Molecular mechanisms of TSD in reptiles: a search for the magic bullet

Mechanisms related to sexual determination by temperature in reptiles

A number of strategies have emerged that appear to relate to the evolution of mechanisms for sexual determination in vertebrates, among which are genetic sex determination caused by sex chromosomes and environmental sex determination, where environmental factors influence the phenotype of the sex of an individual. Within the reptile group, some orders such as: Chelonia, Crocodylia, Squamata and Rhynchocephalia, manifest one of the most intriguing and exciting environmental sexual determination mechanisms that exists, comprising temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), where the temperature of incubation that the embryo experiences during its development is fundamental to establishing the sex of the individual. This makes them an excellent model for the study of sexual determination at the molecular, cellular and physiological level, as well as in terms of their implications at an evolutionary and ecological level. There are different hypotheses concerning how this process is triggered and this review aims to describe any new contributions to particular TSD hypotheses, analyzing them from the "eco-evo-devo" perspective.

Transcriptome and gene expression analysis of the rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrosis medinalis

Background

The rice leaf folder (RLF), Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is one of the most destructive pests affecting rice in Asia. Although several studies have been performed on the ecological and physiological aspects of this species, the molecular mechanisms underlying its developmental regulation, behavior, and insecticide resistance remain largely unknown. Presently, there is a lack of genomic information for RLF; therefore, studies aimed at profiling the RLF transcriptome expression would provide a better understanding of its biological function at the molecular level.

Principal Findings

De novo assembly of the RLF transcriptome was performed via the short read sequencing technology (Illumina). In a single run, we produced more than 23 million sequencing reads that were assembled into 44,941 unigenes (mean size = 474 bp) by Trinity. Through a similarity search, 25,281 (56.82%) unigenes matched known proteins in the NCBI Nr protein database. The transcriptome sequences were annotated with gene ontology (GO), cluster of orthologous groups of proteins (COG), and KEGG orthology (KO). Additionally, we profiled gene expression during RLF development using a tag-based digital gene expression (DGE) system. Five DGE libraries were constructed, and variations in gene expression were compared between collected samples: eggs vs. 3^rd instar larvae, 3^rd instar larvae vs. pupae, pupae vs. adults. The results demonstrated that thousands of genes were significantly differentially expressed during various developmental stages. A number of the differentially expressed genes were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR).

Conclusions

The RLF transcriptome and DGE data provide a comprehensive and global gene expression profile that would further promote our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying various biological characteristics, including development, elevated fecundity, flight, sex differentiation, olfactory behavior, and insecticide resistance in RLF. Therefore, these findings could help elucidate the intrinsic factors involved in the RLF-mediated destruction of rice and offer sustainable insect pest management.

Developmental genetics and physiology of sex differentiation in vertabrates

The involvement of the Y chromosome in sex determination was determined by the development and the application of techniques for karyotyping the mammalian chromosome in 1960s. There were many reports on the particular region of the Y chromosome, such as histocompatibility (H-Y) antigen, bandit krait minor satellite (Bkm) the zinc finger Y gene (ZFY) and the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) which were believed to be the testis determining factors. However, converging experimental evidence have indicated that the sex determining region of the Y chromosome (sry) is the testis determining factor (TDF) in mammalian species since sex is determined genetically at the time of fertilization in these species. In non-mammalian vertebrates especially in fishes, amphibians and reptiles, genotypic sex can be overridden by the external application of steroid hormones and temperature. In this review paper, after reviewing the complex literature on the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of sex determination and differentiation in all vertebrates, the potential danger of environmentally induced sex determination will be focused on.

Colocalization of WT1 and cell proliferation reveals conserved mechanisms in temperature-dependent sex determination

During vertebrate development the gonad has two possible fates, the testis or the ovary. The choice between these fates is made by a variety of sex-determining mechanisms, from the sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome (Sry) in mammals, to nongenetic temperature-dependent systems in many reptiles. Despite the differences in the mechanisms at the top of the sex-determining cascade, the resulting morphology and many genes involved in early testis and ovarian development are common to most vertebrates, leading to the hypothesis that the underlying processes of sex determination are conserved. In this study, we examined the early steps of gonad development in the red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta), a species that uses the temperature of egg incubation to determine sex. A dramatic increase in cell proliferation was observed in the male gonad during the earliest stages of sex determination. Using the localization of Wilms' Tumor suppressor 1 (WT1), we determined that this proliferation increase occurred in a population that contained pre-Sertoli cells. The proliferation of pre-Sertoli cells has been documented during sex determination in both mice and alligators, suggesting that proliferation of this cell type has an important role in vertebrate testis organogenesis and the determination of male fate.

Temperature-dependent sex determination and gonadal differentiation in reptiles

In many reptile species, sexual differentiation of gonads is sensitive to temperature (temperature-dependent sex determination, TSD) during a critical period of embryonic development (thermosensitive period, TSP). Experiments carried out with different models including turtles, crocodilians and lizards have demonstrated the implication of estrogens and the key role played by aromatase (the enzyme complex that converts androgens to estrogens) in ovary differentiation during TSP and in maintenance of the ovarian structure after TSP. In some of these experiments, the occurrence of various degrees of gonadal intersexuality is related to weak differences in aromatase activity, suggesting subtle regulations of the aromatase gene at the transcription level. Temperature could intervene in these regulations. Studies presently under way deal with cloning (cDNAs) and expression (mRNAs) of genes that have been shown, or are expected, to be involved in gonadal formation and/or differentiation in mammals. Preliminary results show that homologues of the WT1, SF1, SOX9, DAX1 and AMH genes exist in TSD reptiles. However, the expression patterns of these genes during gonadal differentiation may be different between mammals and TSD reptiles and also between different reptile species. How these genes could interact with aromatase is being examined.

Acetylcholinesterase-positive innervation is present at undifferentiated stages of the sea turtle Lepidochelis olivacea embryo gonads: implications for temperature-dependent sex determination

In embryos of different reptile species, incubation temperature triggers a cascade of endocrine events that lead to gonad sex differentiation. The cellular and molecular mechanisms by which temperature sets in motion this process are still controversial. Here, we begin evaluating the possible participation of the nervous system in temperature-dependent sex determination by showing the existence and origin of acetylcholinesterase (AchE)-positive nerve fibers in undifferentiated gonads of the Lepidochelys olivacea (L. olivacea) sea turtle putative male and female embryos, along the thermosensitive period for sex determination (TPSD; stages 20-27). AChE-positive nerve bundles and fibers were readily visualized until developmental stage 24 and thereafter. DiI injections and confocal imaging showed that some of these gonadal nerves arise from the lower thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord levels, and might thus be sensory in nature. Because the vertebrate spinal cord is capable of integrating by itself thermoregulatory responses with no intervention of uppermost levels of the central nervous system, we also evaluated spinal cord maturation during the TPSD. The maturation of the spinal cord was more advanced in putative female than in male embryos, when sex determination is taking place for each sex; this process starts and ends earlier in male than in female embryos. Together these observations open the possibility that the spinal cord and the innervation derived from it could play a direct role in driving or modulating the process of temperature-dependent gonad sex determination and/or differentiation, particularly in female L. olivacea embryos.

Immunochemical analysis of liver microsomal cytochromes P450 of the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis

Ten antibodies raised against various mammalian and fish cytochromes P450 (CYP) enzymes were used to probe the effects of xenobiotic pretreatment on liver microsomes of the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Pretreatment with phenobarbital (PB), 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC), and PB plus 3MC elicited significant induction of multiple CYP enzymes in alligator, as detected by antibodies to CYP1A, CYP2B, CYP2C, CYP2E, CYP2K, and CYP3A. In contrast to the rat, 3MC treatment induced alligator liver microsomes that were immunoreactive with antibodies to CYP2 family enzymes. Induction of CYP enzymes was not as apparent with the Aroclor 1254 (ARO), and 2,2',4,4' tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCB) pretreatment used; fewer CYP enzymes primarily detected with antibodies against CYP2C or CYP2E were observed. Clofibrate (CLO; 80 mg/kg Days 1-4), markedly induced CYP4A in rat but this induction was not apparent in alligator. A purified PB-induced alligator liver microsomal CYP enzyme cross-reacted with several antibodies raised against CYP2 family enzymes but did not cross-react with antibodies raised against other CYP families. This indicates the PB-inducible CYP in alligator shares some epitope homology with several CYP2-family enzymes from other animals. These experiments demonstrate the usefulness and limitations of using antibodies across phylogenetic classes. While indicating the presence of CYP enzymes that have epitope homology with CYP1A, CYP2, CYP3 and CYP4 enzymes in alligator, it remains to be established whether these CYP forms are alligator orthologues of mammalian enzymes. In all cases, the relative abundance of alligator liver microsomal CYP as determined by immunoblot analysis appeared lower than found in rat. The presence and induction of CYP indicated by immunochemical analysis, corroborated previously reported enzymatic studies of the same microsomal preparations (Ertl et al., 1998a). Thus, increases in CYP protein by the various inducers employed were paralled by the increases in CYP enzyme-specific or selective activities, e.g., induction of CYP1A protein corresponded with induction of EROD.

The microsomal mixed function oxidase system of amphibians and reptiles: components, activities and induction

This article reviews current research in amphibian and reptilian cytochromes P450, important to the overall understanding of xenobiotic metabolism in the ecosystem and the evolution of P450s. Amphibians and reptilians contain the normal mixed function oxidase system (MFO). In general the MFO content and activities are less than those found in mammals, but only a few of the known activities have been examined in these vertebrate classes. Research to date has focused on two families of cytochromes P450, CYP1 and 2. The isoforms examined catalyze the classic activities but there have been notable absences. The total number of isoforms present and the breadth of substrates metabolized are yet unknown. Induction by foreign compounds (xenobiotics) is lengthier and yields lower levels of induced activity than is typically found in mammals. When these animals are pretreated with 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) and beta-naphthaflavone (BNF), which are known to induce the same isoform in mammals, multiple isoforms are induced with different activities. Phenobarbital-pretreatment in turtles and alligators induces cytochromes P450 and suggestive data indicates induction in the lizard Agama lizard and the newt Pleurodeles waltl. In amphibians and reptiles a CYP2B protein does appear to be present along with constitutive activities associated with the 2 family of cytochromes P450. The markedly different response to classic inducers combined with lower or absent activities alters the view of how amphibians and reptilians respond to xenobiotic challenges.

Temperature-dependent sex determination in the red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta

Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in the red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta, has been the subject of a variety of past studies. Incubation temperature appears to affect sex determination in a dose-dependent fashion. This suggests that temperature could be affecting a dosage-sensitive element in the sex-determination cascade. Sex determination in T. scripta is sensitive to estrogen, and data from many studies support the hypothesis that endogenous estrogen production may be involved in female sex determination. However, this hypothesis has not yet been evaluated through aromatase expression studies in this species. Several recent studies have cloned cDNAs for genes that could be involved in sex determination and/or sex differentiation. The cDNAs for SF-1 and MIS have been cloned in T. scripta, indicating that these may represent conserved elements in the sex-determination/sex-differentiation cascade of reptiles. The SOX9 cDNA also has been cloned in T. scripta (Spotila et al., '98), and it shows a sex-specific expression pattern. Future studies targeted at aromatase expression as well as the expression of factors such as SOX9, SF-1, and MIS will begin to provide a more comprehensive picture of the events involved in TSD in T. scripta. Further, such studies could help pinpoint the temperature-sensitive element(s).

Response of diencephalon but not the gonad to female-promoting temperature with elevated estradiol levels in the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea

Although temperature sex determination is well known in several reptile species, the physiological mechanism underlying this process remains to be elucidated. In the current work, we analyzed the levels of testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2) in the gonads; two brain regions--telencephalon (Te) and diencephalon/mesencephalon (Di)--and the serum of developing embryos of the olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea incubated at male- or female-promoting temperatures. Conversion of pregnenolone (P5) to T and T to E2 were studied in the gonads and brain. The analyses were performed during three periods: the thermosensitive period (TSP), histologically undifferentiated gonads (UDG), and differentiated gonads (DG). In the gonads, serum, and brain, T concentrations were higher at the female-promoting temperature during the three periods, whereas in the gonads and serum, E2 levels were similar at the female and male-promoting temperature. In Di, the concentration of E2 was significantly higher at the female-promoting temperature. Biotransformation of P5 to T in gonadal tissues were slightly higher at the female-promoting temperature in TSP and increased during UDG and DG. Conversion of T to E2, however, was similar at the two temperatures during the three periods. In the brain, the Di showed a higher efficiency for transforming T to E2 at the female-promoting temperature. Our present results do not allow us to decide whether the diencephalon is the cause or the effect, but they conclusively demonstrate that, in L. olivacea, this region of the brain senses temperature during sex determination.

Temperature-dependent sex determination: the interplay of steroid hormones and temperature

Sex determination is the product of coordinated gene expression. Mutational analyses have yielded great progress in our understanding of mammalian sex determination, and insight into the evolution of this sex chromosome system would be valuable. Mammals arose from turtle-like reptiles, and in many turtles the incubation temperature of the egg determines the sex of the offspring, a process known as temperature-dependent sex determination. There is mounting evidence that sex steroid hormones are the physiological equivalent of incubation temperature and serve as the proximate trigger for male and female sex determination. Temperature appears to accomplish this end by acting on genes coding for steroidogenic enzymes and sex steroid hormone receptors. The ability to manipulate sex determination in turtles both by temperature and by sex steroid hormones extends our understanding of the evolution as well as the physiology and molecular biology of sex determination.