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Soiza RL, Scicluna C, Bilal S. Virus Infections in Older People. Subcell Biochem 2023; 103:149-183. [PMID: 37120468 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-26576-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Older people are more prone to viral infections, and often have worse outcomes. This was well demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic, where a disproportionate number of deaths occurred in the oldest and frailest people. The assessment of the older person with a viral infection is complicated by the high prevalence of multiple comorbidities and sensory or cognitive impairment. They often present with common geriatric syndromes such as falls or delirium, rather than the more typical features of a viral illness in younger people. Comprehensive geriatric assessment by a specialist multidisciplinary team is the gold standard of management, as viral illness is unlikely to present in isolation of other healthcare needs. We discuss the presentation, diagnosis, prevention, and management of common viral infections-respiratory syncytial virus, coronavirus, norovirus, influenza, hepatitis, herpes, and dengue viruses-with special consideration of infections in the older patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy L Soiza
- Ageing Clinical and Experimental Research Group, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK.
| | - Chiara Scicluna
- Ageing Clinical and Experimental Research Group, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Sana Bilal
- Ageing Clinical and Experimental Research Group, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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2
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Villabruna N, Izquierdo-Lara RW, Schapendonk CME, de Bruin E, Chandler F, Thao TTN, Westerhuis BM, van Beek J, Sigfrid L, Giaquinto C, Goossens H, Bielicki JA, Kohns Vasconcelos M, Fraaij PLA, Koopmans MPG, de Graaf M. Profiling of humoral immune responses to norovirus in children across Europe. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14275. [PMID: 35995986 PMCID: PMC9395339 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18383-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus is a leading cause of epidemic acute gastroenteritis. More than 30 genotypes circulate in humans, some are common, and others are only sporadically detected. Here, we investigated whether serology can be used to determine which genotypes infect children. We established a multiplex protein microarray with structural and non-structural norovirus antigens that allowed simultaneous antibody testing against 30 human GI and GII genotypes. Antibody responses of sera obtained from 287 children aged < 1 month to 5.5 years were profiled. Most specific IgG and IgA responses were directed against the GII.2, GII.3, GII.4, and GII.6 capsid genotypes. While we detected antibody responses against rare genotypes, we found no evidence for wide circulation. We also detected genotype-specific antibodies against the non-structural proteins p48 and p22 in sera of older children. In this study, we show the age-dependent antibody responses to a broad range of norovirus capsid and polymerase genotypes, which will aid in the development of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nele Villabruna
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ray W Izquierdo-Lara
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Erwin de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Felicity Chandler
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tran Thi Nhu Thao
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brenda M Westerhuis
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Janko van Beek
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Louise Sigfrid
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Carlo Giaquinto
- Division of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Herman Goossens
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Vaccine & Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Julia A Bielicki
- Paediatric Infectious Disease Research Group, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, University of Basel Children's Hospital (UKBB), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Malte Kohns Vasconcelos
- Paediatric Infectious Disease Research Group, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK.,Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | | | - Marion P G Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda de Graaf
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Wytemaweg 80, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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3
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Phattanawiboon B, Nonthabenjawan N, Boonyos P, Jetsukontorn C, Towayunanta W, Chuntrakool K, Ngaopravet K, Ruchusatsawat K, Uppapong B, Sangkitporn S, Mekada E, Matsuura Y, Tatsumi M, Mizushima H. Norovirus transmission mediated by asymptomatic family members in households. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236502. [PMID: 32702014 PMCID: PMC7377487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The transmission of human norovirus excreted from infected persons occasionally causes sporadic infections and outbreaks. Both symptomatic patients and asymptomatic carriers have been reported to contribute to norovirus transmission, but little is known about the magnitude of the contribution of asymptomatic carriers. We carried out a 1-year survey of residents of a district of Bangkok, Thailand to determine the percentage of norovirus transmissions originating from asymptomatic individuals. We screened 38 individuals recruited from 16 families from May 2018 to April 2019 for GI and GII genotypes. Norovirus was detected every month, and 101 of 716 stool samples (14.1%) from individuals with no symptoms of acute gastroenteritis were norovirus-positive. The average infection frequency was 2.4 times per person per year. Fourteen genotypes were identified from the positive samples, with GII.4 being detected most frequently. Notably, 89.1% of the norovirus-positive samples were provided by individuals with no diarrhea episode. Similar to cases of symptomatic infections in Thailand, asymptomatic infections were observed most frequently in December. We detected 4 cases of NV infection caused by household transmission, and 3 of the 4 transmissions originated from asymptomatic individuals. We also identified a case in which norovirus derived from an asymptomatic individual caused diarrhea in a family member. These results suggest that asymptomatic individuals play a substantial role in both the maintenance and spreading of norovirus in a community through household transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjarat Phattanawiboon
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Nutthawan Nonthabenjawan
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Patcharaporn Boonyos
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Chanya Jetsukontorn
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | | | | | | | - Kriangsak Ruchusatsawat
- Department of Medical Sciences, National Institute of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Ballang Uppapong
- Department of Medical Sciences, National Institute of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Somchai Sangkitporn
- Department of Medical Sciences, National Institute of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Eisuke Mekada
- Research and Education Promotion Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yoshiharu Matsuura
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masashi Tatsumi
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Hiroto Mizushima
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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4
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High genetic variability of norovirus leads to diagnostic test challenges. J Clin Virol 2017; 96:94-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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5
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Bucardo F, Reyes Y, Becker-Dreps S, Bowman N, Gruber JF, Vinjé J, Espinoza F, Paniagua M, Balmaseda A, Svensson L, Nordgren J. Pediatric norovirus GII.4 infections in Nicaragua, 1999-2015. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 55:305-312. [PMID: 28982545 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Investigate clinical and epidemiological factors of pediatric GII.4 norovirus infections in children with acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in Nicaragua between 1999 and 2015. METHODS We retrospectively analyzed laboratory and epidemiologic data from 1,790 children≤7years with AGE from 6 hospitals in Nicaragua (n=538), and 3 community clinics (n=919) and households (n=333) in León, between 1999 and 2015. Moreover, asymptomatic children from community clinics (n=162) and households (n=105) were enrolled. Norovirus was detected by real-time PCR and genotyped by sequencing the N-terminal and shell region of the capsid gene. RESULTS Norovirus was found in 19% (n=338) and 12% (n=32) of children with and without AGE, respectively. In total, 20 genotypes including a tentatively new genotype were detected. Among children with AGE, the most common genotypes were GII.4 (53%), GII.14 (7%), GII.3 (6%) and GI.3 (6%). In contrast, only one (1.4%) GII.4 was found in asymptomatic children. The prevalence of GII.4 infections was significantly higher in children between 7 and 12months of age. The prevalence of GII.4 was lowest in households (38%), followed by community clinics (50%) and hospitals (75%). Several different GII.4 variants were detected and their emergence followed the global temporal trend. CONCLUSIONS Overall our study found the predominance of pediatric GII.4 norovirus infections in Nicaragua mostly occurring in children between 7 and 12months of age, implicating GII.4 as the main norovirus vaccine target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filemón Bucardo
- National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, León, Nicaragua.
| | - Yaoska Reyes
- National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, León, Nicaragua
| | - Sylvia Becker-Dreps
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Natalie Bowman
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joann F Gruber
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Gillings School of Global Public Health, USA
| | - Jan Vinjé
- Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Felix Espinoza
- National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, León, Nicaragua
| | | | - Angel Balmaseda
- National Virology Laboratory, Centro Nacional de Diagnóstico y Referencia, Ministry of Health, Managua, Nicaragua
| | - Lennart Svensson
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Johan Nordgren
- Division of Molecular Virology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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6
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Bruggink L, Catton M, Marshall J. A norovirus intervariant GII.4 recombinant in Victoria, Australia, June 2016: the next epidemic variant? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 21:30353. [PMID: 27719750 PMCID: PMC5069427 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2016.21.39.30353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A norovirus recombinant GII.P4_NewOrleans_2009/GII.4_Sydney_2012 was first detected in Victoria, Australia, in August 2015 at low frequency, and then re-emerged in June 2016, having undergone genetic changes. Analysis of 14 years’ surveillance data from Victoria suggests a typical delay of two to seven months between first detection of a new variant and occurrence of a subsequent epidemic linked to that variant. We consider that the current recombinant strain has the potential to become a pandemic variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leesa Bruggink
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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7
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Genotype analysis of noroviruses associated with gastroenteritis outbreaks in childcare centres, Victoria, Australia, 2012-2015. Epidemiol Infect 2017; 145:1933-1941. [PMID: 28397614 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268817000681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The characteristics of norovirus outbreaks in children (0-5 years) in childcare centres in Victoria, Australia (2012-2015) were examined. The three most common open reading frame (ORF) 2 genotypes in childcare centre outbreaks were GII.4 (42%), GII.6 (21%) and GII.3 (14%); the remaining genotypes (GI.2, GI.3, GI.4, GI.8, GI.13, GII.1, GII.2, GII.7 and GII.13) each made up <10%. The GII.4 genotype was the only norovirus genotype seen in all 4 years of the study and was the most common genotype in 2012-2014 but in 2015 the most common genotype was GII.2. The GII.4 genotype was more common in children 0-2 years, whereas GII.2 and GII.7 were more common in children 4-5 years. ORF 1/ORF 2 recombinant forms identified were GII.P4_NewOrleans_2009/GII.4_Sydney_2012, GII.P12/GII.3, GII.Pb (GII.21)/GII.3, GII.Pe/GII.2, GII.Pe/GII.4_Sydney_2012 and GII.Pg/GII.1. The findings indicate that norovirus genotype prevalence patterns in children were influenced by the age of the children and the year in which the analysis was carried out. The majority of norovirus infections (84%) occurred after the first year of life so that vaccination before the age of one would appear to be the most efficacious.
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8
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An outbreak of norovirus GI-6 infection following a wedding in North West England. Epidemiol Infect 2017; 145:1239-1245. [PMID: 28132650 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816003368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In August 2015 a gastroenteritis outbreak occurred following a wedding. An outbreak investigation was undertaken and a cohort study was conducted using an online survey. Of 140 guests, 134 received the survey and 113 responded (84·3% response rate). Seventy respondents met the case definition of vomiting and/or diarrhoea within 72 h of the wedding (61·9% attack rate). Fifteen exposures were associated with illness; on stratification, all were confounded by the ham hock starter. Multivariable analysis showed a significant association with exposure to ham hock (risk ratio 6·62, 95% confidence interval 2·19-20·03). Eight guests and two catering staff submitted stool samples. All tested positive for norovirus GI-6 infection, including a food handler who had vomiting less than 48 h before the wedding. A single genotype was detected among all samples, suggesting a single source of contamination. The transmission pattern suggested point-source exposure. The most plausible cause of the outbreak was transmission from an infected food handler via contaminated food. This highlights the importance of appropriate exclusions for symptomatic food handlers. Additionally, the food handler's stool sample was submitted 7 days after symptom resolution. The potential for extended viral excretion, and the extremely low infective dose of norovirus, may mean that current exclusion guidelines are not of sufficient duration.
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9
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Nakamura N, Kobayashi S, Minagawa H, Matsushita T, Sugiura W, Iwatani Y. Molecular epidemiology of enteric viruses in patients with acute gastroenteritis in Aichi prefecture, Japan, 2008/09−2013/14. J Med Virol 2015; 88:1180-6. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Nakamura
- Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health; Nagoya Aichi Japan
- Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine; Nagoya Aichi Japan
- Clinical Research Center; National Hospital Organization Nagoya Medical Center; Nagoya Aichi Japan
| | | | - Hiroko Minagawa
- Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health; Nagoya Aichi Japan
| | | | - Wataru Sugiura
- Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine; Nagoya Aichi Japan
- Clinical Research Center; National Hospital Organization Nagoya Medical Center; Nagoya Aichi Japan
| | - Yasumasa Iwatani
- Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine; Nagoya Aichi Japan
- Clinical Research Center; National Hospital Organization Nagoya Medical Center; Nagoya Aichi Japan
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10
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Wang HB, Wang Q, Zhao JH, Tu CN, Mo QH, Lin JC, Yang Z. Complete nucleotide sequence analysis of the norovirus GII.17: A newly emerging and dominant variant in China, 2015. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 38:47-53. [PMID: 26687061 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 11/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus is an important pathogen which accounts for majority of the viral related acute gastroenteritis. Recently, a variant of genotype GII.17 was reported to be predominant over GII.4 and accounted for several acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in Asia. In the current study, the full genome of a norovirus strain ZHITHC-12 isolated during this outbreak period in China was identified and characterized. The viral genome was 7557 nucleotides in length and a phylogenetic analysis based on full length genome sequences indicated that ZHITHC-12 belonged to GII.17 genotype. A further phylogenetic analysis based on all available polymerase and capsid sequences showed that ZHITHC-12 was in Cluster III on both phylogenetic trees and grouped with other strains also isolated during 2013 to 2015. Moreover, homology modeling analysis based on GII norovirus capsid 5BSX template revealed that substitutions, mutations, and more importantly, deletions and insertions, occurred at or near the putative epitopes and histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) binding sites in its protruding P2 domain, which might confer new antigenic or biological properties for this novel variant. In summary, the first full genome and capsid protein structure of a novel norovirus GII.17 variant isolated in China was extensively characterized. The data would be helpful not only for the epidemiology study, but also for the diagnostic tool development and effective vaccine design in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Qi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Jun-Hua Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Cheng-Ning Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Qiu-Hua Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Ji-Can Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Ze Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Diarrhea Disease Detection, Zhuhai International Travel Healthcare Center, Zhuhai Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China.
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11
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Aliabadi N, Lopman BA, Parashar UD, Hall AJ. Progress toward norovirus vaccines: considerations for further development and implementation in potential target populations. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015. [PMID: 26224658 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1073110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human norovirus infection causes significant medical and financial costs in the USA and abroad. Some populations, including young children, the elderly, and the immunocompromised, are at heightened risk of infection with this virus and subsequent complications, while others, such as healthcare workers and food handlers are at increased risk of transmitting it, and some are at risk of both. Human noroviruses are heterogeneous with new strains emerging periodically. In addition to viral diversity, incompletely understood characteristics, such as virus-host cell binding and duration of immunity after infection add to the challenges of creating a norovirus vaccine. Although much progress has been made in recent years, many questions remain to be answered. In this review, we discuss the important areas and relevant literature in considering human norovirus vaccine development and potential targets for implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negar Aliabadi
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Viral Diseases, Epidemiology Branch, Viral Gastroenterology Team, Atlanta, USA
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12
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Ayukekbong JA, Mesumbe HN, Oyero OG, Lindh M, Bergström T. Role of noroviruses as aetiological agents of diarrhoea in developing countries. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1983-1999. [PMID: 26002299 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhoea is considered to be the second leading cause of death due to infections among children < 5 years of age worldwide that may be caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and non-infectious agents. The major causative agents of diarrhoea in developing countries may vary from those in developed countries. Noroviruses are considered to be the most common cause of acute diarrhoea in both children and adults in industrialized countries. On the other hand, there is a lack of comprehensive epidemiological evidence from developing countries that norovirus is a major cause of diarrhoea. In these regions, asymptomatic norovirus infections are very common, and similar detection rates have been observed in patients with diarrhoea and asymptomatic persons. This review summarizes the current knowledge of norovirus infection in developing countries and seeks to position infections with noroviruses among those of other enteropathogens in terms of disease burden in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Ayukepi Ayukekbong
- Section for Clinical Research, Redeem Biomedical System, Buea, Cameroon
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Olufunmilayo G Oyero
- Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Magnus Lindh
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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