rat model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In all, 36 female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: normal control (NC), diabetes mellitus control (DMC), and DM with Li-ESWT (DM Li-ESWT). The two DM groups received an intraperitoneal 60 mg/kg STZ injection to induce DM. The Li-ESWT was applied toward the pelvis of the rats starting 4 weeks after STZ administration and lasting for 4 weeks. The Li-ESWT was given once weekly, with an energy flux density of 0.02 mJ/mm² at 3 Hz for 400 pulses. All rats underwent conscious cystometry, leak-point pressure (LPP) assessment, ex vivo organ-bath study, histology, immunofluorescence, and Western Blot analysis.

RESULTS

Conscious cystometry revealed voiding dysfunction in the DMC group, whereas the DM Li-ESWT group showed significantly improved voiding function, reflected in a reduced post-void residual urine volume and increased LPP compared to the DMC group. Ex vivo organ-bath studies showed that Li-ESWT enhanced muscle contractile activity of the bladder and urethra during electrical-field stimulation and drug stimulation. Histologically, Li-ESWT significantly restored bladder morphology, reflected by a reduction in the intravesical lumen area and increased muscle proportion of the bladder wall. Western Blot analysis showed higher smooth muscle actin expression in the bladder wall in the DM Li-ESWT group compared to the DMC group. Immunofluorescence showed decreased nerve-ending distribution, and destroyed and shortened nerve fibres in the DMC group, and recovery of neuronal integrity and innervation in the DM Li-ESWT group.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, Li-ESWT ameliorated UAB and urinary incontinence in the diabetic UAB rat model. The improvement appears to be the result of restoration of bladder and urethral structure and function by Li-ESWT. Li-ESWT is non-invasive and may become a better alternative therapy for UAB. Further investigations are warranted.

Perinatal SSRI medications and offspring hippocampal plasticity: interaction with maternal stress and sex

There is growing use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant (SSRI) medications during the perinatal period to treat maternal affective disorders. Perinatal SSRI exposure can have a long-term impact on offspring neuroplasticity and behavioral development that remains to be fully elucidated. This mini-review will summarize what is known about the effects of perinatal SSRIs on plasticity in the developing hippocampus, taking into account the role that maternal stress and depression may have. Emerging clinical findings and research in animal models will be discussed. In addition, sexually differentiated effects will be highlighted, as recent work shows that male offspring are often more sensitive to the effects of maternal stress, whereas female offspring can be more sensitive to perinatal SSRIs. Potential mechanisms behind these changes and aims for future research will also be discussed. Understanding the impact of perinatal SSRIs on neuroplasticity will provide better insight into the long-term effects of such medications on the health and well-being of both mother and child and may improve therapeutic approaches for maternal mood disorders during the perinatal period.

Immunohistochemical Markers for Prospective Studies in Neurofibromatosis-1 Porcine Models

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a common, cancer-predisposing disease caused by mutations in the NF1 tumor gene. Patients with NF1 have an increased risk for benign and malignant tumors of the nervous system (e.g., neurofibromas, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, gliomas) and other tissues (e.g., leukemias, rhabdomyosarcoma, etc.) as well as increased susceptibility to learning disabilities, chronic pain/migraines, hypertension, pigmentary changes, and developmental lesions (e.g., tibial pseudoarthrosis). Pigs are an attractive and upcoming animal model for future NF1 studies, but a potential limitation to porcine model research has been the lack of validated reagents for direct translational study to humans. To address that issue, we used formalin-fixed tissues (human and pigs) to evaluate select immunohistochemical markers (activated caspase-3, allograft inflammatory factor-1, beta-tubulin III, calbindin D, CD13, CD20, desmin, epithelial membrane antigen, glial fibrillary acidic protein, glucose transporter-1, laminin, myelin basic protein, myoglobin, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, S100, vimentin, and von Willebrand factor). The markers were validated by comparing known expression and localization in human and pig tissues. Validation of these markers on fixed tissues will facilitate prospective immunohistochemical studies of NF1 pigs, as well as other pig models, in a more efficient, reproducible, and translationally relevant manner.

Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumour of the Small Bowel Presenting with Intussusception and Perforation: a Double Jeopardy?

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours (MPNST) are rare soft tissue sarcomas which largely occur in the extremities and the head and neck region. The tumours are aggressive with a high rate of recurrence. Radical surgical resection remains the treatment of choice with adjuvant radiation therapy and chemotherapy still failing to demonstrate a clear benefit. The gastrointestinal tract is an exceedingly rare site for these tumours. We report an unusual case of a young male with an MPNST of the small bowel who presented with an ileocolic intussusception and sigmoid perforation.

Electrical Differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Schwann-Cell-Like Phenotypes Using Inkjet-Printed Graphene Circuits

Graphene-based materials (GBMs) have displayed tremendous promise for use as neurointerfacial substrates as they enable favorable adhesion, growth, proliferation, spreading, and migration of immobilized cells. This study reports the first case of the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into Schwann cell (SC)-like phenotypes through the application of electrical stimuli from a graphene-based electrode. Electrical differentiation of MSCs into SC-like phenotypes is carried out on a flexible, inkjet-printed graphene interdigitated electrode (IDE) circuit that is made highly conductive (sheet resistance < 1 kΩ/sq) via a postprint pulse-laser annealing process. MSCs immobilized on the graphene printed IDEs and electrically stimulated/treated (etMSCs) display significant enhanced cellular differentiation and paracrine activity above conventional chemical treatment strategies [≈85% of the etMSCs differentiated into SC-like phenotypes with ≈80 ng mL^-1 of nerve growth factor (NGF) secretion vs. 75% and ≈55 ng mL^-1 for chemically treated MSCs (ctMSCs)]. These results help pave the way for in vivo peripheral nerve regeneration where the flexible graphene electrodes could conform to the injury site and provide intimate electrical simulation for nerve cell regrowth.

[Morphological features and analysis of the nerve fibers in the periodontal ligament of dogs]

OBJECTIVE

To identify the properties of nerve fibers of dogs by immunohistochemical staining method.

METHODS

Intact bone blocks above the inferior alveolar nerve canal were cut from the medial of the second premolar to the distal of the third premolar of healthy adult Beagle dogs of 18 months, embedded to make hard tissue sections, stained with S100 and neurofilament protein (NFP) antibodies, and finally observed the nerve distribution under the microscope.

RESULTS

The distribution of S100 positive tissue in the periodontal ligament of dogs showed the following patterns: bundles of densely gathered rings with different diameters, filaments accompanied by lumens, free endings and deep-dyeing oval lamellasome. The location of NFP positive tissue was similar to that of S100 positive tissue, but the distribution of these NFP positive filaments with various diameters showed largely as bundles, free ending and branches scattering in periodontal membrane.

CONCLUSIONS

We may firstly distinguish the structure of the nerve fibers in periodontal ligament of nerve distribution, and then judge the categories of the nerve fibers by S100 immunohistochemistry furtherly according to comparison of the thickness of neural axon by NFP immunohistochemistry, and finally distinct the function and attribute of the nerve fibers in the periodontal ligament of dogs. 
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Placental and fetal effects of antenatal exposure to antidepressants or untreated maternal depression

OBJECTIVE

To assess systematically the effects of antidepressants and untreated maternal depression on human placenta and the developing fetus.

METHODS

Pertinent medical literature information was identified using MEDLINE/PubMed, SCOPUS and EMBASE. Electronic searches, limited to human studies published in English, provided 21 studies reporting primary data on placental and fetal effects of antidepressant exposure or untreated gestational depression.

RESULTS

The impact of antidepressants and non-medicated maternal depression on placental functioning and fetal biochemical architecture seems to be demonstrated, although its clinical significance remains unclear. More robust data seem to indicate that exposure to either antidepressants or untreated maternal depression may induce epigenetic changes and interfere with the physiological fetal behavior. Two cases of iatrogenic fetal tachyarrhythmia have also been reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Future research should clarify the clinical relevance of the impact of antidepressant and untreated maternal depression exposure on placental functioning. Moreover, ultrasound studies investigating fetal responses to antidepressants or maternal depressive symptoms are mandatory. This assessment should be performed during the whole duration of gestational period, when different fetal behavioral patterns become progressively detectable. Analyses of biochemical and epigenetic modifications associated with maternal mood symptoms and antidepressant treatment should also be implemented.

Nimodipine-mediated re-myelination after facial nerve crush injury in rats

This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of nimodipine-mediated neural repair after facial nerve crush injury in rats. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: healthy controls, surgery alone, and surgery plus nimodipine. A facial nerve crush injury model was constructed. Immediately after surgery, the rats in the surgery plus nimodipine group were administered nimodipine, 6 mg/kg/day, for a variable numbers of days. The animals underwent electromyography (EMG) before surgery and at 3, 10, or 20 days after surgery. After sacrifice, nerve samples were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and luxol fast blue. The EMG at 20 days revealed an apparent recovery of eletroconductivity, with the surgery plus nimodipine group having a higher amplitude and shorter latency time than the surgery only group. H&E staining showed that at 20 days, the rats treated with nimodipine had an obvious recovery of myelination and reduction in the number of infiltrating cells, suggesting less inflammation, compared with the rats in the surgery only group. Luxol fast blue staining was relatively even in the surgery plus nimodipine group, indicating a protective effect against injury-induced demyelination. Staining for S100 calcium-binding protein B (S-100β) was not evident in the surgery alone group, but was evident in the surgery plus nimodipine group, indicating that nimodipine reversed the damage of the crush injury. After a facial nerve crush injury, treatment with nimodipine for 20 days reduced the nerve injury by mediating remyelination by Schwann cells. The protective effect of nimodipine may include a reduction of inflammation and an increase in calcium-binding S-100β protein.

SOX10 transactivates S100B to suppress Schwann cell proliferation and to promote myelination

Schwann cells are an important cell source for regenerative therapy for neural disorders. We investigated the role of the transcription factor sex determining region Y (SRY)-box 10 (SOX10) in the proliferation and myelination of Schwann cells. SOX10 is predominantly expressed in rat sciatic nerve-derived Schwann cells and is induced shortly after birth. Among transcription factors known to be important for the differentiation of Schwann cells, SOX10 potently transactivates the S100B promoter. In cultures of Schwann cells, overexpressing SOX10 dramatically induces S100B expression, while knocking down SOX10 with shRNA suppresses S100B expression. Here, we identify three core response elements of SOX10 in the S100B promoter and intron 1 with a putative SOX motif. Knockdown of either SOX10 or S100B enhances the proliferation of Schwann cells. In addition, using dissociated cultures of dorsal root ganglia, we demonstrate that suppressing S100B with shRNA impairs myelination of Schwann cells. These results suggest that the SOX10-S100B signaling axis critically regulates Schwann cell proliferation and myelination, and therefore is a putative therapeutic target for neuronal disorders.