Peroxynitrite generated in the rat spinal cord induces oxidation and nitration of proteins: reduction by Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin

Inhibition of nitric oxide production enhances the activity of facial nerve tubulin polymerization and the ability of tau to promote microtubule assembly after neurorrhaphy

We previously reported that inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production promotes rat reconnected facial nerve regeneration. However, the underlying mechanism is obscure. Microtubule assembly is known to be essential to axon regeneration; nevertheless, tubulins and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) have been demonstrated as targets for NO and peroxynitrite. Thus, we hypothesized that NO and/or peroxynitrite may affect facial nerve regeneration via influencing on microtubule assembly. First, tubulins and tau (a MAP) were extracted from facial nerves of normal rats, treated with NO donor or peroxynitrite, and processed for microtubule assembly assay. We found that peroxynitrite, DEA NONOate, and Angeli's salt reduced the tubulin polymerization activity to a greater extent than GSNO, SIN-1, and SNAP. Additionally, SIN-1, peroxynitrite, and Angeli's salt impaired the ability of tau to promote microtubule assembly. Next, nitrosative stress biomarkers 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) and S-nitrosylated cysteine (SNO-Cys) were immunolabeled in facial nerves. Both biomarkers were highly upregulated in proximal and distal stumps of reconnected facial nerves at 3 days and 1 week after neurorrhaphy. Notably, the expression of 3-NT was greatly reduced at 2 weeks, whereas that of SNO-Cys was maintained. Conversely, inhibition of NO production with L-NAME prevented the upregulation of SNO-Cys. Further, we used tubulins and tau extracted from facial nerves of sham-operated, nerve suture + vehicle treatment, and nerve suture + L-NAME treatment rats to perform microtubule assembly assay. We found that L-NAME treatment enhanced polymerization activity of tubulins and ability of tau to promote microtubule assembly. It is noteworthy that α-tubulin plays a more important role than β-tubulin since the activity of microtubule assembly using α-tubulin extracted from L-NAME-treated rats was greatly elevated, whereas that using β-tubulin extracted from L-NAME-treated rats was not. Overall, our findings support that inhibition of NO production reduces nitrosative stress, and may thus facilitate microtubule assembly and facial nerve regeneration.

Acute Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review Investigating miRNA Families Involved

Acute traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) involves primary and secondary injury mechanisms. The primary mechanism is related to the initial traumatic damage caused by the damaging impact and this damage is irreversible. Secondary mechanisms, which begin as early as a few minutes after the initial trauma, include processes such as spinal cord ischemia, cellular excitotoxicity, ionic dysregulation, and free radical-mediated peroxidation. SCI is featured by different forms of injury, investigating the pathology and degree of clinical diagnosis and treatment strategies, the animal models that have allowed us to better understand this entity and, finally, the role of new diagnostic and prognostic tools such as miRNA could improve our ability to manage this pathological entity. Autopsy could benefit from improvements in miRNA research: the specificity and sensitivity of miRNAs could help physicians in determining the cause of death, besides the time of death.

PPAR-α Modulates the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Melatonin in the Secondary Events of Spinal Cord Injury

Melatonin is the principal secretory product of the pineal gland, and its role as an immunomodulator is well established. Recent evidence shows that melatonin is a scavenger of oxyradicals and peroxynitrite and reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury events associated with spinal cord trauma. Previous results suggest that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR-α), a nuclear receptor protein that functions as a transcription factor activated by fatty acids, plays a role in control of secondary inflammatory process associated with spinal cord injury (SCI).With the aim to characterize the role of PPAR-α in melatonin-mediated anti-inflammatory activity, we tested the efficacy of melatonin (30 mg/kg) in an experimental model of spinal cord trauma, induced in mice, by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy, and comparing mice lacking PPAR-α (PPAR-α KO) with wild-type (WT) mice.The results obtained indicate that melatonin-mediated anti-inflammatory activity is weakened in PPAR-α KO mice, as compared to WT controls. In particular, melatonin was less effective in PPAR-α KO, compared to WT mice, as evaluated by inhibition of the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury, neutrophil infiltration, pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. This study indicates that PPAR-α can contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity of melatonin in SCI.

Caffeine treatment aggravates secondary degeneration after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in some form of paralysis. Recently, SCI therapy has been focused on preventing secondary injury to reduce both neuroinflammation and lesion size so that functional outcome after an SCI may be improved. Previous studies have shown that adenosine receptors (AR) are a major regulator of inflammation after an SCI. The current study was performed to examine the effect of caffeine, a pan-AR blocker, on spontaneous functional recovery after an SCI. Animals were assigned into 3 groups randomly, including sham, PBS and caffeine groups. The rat SCI was generated by an NYU impactor with a 10 g rod dropped from a 25 mm height at thoracic 9 spinal cord level. Caffeine and PBS were injected daily during the experiment period. Hind limb motor function was evaluated by the Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale at 1 week and 4 weeks after the SCI. Spinal cord segments were collected after final behavior evaluation for morphological analysis. The tissue sparing was evaluated by luxol fast blue staining. Immunofluorescence stain was employed to assess astrocyte activation and neurofilament positioning, while microglia activation was examined by immunohistochemistry stain.The results showed that spontaneous functional recovery was blocked after the animals were subjected caffeine daily. Moreover, caffeine administration increased the demyelination area, promoted astrocyte and microglia activation and decreased the quantity of neurofilaments. These findings suggest that the neurotoxicity effect of caffeine may be associated with the inhibition of neural repair and the promotion of neuroinflammation.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) induces protein oxidation and nitration in brain and liver of chicken: Ameliorative effect of vitamin E

The present study was aimed at investigating the therapeutic efficacy of vitamin E on oxidative injury in brain and liver of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) challenged chickens. We have analyzed the xanthine oxidase (XOD) activity; uric acid (UA) levels and superoxide radical generation by using electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Further, protein oxidation, nitration and apoptosis were evaluated in the brain and liver of the control, NDV-infected and NDV+Vit. E treated groups. A significant elevation was observed in XOD activity and UA levels in brain (p<0.001) and liver (p<0.05) of NDV infected birds when compared to controls. Further, significant increase in the production of superoxides, enhanced intracellular protein carbonyls and nitrates were observed in the brain and liver of NDV-infected birds over healthy subjects. Apoptosis studies also suggested that a larger number of TUNEL positive cells were observed in brain and a moderately in liver of NDV-infected chickens. However, all these perturbations were significantly ameliorated in NDV+Vit. E treated chickens as compared to NDV-infected birds. Taken together, our results suggested that NDV-induced neuronal and hepatic damage at least in part mediates oxidative stress and on the other hand, supplementation of vitamin E mitigates NDV-induced oxidative damage thereby protects brain and liver of chickens. These findings could provide new insights into the understanding of NDV pathogenesis and therapeutic effects of dietary antioxidants.

Hydrogen peroxide administered into the rat spinal cord at the level elevated by contusion spinal cord injury oxidizes proteins, DNA and membrane phospholipids, and induces cell death: attenuation by a metalloporphyrin

We previously demonstrated that hydrogen peroxide concentration ([H2O2]) significantly increases after spinal cord injury (SCI). The present study explored (1) whether SCI-elevated [H2O2] is sufficient to induce oxidation and cell death, (2) if apoptosis is a pathway of H2O2-induced cell death, and (3) whether H2O2-induced oxidation and cell death could be reversed by treatment with the catalytic antioxidant Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP). H2O2 was perfused through a microcannula into the uninjured rat spinal cord to mimic the conditions induced by SCI. Protein and DNA oxidation, membrane phospholipids peroxidation (MLP), cell death and apoptosis were characterized by histochemical and immunohistochemical staining with antibodies against markers of oxidation and apoptosis. Stained cells were quantified in sections of H2O2-, or artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF)-exposed with vehicle-, or MnTBAP-treated groups. Compared with ACSF-exposed animals, SCI-elevated [H2O2] significantly increased intracellular protein and DNA oxidation by threefold and MLP by eightfold in neurons, respectively. H2O2-elevated extracellular malondialdehyde was measured by microdialysis sampling. We demonstrated that SCI-elevated [H2O2] significantly increased extracellular malondialdehyde above pre-injury levels. H2O2 also significantly increased cell loss and the numbers of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate-(dUTP)-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive and active caspase-3-positive neurons by 2.3-, 2.8-, and 5.6-fold compared to ACSF controls, respectively. Our results directly and unequivocally demonstrate that SCI-elevated [H2O2] contributes to post-SCI MLP, protein, and DNA oxidation to induce cell death. Therefore, we conclude that (1) the role of H2O2 in secondary SCI is pro-oxidation and pro-cell death, (2) apoptosis is a pathway for SCI-elevated [H2O2] to induce cell death, (3) caspase activation is a mechanism of H2O2-induced apoptosis after SCI, and (4) MnTBAP treatment significantly decreased H2O2-induced oxidation, cell loss, and apoptosis to the levels of ACSF controls, further supporting MnTBAP's ability to scavenge H2O2 by in vivo evidence.

Rational design of superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimics: the evaluation of the therapeutic potential of new cationic Mn porphyrins with linear and cyclic substituents

Our goal herein has been to gain further insight into the parameters which control porphyrin therapeutic potential. Mn porphyrins (MnTnOct-2-PyP(5+), MnTnHexOE-2-PyP(5+), MnTE-2-PyPhP(5+), and MnTPhE-2-PyP(5+)) that bear the same positive charge and same number of carbon atoms at meso positions of porphyrin core were explored. The carbon atoms of their meso substituents are organized to form either linear or cyclic structures of vastly different redox properties, bulkiness, and lipophilicities. These Mn porphyrins were compared to frequently studied compounds, MnTE-2-PyP(5+), MnTE-3-PyP(5+), and MnTBAP(3-). All Mn(III) porphyrins (MnPs) have metal-centered reduction potential, E1/2 for Mn(III)P/Mn(II)P redox couple, ranging from -194 to +340 mV versus NHE, log kcat(O2(•-)) from 3.16 to 7.92, and log kred(ONOO(-)) from 5.02 to 7.53. The lipophilicity, expressed as partition between n-octanol and water, log POW, was in the range -1.67 to -7.67. The therapeutic potential of MnPs was assessed via: (i) in vitro ability to prevent spontaneous lipid peroxidation in rat brain homogenate as assessed by malondialdehyde levels; (ii) in vivo O2(•-) specific assay to measure the efficacy in protecting the aerobic growth of SOD-deficient Saccharomyces cerevisiae; and (iii) aqueous solution chemistry to measure the reactivity toward major in vivo endogenous antioxidant, ascorbate. Under the conditions of lipid peroxidation assay, the transport across the cellular membranes, and in turn shape and size of molecule, played no significant role. Those MnPs of E1/2 ∼ +300 mV were the most efficacious, significantly inhibiting lipid peroxidation in 0.5-10 μM range. At up to 200 μM, MnTBAP(3-) (E1/2 = -194 mV vs NHE) failed to inhibit lipid peroxidation, while MnTE-2-PyPhP(5+) with 129 mV more positive E1/2 (-65 mV vs NHE) was fully efficacious at 50 μM. The E1/2 of Mn(III)P/Mn(II)P redox couple is proportional to the log kcat(O2(•-)), i.e., the SOD-like activity of MnPs. It is further proportional to kred(ONOO(-)) and the ability of MnPs to prevent lipid peroxidation. In turn, the inhibition of lipid peroxidation by MnPs is also proportional to their SOD-like activity. In an in vivo S. cerevisiae assay, however, while E1/2 predominates, lipophilicity significantly affects the efficacy of MnPs. MnPs of similar log POW and E1/2, that have linear alkyl or alkoxyalkyl pyridyl substituents, distribute more easily within a cell and in turn provide higher protection to S. cerevisiae in comparison to MnP with bulky cyclic substituents. The bell-shape curve, with MnTE-2-PyP(5+) exhibiting the highest ability to catalyze ascorbate oxidation, has been established and discussed. Our data support the notion that the SOD-like activity of MnPs parallels their therapeutic potential, though species other than O2(•-), such as peroxynitrite, H2O2, lipid reactive species, and cellular reductants, may be involved in their mode(s) of action(s).

Mn porphyrin-based SOD mimic, MnTnHex-2-PyP(5+), and non-SOD mimic, MnTBAP(3-), suppressed rat spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury via NF-κB pathways

Herein we have demonstrated that both superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimic, cationic Mn(III) meso-tetrakis(N-n-hexylpyridinium-2-yl)porphyrin (MnTnHex-2-PyP(5+)), and non-SOD mimic, anionic Mn(III) meso-tetrakis(4-carboxylatophenyl)porphyrin (MnTBAP(3-)), protect against oxidative stress caused by spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion via suppression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pro-inflammatory pathways. Earlier reports showed that Mn(III) N-alkylpyridylporphyrins were able to prevent the DNA binding of NF-κB in an aqueous system, whereas MnTBAP(3-) was not. Here, for the first time, in a complex in vivo system-animal model of spinal cord injury-a similar impact of MnTBAP(3-), at a dose identical to that of MnTnHex-2-PyP(5+), was demonstrated in NF-κB downregulation. Rats were treated subcutaneously at 1.5 mg/kg starting at 30 min before ischemia/reperfusion, and then every 12 h afterward for either 48 h or 7 days. The anti-inflammatory effects of both Mn porphyrins (MnPs) were demonstrated in the spinal cord tissue at both 48 h and 7 days. The downregulation of NF-κB, a major pro-inflammatory signaling protein regulating astrocyte activation, was detected and found to correlate well with the suppression of astrogliosis (as glial fibrillary acidic protein) by both MnPs. The markers of oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl formation, were significantly reduced by MnPs. The favorable impact of both MnPs on motor neurons (Tarlov score and inclined plane test) was assessed. No major changes in glutathione peroxidase- and SOD-like activities were demonstrated, which implies that none of the MnPs acted as SOD mimic. Increasing amount of data on the reactivity of MnTBAP(3-) with reactive nitrogen species (RNS) (.NO/HNO/ONOO(-)) suggests that RNS/MnTBAP(3-)-driven modification of NF-κB protein cysteines may be involved in its therapeutic effects. This differs from the therapeutic efficacy of MnTnHex-2-PyP(5+) which presumably occurs via reactive oxygen species and relates to NF-κB thiol oxidation; the role of RNS cannot be excluded.

Spinal cord injury models: a review

BACKGROUND

Animal spinal cord injury (SCI) models have proved invaluable in better understanding the mechanisms involved in traumatic SCI and evaluating the effectiveness of experimental therapeutic interventions. Over the past 25 years, substantial gains have been made in developing consistent, reproducible and reliable animal SCI models.

STUDY DESIGN

Review.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review was to consolidate current knowledge on SCI models and introduce newer paradigms that are currently being developed.

RESULTS

SCI models are categorized based on the mechanism of injury into contusion, compression, distraction, dislocation, transection or chemical models. Contusion devices inflict a transient, acute injury to the spinal cord using a weight-drop technique, electromagnetic impactor or air pressure. Compression devices compress the cord at specific force and duration to cause SCI. Distraction SCI devices inflict graded injury by controlled stretching of the cord. Mechanical displacement of the vertebrae is utilized to produce dislocation-type SCI. Surgical transection of the cord, partial or complete, is particularly useful in regenerative medicine. Finally, chemically induced SCI replicates select components of the secondary injury cascade. Although rodents remain the most commonly used species and are best suited for preliminary SCI studies, large animal and nonhuman primate experiments better approximate human SCI.

CONCLUSION

All SCI models aim to replicate SCI in humans as closely as possible. Given the recent improvements in commonly used models and development of newer paradigms, much progress is anticipated in the coming years.

Metalloporphyrins as therapeutic catalytic oxidoreductants in central nervous system disorders

SIGNIFICANCE

Metalloporphyrins, characterized by a redox-active transitional metal (Mn or Fe) coordinated to a cyclic porphyrin core ligand, mitigate oxidative/nitrosative stress in biological systems. Side-chain substitutions tune redox properties of metalloporphyrins to act as potent superoxide dismutase mimics, peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts, and redox regulators of transcription factor function. With oxidative/nitrosative stress central to pathogenesis of CNS injury, metalloporphyrins offer unique pharmacologic activity to improve the course of disease.

RECENT ADVANCES

Metalloporphyrins are efficacious in models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, neuropathic pain, opioid tolerance, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, and stroke and have proved to be useful tools in defining roles of superoxide, nitric oxide, and peroxynitrite in disease progression. The most substantive recent advance has been the synthesis of lipophilic metalloporphyrins offering improved blood-brain barrier penetration to allow intravenous, subcutaneous, or oral treatment.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Insufficient preclinical data have accumulated to enable clinical development of metalloporphyrins for any single indication. An improved definition of mechanisms of action will facilitate preclinical modeling to define and validate optimal dosing strategies to enable appropriate clinical trial design. Due to previous failures of "antioxidants" in clinical trials, with most having markedly less biologic activity and bioavailability than current-generation metalloporphyrins, a stigma against antioxidants has discouraged the development of metalloporphyrins as CNS therapeutics, despite the consistent definition of efficacy in a wide array of CNS disorders.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Further definition of the metalloporphyrin mechanism of action, side-by-side comparison with "failed" antioxidants, and intense effort to optimize therapeutic dosing strategies are required to inform and encourage clinical trial design.

The temporal and spatial profiles of cell loss following experimental spinal cord injury: effect of antioxidant therapy on cell death and functional recovery

Background

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI)-induced overproduction of endogenous deleterious substances triggers secondary cell death to spread damage beyond the initial injury site. Substantial experimental evidence supports reactive species (RS) as important mediators of secondary cell death after SCI. This study established quantitative temporal and spatial profiles of cell loss, characterized apoptosis, and evaluated the effectiveness of a broad spectrum RS scavenger - Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP) and a combination of MnTBAP plus nitro-L-arginine to prevent cell loss and neurological dysfunction following contusion SCI to the rat spinal cord.

Results

By counting the number of surviving cells in spinal cord sections removed at 1, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 h and 1 week post-SCI and at 0 – 4 mm from the epicenter, the temporal and spatial profiles of motoneuron and glia loss were established. Motoneurons continued to disappear over a week and the losses decreased with increasing distance from the epicenter. Significant glia loss peaked at 24 to 48 h post-SCI, but only at sections 0–1.5 mm from the epicenter. Apoptosis of neurons, motoneurons and astrocytes was characterized morphologically by double immuno-staining with cell-specific markers and apoptosis indicators and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. DNA laddering, ELISA quantitation and caspase-3 activation in the spinal cord tissue indicated more intense DNA fragments and greater caspase-3 activation in the epicenter than at 1 and 2 cm away from the epicenter or the sham-operated sections. Intraperitoneal treatment with MnTBAP + nitro-L-arginine significantly reduced motoneuron and cell loss and apoptosis in the gray and white matter compared with the vehicle-treated group. MnTBAP alone significantly reduced the number of apoptotic cells and improved functional recovery as evaluated by three behavioral tests.

Conclusions

Our temporal and spatial profiles of cell loss provide data bases for determining the time and location for pharmacological intervention. Our demonstration that apoptosis follows SCI and that MnTBAP alone or MnTBAP + nitro-L-arginine significantly reduces apoptosis correlates SCI-induced apoptosis with RS overproduction. MnTBAP significantly improved functional recovery, which strongly supports the important role of antioxidant therapy in treating SCI and the candidacy of MnTBAP for such treatment.

Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin scavenges reactive species, reduces oxidative stress, and improves functional recovery after experimental spinal cord injury in rats: comparison with methylprednisolone

BACKGROUND

Substantial experimental evidence supports that reactive species mediate secondary damage after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) by inducing oxidative stress. Removal of reactive species may reduce secondary damage following SCI. This study explored the effectiveness of a catalytic antioxidant - Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP) - in removing reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing oxidative stress, and improving functional recovery in vivo in a rat impact SCI model. The efficiency of MnTBAP was also compared with that of methylprednisolone - the only drug used clinically in treating acute SCI.

RESULTS

In vivo measurements of time courses of ROS production by microdialysis and microcannula sampling in MnTBAP, methylprednisolone, and saline (as vehicle control)-treated SCI rats showed that both agents significantly reduced the production of hydrogen peroxide, but only MnTBAP significantly reduced superoxide elevation after SCI. In vitro experiments further demonstrated that MnTBAP scavenged both of the preceding ROS, whereas methylprednisolone had no effect on either. By counting the immuno-positive neurons in the spinal cord sections immunohistochemically stained with anti-nitrotyrosine and anti-4-hydroxy-nonenal antibodies as the markers of protein nitration and membrane lipid peroxidation, we demonstrated that MnTBAP significantly reduced the numbers of 4-hydroxy-nonenal-positive and nitrotyrosine-positive neurons in the sections at 1.55 to 2.55 mm and 1.1 to 3.1 mm, respectively, rostral to the injury epicenter compared to the vehicle-treated animals. By behavioral tests (open field and inclined plane tests), we demonstrated that at 4 hours post-SCI treatment with MnTBAP and the standard methylprednisolone regimen both significantly increased test scores compared to those produced by vehicle treatment. However, the outcomes for MnTBAP-treated rats were significantly better than those for methylprednisolone-treated animals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated for the first time in vivo and in vitro that MnTBAP significantly reduced the levels of SCI-elevated ROS and that MnTBAP is superior to methylprednisolone in removing ROS. Removal of ROS by MnTBAP significantly reduced protein nitration and membrane lipid peroxidation in neurons. MnTBAP more effectively reduced neurological deficits than did methylprednisolone after SCI - the first most important criterion for assessing SCI treatments. These results support the therapeutic potential of MnTBAP in treating SCI.

Nitrous oxide myelopathy posing as spinal cord injury

The authors describe a patient who presented with acute tetraparesis and a proposed acute traumatic spinal cord injury that was the result of nitrous oxide myelopathy. This 19-year-old man sustained a traumatic fall off a 6-ft high wall. His examination was consistent with a central cord syndrome with the addition of dorsal column impairment. Cervical MRI demonstrated an isolated dorsal column signal that was suggestive of a nontraumatic etiology. The patient's symptoms resolved entirely over the course of 48 hours.

Nitrous oxide abuse is increasing in prevalence. Its toxic side effects can mask vitamin B12 and folate deficiency and central cord syndrome. The patient's history and radiographic presentation are key to establishing a diagnosis.

Anti-inflammatory effect of simvastatin in an experimental model of spinal cord trauma: involvement of PPAR-α

BACKGROUND

Statins such as simvastatin are inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase used in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. In addition to their cholesterol-lowering activities, statins exert pleiotropic anti-inflammatory effects, which might contribute to their beneficial effects on lipid-unrelated inflammatory diseases. Recently it has been demonstrated that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α mediates anti-inflammatory effects of simvastatin in vivo models of acute inflammation. Moreover, previous results suggest that PPAR-α plays a role in control of secondary inflammatory process associated with spinal cord injury (SCI).

METHODS

With the aim to characterize the role of PPAR-α in simvastatin activity, we tested the efficacy of simvastatin (10 mg/kg dissolved in saline i.p. 1 h and 6 h after the trauma) in an experimental model of SCI induced in mice by extradural compression of the spinal cord (T6-T7 level) using an aneurysm clip with a closing force of 24 g via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy, and comparing mice lacking PPAR-α (PPAR-α KO) with wild type (WT) mice. In order to elucidate whether the effects of simvastatin are due to activation of the PPAR-α, we also investigated the effect of a PPAR-α antagonist, GW6471 (1 mg/kg administered i.p. 30 min prior treatment with simvastatin) on the protective effects of on simvastatin.

RESULTS

Results indicate that simvastatin activity is weakened in PPAR-α KO mice, as compared to WT controls. In particular, simvastatin was less effective in PPAR-α KO, compared to WT mice, as evaluated by inhibition of the degree of spinal cord inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, nitrotyrosine formation, pro-inflammmatory cytokine expression, nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation, inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, and apoptosis. In addition we demonstrated that GW6471 significantly antagonized the effect of the statin and thus abolished the protective effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that PPAR-α can contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity of simvastatin in SCI.

Mechanisms and consequences of acquired brain injury during development

The brain of the infant and young child is a developing, dynamic, structure subject to functional remodelling under the influence of factors responsible for optimal neuronal development and synaptogenesis. It exhibits age dependent variation in metabolic rate, blood flow, and ability to tolerate oxidative stress. It is also characterized by an exuberance of neurotransmitter activity, particularly in the first few years of life. The dynamic evolution and adaptability of early brain function permits the organization of neuronal networks to be influenced by environmental stimulation, and, to reduce the functional impact of injury. However, these same processes may also exacerbate the harm sustained by the brain following an acquired brain injury (ABI). The developing neurons are susceptible to excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and, inflammation, often leading to cellular necrosis and apoptosis. Despite being immunologically privileged via the blood brain barrier, the developing brain is susceptible to injury from systemic inflammation through alteration of normally protective cerebrovascular endothelial cell function. Finally, many of the therapeutic agents currently employed in post-ABI hospital care may also compromise ABI outcome via non-intended pharmacological effects. These agents include analgesic, sedative and anti-convulsant medications. This review emphasizes those physiological considerations in the developing brain which may impact the outcome after ABI, including, the cellular mechanisms of neuronal and cerebrovascular endothelial cell injury, ABI outcome and future therapeutic directions.

Antioxidant therapies in traumatic brain and spinal cord injury

Free radical formation and oxidative damage have been extensively investigated and validated as important contributors to the pathophysiology of acute central nervous system injury. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) is an early event following injury occurring within minutes of mechanical impact. A key component in this event is peroxynitrite-induced lipid peroxidation. As discussed in this review, peroxynitrite formation and lipid peroxidation irreversibly damages neuronal membrane lipids and protein function, which results in subsequent disruptions in ion homeostasis, glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, mitochondrial respiratory failure and microvascular damage. Antioxidant approaches include the inhibition and/or scavenging of superoxide, peroxynitrite, or carbonyl compounds, the inhibition of lipid peroxidation and the targeting of the endogenous antioxidant defense system. This review covers the preclinical and clinical literature supporting the role of ROS and RNS and their derived oxygen free radicals in the secondary injury response following acute traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI) and reviews the past and current trends in the development of antioxidant therapeutic strategies. Combinatorial treatment with the suggested mechanistically complementary antioxidants will also be discussed as a promising neuroprotective approach in TBI and SCI therapeutic research. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Antioxidants and antioxidant treatment in disease.

Effects of palmitoylethanolamide on release of mast cell peptidases and neurotrophic factors after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) has a significant impact on quality of life, expectancy, and economic burden, with considerable costs associated with primary care and loss of income. The complex pathophysiology of SCI may explain the difficulty in finding a suitable therapy for limiting neuronal injury and promoting regeneration. Although innovative medical care, advances in pharmacotherapy have been limited. The aim of the present study was to carefully investigate molecular pathways and subtypes of glial cells involved in the protective effect of PEA on inflammatory reaction associated with an experimental model of SCI. The compression model induced by applying an aneurysm clip to the spinal cord in mice is closer to the human situation, since it replicates the persistence of cord compression. Spinal cord trauma was induced in mice by the application of vascular clips to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. Repeated PEA administration (10 mg/kg i.p., 6 and 12 h after SCI) significantly reduced the degree of the severity of spinal cord trauma through the reduction of mast cell infiltration and activation. Moreover, PEA treatment significantly reduced the activation of microglia and astrocytes expressing cannabinoid CB(2) receptor after SCI. Importantly, the protective effect of PEA involved changes in the expression of neurotrophic factors, and in spinal cord dopaminergic function. Our results enhance our understanding about mechanisms related to the anti-inflammatory property of the PEA suggesting that this N-acylethanolamine may represent a crucial therapeutic intervention both diminishing the immune/inflammatory response and promoting the initiation of neurotrophic substance after SCI.

Neuroprotective effects of almond skins in experimental spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Functional deficits following spinal cord injury (SCI) arise from both mechanical injury and from secondary tissue reactions involving inflammation. Natural almond skins (NS) were tested to evaluate anti-inflammatory effects on an animal model of SCI.

METHODS

SCI was induced by the application of vascular clips to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. In the present study, to elucidate whether the protective effects of NS are related to the total phenolic content, we also investigated the effect of a blanched (BS) almond skins (industrially obtained by removing bran from the nut) in SCI. NS and BS (30 mg/kg respectively) were administered per os, 1 h and 6 h, after SCI.

RESULTS

SCI in mice resulted in severe injury characterized by edema, tissue damage, production of inflammatory mediators and apoptosis (measured by Bax, Bcl-2 and Tunel assay). NS treatment, 1 and 6 h after SCI, reduced all parameters of inflammation as neutrophil infiltration, NF-κB activation, PAR formation, iNOS expression and apoptosis. However, treatment with BS did not exert any protective effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that NS treatment, reducing the development of inflammation and tissue injury, may be useful in the treatment of SCI.

Selective adenosine A2A receptor agonists and antagonists protect against spinal cord injury through peripheral and central effects

BACKGROUND

Permanent functional deficits following spinal cord injury (SCI) arise both from mechanical injury and from secondary tissue reactions involving inflammation. Enhanced release of adenosine and glutamate soon after SCI represents a component in the sequelae that may be responsible for resulting functional deficits. The role of adenosine A2A receptor in central ischemia/trauma is still to be elucidated. In our previous studies we have demonstrated that the adenosine A2A receptor-selective agonist CGS21680, systemically administered after SCI, protects from tissue damage, locomotor dysfunction and different inflammatory readouts. In this work we studied the effect of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist SCH58261, systemically administered after SCI, on the same parameters. We investigated the hypothesis that the main action mechanism of agonists and antagonists is at peripheral or central sites.

METHODS

Spinal trauma was induced by extradural compression of SC exposed via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy in mouse. Three drug-dosing protocols were utilized: a short-term systemic administration by intraperitoneal injection, a chronic administration via osmotic minipump, and direct injection into the spinal cord.

RESULTS

SCH58261, systemically administered (0.01 mg/kg intraperitoneal. 1, 6 and 10 hours after SCI), reduced demyelination and levels of TNF-α, Fas-L, PAR, Bax expression and activation of JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 24 hours after SCI. Chronic SCH58261 administration, by mini-osmotic pump delivery for 10 days, improved the neurological deficit up to 10 days after SCI. Adenosine A2A receptors are physiologically expressed in the spinal cord by astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes. Soon after SCI (24 hours), these receptors showed enhanced expression in neurons. Both the A2A agonist and antagonist, administered intraperitoneally, reduced expression of the A2A receptor, ruling out the possibility that the neuroprotective effects of the A2A agonist are due to A2A receptor desensitization. When the A2A antagonist and agonist were centrally injected into injured SC, only SCH58261 appeared neuroprotective, while CGS21680 was ineffective.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the A2A antagonist protects against SCI by acting on centrally located A2A receptors. It is likely that blockade of A2A receptors reduces excitotoxicity. In contrast, neuroprotection afforded by the A2A agonist may be primarily due to peripheral effects.

Antioxidant therapies for acute spinal cord injury

One of the most investigated molecular mechanisms involved in the secondary pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is free radical-induced, iron-catalyzed lipid peroxidation (LP) and protein oxidative/nitrative damage to spinal neurons, glia, and microvascular cells. The reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite and its highly reactive free radicals are key initiators of LP and protein nitration in the injured spinal cord, the biochemistry, and pathophysiology of which are first of all reviewed in this article. This is followed by a presentation of the antioxidant mechanistic approaches and pharmacological compounds that have been shown to have neuroprotective properties in preclinical SCI models. Two of these, which act by inhibition of LP, are high-dose treatment with the glucocorticoid steroid methylprednisolone (MP) and the nonglucocorticoid 21-aminosteroid tirilazad, have been demonstrated in the multicenter NASCIS clinical trials to produce at least a modest improvement in neurological recovery when administered within the first 8 hours after SCI. Although these results have provided considerable validation of oxidative damage as a clinically practical neuroprotective target, there is a need for the discovery of safer and more effective antioxidant compounds for acute SCI.

PDE 7 inhibitors: new potential drugs for the therapy of spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Primary traumatic mechanical injury to the spinal cord (SCI) causes the death of a number of neurons that to date can neither be recovered nor regenerated. During the last years our group has been involved in the design, synthesis and evaluation of PDE7 inhibitors as new innovative drugs for several neurological disorders. Our working hypothesis is based on two different facts. Firstly, neuroinflammation is modulated by cAMP levels, thus the key role for phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which hydrolyze cAMP, is undoubtedly demonstrated. On the other hand, PDE7 is expressed simultaneously on leukocytes and on the brain, highlighting the potential crucial role of PDE7 as drug target for neuroinflammation.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here we present two chemically diverse families of PDE7 inhibitors, designed using computational techniques such as virtual screening and neuronal networks. We report their biological profile and their efficacy in an experimental SCI model induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. We have selected two candidates, namely S14 and VP1.15, as PDE7 inhibitors. These compounds increase cAMP production both in macrophage and neuronal cell lines. Regarding drug-like properties, compounds were able to cross the blood brain barrier using parallel artificial membranes (PAMPA) methodology. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, and production of a range of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, and apoptosis. Treatment of the mice with S14 and VP1.15, two PDE7 inhibitors, significantly reduced the degree of spinal cord inflammation, tissue injury (histological score), and TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2 and iNOS expression.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

All these data together led us to propose PDE7 inhibitors, and specifically S14 and VP1.15, as potential drug candidates to be further studied for the treatment of SCI.

Effect of Apocynin, an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, in the inflammatory process induced by an experimental model of spinal cord injury

NADPH-oxidase is an enzyme responsible for reactive oxygen species production, and inhibition of this enzyme represents an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of many diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Apocynin, NADPH-oxidase inhibitor, in the modulation of secondary injury in the spinal cord. The injury was induced by application of vascular clips to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy in mice. Treatment with Apocynin 1 and 6 h after the trauma significantly decreased (1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury, (2) neutrophil infiltration, (3) adhesion molecule expression, (4) nuclear transcription factor-κB expression, (5) nitrotyrosine and poly-ADP-ribose formation, (6) pro-inflammatory cytokines production, (7) apoptosis and (8) mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Moreover, Apocynin significantly ameliorated the loss of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score). Thus, it is proposed that Apocynin may be useful in the treatment of inflammation associated with spinal cord trauma.

Temporal and spatial dynamics of peroxynitrite-induced oxidative damage after spinal cord contusion injury

The reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite (PN) has been suggested to be an important mediator of the secondary oxidative damage that occurs following acute spinal cord injury (SCI). The PN decomposition products nitrogen dioxide (*NO(2)), hydroxyl radical (*OH), and carbonate radical (*CO(3)) are highly reactive with cellular lipids and proteins. In this immunohistochemical study, we examined the temporal (3, 24, and 72 h, and 1 and 2 weeks) and spatial relationships of PN-mediated oxidative damage in the contusion-injured rat thoracic spinal cord (IH device, 200 kdyn, T10) using 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), a marker for protein nitration by PN-derived *NO(2) and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), an indicator of lipid peroxidation (LP) initiated by any of the PN radicals. Minimal 3-NT or 4-HNE immunostaining was seen in sham, non-injured spinal cords. In contrast, both markers showed a substantial increase at 3 h post-injury at the epicenter, that extended throughout the gray matter and into the surrounding white matter. At 24 and 72 h, the oxidative damage expanded circumferentially to involve all but a small rim of white matter tissue at the injury site, and longitudinally as much as 6-9 mm in the rostral and caudal directions. The staining was observed in neuronal soma, axons, and microvessels. At all time points except 3 h, there was no significant difference in the mean rostral or caudal extent of 3-NT and 4-HNE staining. By 1, and more so at 2 weeks, the longitudinal extent of the oxidative damage staining was greatly decreased. The spatial and temporal overlap of 3-NT and 4-HNE staining supports the concept that PN is involved in both damage produced by lipid peroxidation and protein nitration, and that antioxidant agents that target PN or PN-derived radicals should be effective neuroprotectants for acute SCI if administered during the first post-injury hours.

Olprinone attenuates the acute inflammatory response and apoptosis after spinal cord trauma in mice

Background

Olprinone hydrochloride is a newly developed compound that selectively inhibits PDE type III and is characterized by several properties, including positive inotropic effects, peripheral vasodilatory effects, and a bronchodilator effect. In clinical settings, olprinone is commonly used to treat congestive cardiac failure, due to its inotropic and vasodilating effects. The mechanism of these cardiac effects is attributed to increased cellular concentrations of cAMP. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacological action of olprinone on the secondary damage in experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Traumatic SCI is characterized by an immediate, irreversible loss of tissue at the lesion site, as well as a secondary expansion of tissue damage over time. Although secondary injury should be preventable, no effective treatment options currently exist for patients with SCI. Spinal cord trauma was induced in mice by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5–T8 laminectomy. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, and production of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, apoptosis, and locomotor disturbance. Olprinone treatment (0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) 1 and 6 h after the SCI significantly reduced: (1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury (histological score), (2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity), (3) nitrotyrosine formation, (4) pro-inflammatory cytokines, (5) NF-κB expression, (6) p-ERK1/2 and p38 expression and (7) apoptosis (TUNEL staining, FAS ligand, Bax and Bcl-2 expression). Moreover, olprinone significantly ameliorated the recovery of hind-limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score).

Conclusions/Significance

Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that olprinone treatment reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury associated with spinal cord trauma.

Liver X receptor agonist treatment regulates inflammatory response after spinal cord trauma

Liver X receptor alpha (LXRalpha) and LXRbeta are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of T0901317, a potent LXR receptor ligand, in a mouse model of spinal cord injury (SCI). SCI was induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy in mice. Treatment with T0901317, 1 and 6 h after the SCI, significantly decreased (i) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury (histological score); (ii) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity); (iii) inducible nitric oxide synthase expression; (iv) nitrotyrosine, lipid peroxidation, and poly-ADP-ribose formation; (v) pro-inflammatory cytokines expression; (vi) nuclear factor-kappa B activation; and (vii) apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated UTP end labeling staining, FAS ligand, Bax, and Bcl-2 expression). Moreover, T0901317 significantly ameliorated the loss of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score). These data suggest that LXR ligand may be useful in the treatment of inflammation associated with SCI.

A rat model of human immunodeficiency virus 1 encephalopathy using envelope glycoprotein gp120 expression delivered by SV40 vectors

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) encephalopathy is thought to result in part from the toxicity of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 for neurons. Experimental systems for studying the effects of gp120 and other HIV proteins on the brain have been limited to the acute effects of recombinant proteins in vitro or in vivo in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected monkeys. We describe an experimental rodent model of ongoing gp120-induced neurotoxicity in which HIV-1 envelope is expressed in the brain using an SV40-derived gene delivery vector, SV(gp120). When it is inoculated stereotaxically into the rat caudate putamen, SV(gp120) caused a partly hemorrhagic lesion in which neuron and other cell apoptosis continues for at least 12 weeks. Human immunodeficiency virus gp120 is expressed throughout this time, and some apoptotic cells are gp120 positive. Malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal assays indicated that there was lipid peroxidation in these lesions. Prior administration of recombinant SV40 vectors carrying antioxidant enzymes, copper/ zinc superoxide dismutase or glutathione peroxidase, was protective against SV(gp120)-induced oxidative injury and apoptosis. Thus, in vivo inoculation of SV(gp120) into the rat caudate putamen causes ongoing oxidative stress and apoptosis in neurons and may therefore represent a useful animal model for studying the pathogenesis and treatment of HIV-1 envelope-related brain damage.

Effects of a metalloporphyrinic peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst, ww-85, in a mouse model of spinal cord injury

The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of a metalloporphyrinic peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst, ww-85, in the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. Spinal cord trauma was induced by the application of vascular clips to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by oedema, neutrophil infiltration, production of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage and apoptosis. ww-85 treatment (30-300 microg/kg, i.p. 1 h after the SCI) significantly reduced in a dose-dependent manner: (1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury, (2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity), (3) nitrotyrosine formation and PARP activation, (4) pro-inflammatory cytokines expression, (5) NF-kappaB activation and (6) apoptosis. Moreover, ww-85 significantly ameliorated the recovery of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score) in a dose-dependent manner. The results demonstrate that ww-85 treatment reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury associated with spinal cord trauma.

Blockade of peroxynitrite-induced neural stem cell death in the acutely injured spinal cord by drug-releasing polymer

Therapeutic impact of neural stem cells (NSCs) for acute spinal cord injury (SCI) has been limited by the rapid loss of donor cells. Neuroinflammation is likely the cause. As there are close temporal-spatial correlations between the inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase expression and the donor NSC death after neurotrauma, we reasoned that NO-associated radical species might be the inflammatory effectors which eliminate NSC grafts and kill host neurons. To test this hypothesis, human NSCs (hNSCs: 5 x 10(4) to 2 x 10(6) per milliliter) were treated in vitro with "plain" medium, 20 microM glutamate, or donors of NO and peroxynitrite (ONOO(-); 100 and 400 microM of spermine or DETA NONOate, and SIN-1, respectively). hNSC apoptosis primarily resulted from SIN-1 treatment, showing ONOO(-)-triggered protein nitration and the activation of p38 MAPK, cytochrome c release, and caspases. Therefore, cell death following post-SCI (p.i.) NO surge may be mediated through conversion of NO into ONOO(-). We subsequently examined such causal relationship in a rat model of dual penetrating SCI using a retrievable design of poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) scaffold seeded with hNSCs that was shielded by drug-releasing polymer. Besides confirming the ONOO(-)-induced cell death signaling, we demonstrated that cotransplantation of PLGA film embedded with ONOO(-) scavenger, manganese (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin, or uric acid (1 micromol per film), markedly protected hNSCs 24 hours p.i. (total: n = 10). Our findings may provide a bioengineering approach for investigating mechanisms underlying the host microenvironment and donor NSC interaction and help formulate strategies for enhancing graft and host cell survival after SCI.

The P2Y-like receptor GPR17 as a sensor of damage and a new potential target in spinal cord injury

Upon central nervous system injury, the extracellular concentrations of nucleotides and cysteinyl-leukotrienes, two unrelated families of endogenous signalling molecules, are markedly increased at the site of damage, suggesting that they may act as 'danger signals' to alert responses to tissue damage and start repair. Here we show that, in non-injured spinal cord parenchyma, GPR17, a P2Y-like receptor responding to both uracil nucleotides (e.g. UDP-glucose) and cysteinyl-leukotrienes (e.g. LTD4 and LTC4), is present on a subset of neurons and of oligodendrocytes at different stages of maturation, whereas it is not expressed by astrocytes. GPR17 immunoreactivity was also found on ependymal cells lining the central canal that still retain some of the characteristics of stem/progenitor cells during adulthood. Induction of spinal cord injury (SCI) by acute compression resulted in marked cell death of GPR17+ neurons and oligodendrocytes inside the lesion followed by the appearance of proliferating GPR17+ microglia/macrophages migrating to and infiltrating into the lesioned area. Moreover, 72 h after SCI, GPR17+ ependymal cells started to proliferate and to express GFAP, suggesting their activation and 'de-differentiation' to pluripotent progenitor cells. The in vivo knock down of GPR17 by an antisense oligonucleotide strategy during SCI induction markedly reduced tissue damage and related histological and motor deficits, thus confirming the crucial role played by this receptor in the early phases of tissue damage development. Taken together, our findings suggest a dual and spatiotemporal-dependent role for GPR17 in SCI. At very early times after injury, GPR17 mediates neuronal and oligodendrocyte death inside the lesioned area. At later times, GPR17+ microglia/macrophages are recruited from distal parenchymal areas and move toward the lesioned zone, to suggest a role in orchestrating local remodelling responses. At the same time, the induction of the stem cell marker GFAP in GPR17+ ependymal cells suggests initiation of repair mechanisms. Thus, GPR17 may act as a 'sensor' of damage that is activated by nucleotides and cysteinyl-leukotrienes released in the lesioned area, and could also participate in post-injury responses. Moreover, its presence on spinal cord pre-oligodendrocytes and precursor-like cells suggests GPR17 as a novel target for therapeutic manipulation to foster remyelination and functional repair in SCI.

Glycyrrhizin reduces secondary inflammatory process after spinal cord compression injury in mice

Glycyrrhizin, a major active constituent of liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), has a free radical scavenging property, and its effects were evaluated on an animal model of spinal cord injury (SCI) induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. Spinal cord injury in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, tissue damage, and apoptosis (measured by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin end labeling staining, Bax, and Bcl-2 expression). Immunohistochemical examination demonstrated a marked increase in immunoreactivity for nitrotyrosine, iNOS, and poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) in the spinal cord tissue. Additionally, we demonstrate that these inflammatory events were associated with the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB. In contrast, the degree of (1) spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury (histological score), (2) nitrotyrosine and poly(adenosine diphosphate [ADP] ribose) formation, (3) iNOS expression, (4) nuclear factor-kappaB activation, and (5) apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin end labeling, Bax, and Bcl-2) was markedly reduced in spinal cord tissue obtained from mice treated with glycyrrhizin extract (10 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min before and 1 and 6 h after SCI). In a separate set of experiments, we have clearly demonstrated that glycyrrhizin extract treatment significantly ameliorated the recovery of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score). Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that treatment with glycyrrhizin extract reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury events associated with spinal cord trauma.

Absence of endogenous interleukin-10 enhances secondary inflammatory process after spinal cord compression injury in mice

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) exerts a wide spectrum of regulatory activities in the immune and inflammatory response. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of endogenous IL-10 on the modulation of the secondary events in mice subjected to spinal cord injury induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. IL-10 wild-type mice developed severe spinal cord damage characterized by oedema, tissue damage and apoptosis (measured by Annexin-V, terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated UTP end labeling staining, Bax, Bcl-2, and Fas-L expression). Immunohistochemistry demonstrated a marked increase of localization of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and S100beta, while western blot analysis shown an increased immunoreactivity of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the spinal cord tissues. The absence of IL-10 in IL-10 KO mice resulted in a significant augmentation of all the above described parameters. We have also demonstrated that the genetic absence of IL-10 worsened the recovery of limb function when compared with IL-10 wild-type mice group (evaluated by motor recovery score). Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that the presence of IL-10 reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury events associated with spinal cord trauma.

Melatonin reduces stress-activated/mitogen-activated protein kinases in spinal cord injury

Permanent functional deficits following spinal cord injury (SCI) arise from both mechanical injury and from secondary tissue reactions involving inflammation. The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play a critical role in cell signaling and gene expression. MAPK family includes three major members: extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), representing three different signaling cascades. Moreover, various studies have clearly shown that high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is implicated as a putative danger signal involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, cancer, trauma and hemorrhagic shock, and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Recently, we have reported that the pineal secretory product melatonin exerts important anti-inflammatory effects in an experimental model of SCI induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura after a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. However, no reports are available on the effect of melatonin on MAPK signaling pathways and HMGB1 expression in SCI. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the melatonin protective effect observed in SCI is related to the regulation of MAPK signaling pathways and HMGB1 in mice. In this study we demonstrate the efficacy of treatment with the melatonin in SCI in mice in reducing (a) motor recovery, (b) activation of MAPKs p38, JNK and ERK1/2, (c) tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression, and (d) expression of HMGB1. We propose that melatonin's ability to reduce SCI in mice is also related to a reduction in MAPK signaling pathways and HMGB1 expression.

L-Arginine decreases fluid-percussion injury-induced neuronal nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in rats

Peroxynitrite is a powerful oxidant capable of nitrating phenolic moieties, such as tyrosine or tyrosine residues in proteins and increases after traumatic brain injury (TBI). First, we tested the hypothesis that TBI increases nitrotyrosine (NT) immunoreactivity in the brain by measuring the number of NT-immunoreactive neurons in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats subjected to parasagittal fluid-percussion TBI. Second, we tested the hypothesis that treatment with L-arginine, a substrate for nitric oxide synthase, further increases NT immunoreactivity over TBI alone. Rats were anesthetized with isoflurane and subjected to TBI, sham TBI, or TBI followed by treatment with L-arginine (100 mg/kg). Twelve, 24, or 72 h after TBI, brains were harvested. Coronal sections (10 microm) were incubated overnight with rabbit polyclonal anti-NT antibody, rinsed, and incubated with a biotinylated secondary antibody. The antigen-antibody complex was visualized using a peroxidase-conjugated system with diaminobenzidine as the chromagen. The number of NT-positive cortical and hippocampal neurons increased significantly in both ipsilateral and contralateral hemispheres up to 72 h after TBI compared with the sham-injured group. Remarkably, treatment with L-arginine reduced the number of NT-positive neurons after TBI in both cortex and hippocampus. Our results indicate that L-arginine actually prevents TBI-induced increases in NT immunoreactivity.

Melatonin regulates matrix metalloproteinases after traumatic experimental spinal cord injury

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important enzymes that regulate developmental processes, maintain normal physiology in adulthood and have reparative roles at specific stages after an insult to the nervous system. MMPs, particularly MMP-9/gelatinase B, promote early inflammation and barrier disruption after spinal cord injury (SCI). Recently, we have reported that the pineal secretory product melatonin exerts important anti-inflammatory effects in an experimental model of SCI induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura after a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. However, no reports are available on the relationship between the activity of MMPs and melatonin's anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the protective effect of melatonin observed in SCI is related to the regulation of MMP-9 and MMP-2 in mice. Biochemical and zymographic methods were used to analyze MMP-9 and -2 expression and activities in spinal cord tissue from SCI-treated mice at 24 hr after the trauma. Our studies reveal that melatonin reduced SCI and lipid peroxidation in spinal cord at 24 hr after SCI. Melatonin also diminished proMMP-9 and -2 activities that were induced in the spinal cord tissues at 24 hr after SCI. The reduced activities of MMP-9 and -2 were associated with depressed expression of TNF-alpha. We propose that melatonin's ability to reduce SCI in mice is also related to a reduction in MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity and expression.

Effects of palmitoylethanolamide on signaling pathways implicated in the development of spinal cord injury

Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-alpha, a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily, modulates inflammation and tissue injury events associated with spinal cord trauma in mice. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), the naturally occurring amide of palmitic acid and ethanolamine, reduces pain and inflammation through a mechanism dependent on PPAR-alpha activation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the PEA on secondary damage induced by experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. SCI was induced by application of vascular clips to the dura mater via a four-level T(5)-T(8) laminectomy. This resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, and production of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, and apoptosis. Repeated PEA administration (10 mg/kg i.p.; 30 min before and 1 and 6 h after SCI) significantly reduced: 1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury, 2) neutrophil infiltration, 3) nitrotyrosine formation, 4) proinflammatory cytokine expression, 5) nuclear transcription factor activation-kappaB activation, 6) inducible nitric-oxide synthase expression, and 6) apoptosis. Moreover, PEA treatment significantly ameliorated the recovery of motor limb function. Together, the results indicate that PEA reduces inflammation and tissue injury associated with SCI and suggest a regulatory role for endogenous PPAR-alpha signaling in the inflammatory response associated with spinal cord trauma.

Evidence for the role of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways in the development of spinal cord injury

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways involve two closely related MAPKs, known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1 and ERK2. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the contribution of MAPK3/MAPK1 in the secondary damage in experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. To this purpose, we used 2-(2-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (PD98059), which is an inhibitor of MAPK3/MAPK1. Spinal cord trauma was induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24 g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, and production of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, and apoptosis. PD98059 treatment (10 mg/kg i.p.) at 1 and 6 h after the SCI significantly reduced 1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury (histological score), 2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity), 3) nitrotyrosine formation, 4) proinflammatory cytokines expression, 5) nuclear factor-kappaB activation, 6) phospho-ERK1/2 expression, and 6) apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling staining, Fas ligand, Bax, and Bcl-2 expression). Moreover, PD98059 significantly ameliorated the recovery of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score) in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that PD98059 treatment reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury associated with spinal cord trauma.

Temporal and spatial profiles of cell loss after spinal cord injury: Reduction by a metalloporphyrin

This study presents quantitative temporal and spatial profiles of neuronal loss and apoptosis following a contusion spinal cord injury (50 g . cm). The profiles were evaluated by counting the cresol violet-stained surviving cells and the total number of TUNEL-positive cells and of TUNEL-positive neurons in sections 0- 4 mm from the epicenter and 1, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hr and 1 week postinjury. We demonstrated that neurons continue to disappear over 1 week postinjury and that neuronal loss shifts to areas longer distances from the epicenter over time. TUNEL-positive cells in both gray and white matter appeared after 6 hr, gradually increased to a peak level after 48 hr, and declined by 72 hr postinjury. TUNEL-positive neurons peaked earlier and were present for 1 week, although the total number of neurons was reduced significantly by the end of the week. The neuronal loss and apoptosis were partially prevented by a metalloporphyrin [Mn(III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP)]. We demonstrated that MnTBAP (10 and 50 mg/kg, given intraperitoneally) significantly reduced neuronal death in the sections 1-2.5 mm rostral and 1 mm caudal from the epicenter compared with that in the vehicle-treated group, suggesting MnTBAP is more effective in the sections rostral than in those caudal to the epicenter. MnTBAP (10 mg/kg) significantly reduced the number of TUNEL-positive neurons in the sections 1 mm caudal from the epicenter. Our profiles provide a database for pharmacological intervention, and our results on MnTBAP treatment support an important role for antioxidant therapy in spinal cord injury.

Beneficial effects of FeTSPP, a peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst, in a mouse model of spinal cord injury

The aim of the present study was to assess the contribution of peroxynitrite formation in the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. To this purpose, we used a peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst, 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrinato iron III chloride (FeTSPP). Spinal cord trauma was induced by the application of vascular clips (force of 24g) to the dura via a four-level T5-T8 laminectomy. SCI in mice resulted in severe trauma characterized by edema, neutrophil infiltration, production of inflammatory mediators, tissue damage, and apoptosis. FeTSPP treatment (10-100 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced in dose-dependent manner 1 and 4 h after the SCI (1) the degree of spinal cord inflammation and tissue injury (histological score), (2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity), (3) nitrotyrosine formation and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase activation, (4) proinflammmaory cytokines expression, (5) NF-kappaB activation, and (6) apoptosis (TUNEL staining, Bax and Bcl-2 expression). Moreover, FeTSPP significantly ameliorated the recovery of limb function (evaluated by motor recovery score) in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that FeTSPP treatment reduces the development of inflammation and tissue injury associated with spinal cord trauma similarly to dexamethasone, a well-known antiinflammatory agent which we have used as positive control.

Mutation of superoxide dismutase elevates reactive species: comparison of nitration and oxidation of proteins in different brain regions of transgenic mice with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

As part of our effort to study the role of reactive species in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the goal of this work is to explore the correlation between nitration and oxidation of proteins and mutation of Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) in ALS. Transgenic mice overexpressing the mutant Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (mSOD1) gene from humans with familial ALS, wild-type mice overexpressing the normal human SOD1 gene and normal mice without gene overexpression were used. Brain sections from different regions of three groups of mice were double immunohistochemically stained with anti-neurofilament plus anti-nitrotyrosine or treated with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to label protein carbonyls, then double stained with anti-neurofilament plus anti-2,4-dinitrophenyl (anti-DNP). Neurons containing nitrated and oxidized proteins were visualized only in mSOD1 mice in the motor cortex, the cerebellar cortex and nucleus of hypoglossal nerves (regions related with movement). This correlates mutation of SOD1 to nitration and oxidation of neurons in the movement regions. By counting double-stained neurons, we demonstrated that the number of nitrotyrosine- and DNP-positive neurons was significantly higher in the brain sections of both motor and sensory cortex in mSOD1 mice than in the corresponding regions of control mice (P=0.005 to <0.001), further correlating nitration and oxidation of proteins to SOD1 mutation. Neurons underwent significantly more nitration and oxidation in the motor cortex than in the sensory cortex in mSOD1 mice (P=0.002 and 0.02 respectively), indicating enhanced susceptibility of the motor cortex to nitration and oxidation of proteins and thereby targeting oxidation and nitration of proteins in neurons of the motor cortex in ALS. Significantly elevated protein nitration and nitric oxide synthesis were also demonstrated biochemically in the brain tissues and in cerebrospinal fluid of mutant SOD1 mice. Our in vivo evidence correlates mutation of the SOD1 gene to increased nitric oxide, nitration and oxidation of proteins in ALS.

Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin administered into the intrathecal space reduces oxidative damage and neuron death after spinal cord injury: a comparison with methylprednisolone

The metalloporphyrin Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP) is a cell-permeable superoxide dismutase mimetic and a broad-spectrum scavenger of reactive species. Since MnTBAP may not cross the blood-brain barrier, this study evaluated the therapeutic potential of MnTBAP to treat spinal cord injury (SCI; 25 g x cm) by directly administering it into the intrathecal space of the rat spinal cord. The cells in spinal sections removed at 24 h post-SCI were immunohistochemically stained with anti-4-hydroxynonenal (HNE), a marker of membrane lipid peroxidation (MLP); anti-nitrotyrosine (Ntyr), a marker of protein nitration; and anti-neuron-specific enolase (NSE) antibodies. Immunostained neurons were counted for quantitative evaluation. Pre-treatment 30 min before SCI with 1 mg/kg MnTBAP or 4-h post-SCI treatment with 2.5 mg/kg MnTBAP administered into the intrathecal space significantly reduced MLP and protein nitration, and increased the number of surviving neurons compared to vehicle controls. However, post-SCI treatment with a standard regimen of methylprednisolone sodium succinate (MPSS; 30 mg/kg followed by 5.4 mg/kg for maintenance, iv administration), the only drug used for clinical treatment of SCI, not only did not reduce MLP and neuron loss, it increased protein nitration compared with vehicle controls (two-way analysis of variance [ANOVA] followed by the Tukey test). These results demonstrate that pre- and post-intrathecal treatments with the low doses of MnTBAP provide sustained neuroprotection by preventing oxidative stress and that post-treatment with MnTBAP is superior to post-treatment with MPSS in preventing oxidative stress and resulting neuron loss.

Rat Models of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury to Assess Motor Recovery

Devastating motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunctions render long-term personal hardships to the survivors of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). The suffering also extends to the survivors' families and friends, who endure emotional, physical, and financial burdens in providing for necessary surgeries, care, and rehabilitation. After the primary mechanical SCI, there is a complex secondary injury cascade that leads to the progressive death of otherwise potentially viable axons and cells and that impairs endogenous recovery processes. Investigations of possible cures and of ways to alleviate the hardships of traumatic SCI include those of interventions that attenuate or overcome the secondary injury cascade, enhance the endogenous repair mechanisms, regenerate axons, replace lost cells, and rehabilitate. These investigations have led to the creation of laboratory animal models of the different types of traumatic human SCI and components of the secondary injury cascade. However, no particular model completely addresses all aspects of traumatic SCI. In this article, we describe adult rat SCI models and the motor, and in some cases sensory and autonomic, deficits that each produces. Importantly, as researchers in this area move toward clinical trials to alleviate the hardships of traumatic SCI, there is a need for standardized small and large animal SCI models as well as quantitative behavioral and electrophysiological assessments of their outcomes so that investigators testing various interventions can directly compare their results and correlate them with the molecular, biochemical, and histological alterations.

Effects of Co-Administration of an iNOS Inhibitor with a Broad-Spectrum Reactive Species Scavenger in Rat Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

BACKGROUND

It is generally believed that reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and nitric oxide (NO) generation by the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) are the key mediators of ischemia-reperfusion (IR)-induced damage to the kidney. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of ROS and NOS inhibition in prevention of renal IR injury. MnTBAP (Manganese (III) meso-tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin), a broad-spectrum reactive species scavenger was administered to inhibit ROS formation and L-Nil (N6-(1-iminoethyl)-L-lysine hydrochloride) was used for iNOS inhibition.

METHODS

Ischemic acute renal failure (ARF) was induced by 40-min clamping of the renal arteries followed by a 6-hour reperfusion. Rats were administered saline, MnTBAP (10 mg/kg i.v.), L-Nil (3 mg/kg i.v. bolus followed by infusion of 1 mg/kg/h) or co-administration of MnTBAP and L-Nil. Plasma creatinine (Cr) and BUN levels as well as fractional excretion of Na+ (FE(Na+)) and urinary N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) activities were measured. Renal damages were evaluated by light microscopy.

RESULTS

MnTBAP, L-Nil and their co-administration significantly improved renal functional and histological indices. Co-administration of the mentioned drugs did not demonstrate significant difference with the administration of either drug alone.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the significant portion of ROS and iNOS nephrotoxicities in this model of ARF may be mediated by peroxynitrite (ONOO-). These results emphasize the multifactorial nature of ARF and the need for a multidrug therapy in the future.

Peroxynitrite Generated at the Level Produced by Spinal Cord Injury Induces Peroxidation of Membrane Phospholipids in Normal Rat Cord: Reduction by a Metalloporphyrin

The goal of the present study was to determine in vivo whether peroxynitrite, at the concentration and duration produced by SCI, contributes to membrane lipid peroxidation (MLP) after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) and the capability of a broad spectrum scavenger of reactive species, Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP), to reduce MLP. This was accomplished by administering a peroxynitrite donor 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1) into the gray matter of an uninjured rat spinal cord through a microdialysis fiber to generate ONOO at the SCI-elevated levels. The resulting MLP was characterized by measuring the productions of extracellular malondialdehyde and of intracellular 4-hydroxynonenal. We demonstrated that extracellular SIN- 1 administration significantly increased the concentration of malondialdehyde (p < 0.001) and the numbers of hydroxynonenal-positive cells (p < 0.001) as compared to a control group in which ACSF was administered. Simultaneous administration of MnTBAP through a second microdialysis fiber significantly reduced SIN-1-induced malondialdehyde production (p < 0.001) and the numbers of HNE-positive cells (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference between MnTBAP-treated and ACSF-controls (p = 0.3). These results demonstrate in vivo that (1) SCI-produced levels of peroxynitrite sufficient to cause MLP, and therefore that peroxynitrite is an agent of secondary damage after acute SCI; (2) MnTBAP can efficiently reduce SIN-1-induced MLP.

Beneficial effects of MnTBAP, a broad-spectrum reactive species scavenger, in rat renal ischemia/reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

In recent years, several lines of evidence have implicated reactive species as contributors to renal ischemia/reperfusion injury (I/R). This study was designed to investigate the effect of Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP), a broad-spectrum reactive species scavenger, in the prevention of renal I/R injury.

METHODS

Experiments were performed on rats anesthetized with pentobarbital. After tracheotomy, the right femoral artery was cannulated and the mean arterial pressure and heart rate were recorded. A midline laparatomy was performed, and the renal arteries were carefully separated from surrounding tissues. After surgery and a stabilization period (60 min), the animals were randomly assigned to four groups: sham-operated; sham+MnTBAP; I/R; I/R+MnTBAP. In I/R groups, the rats were subjected to bilateral renal artery occlusion for 40 min followed by 6 h reperfusion. Other groups underwent the surgery protocol but did not undergo renal artery occlusion, and were maintained under anesthesia for the duration of the experiment. Rats were administered either MnTBAP (10 mg kg(-1), i.v. bolus, 15 min prior to I/R) or saline. Renal function was assessed by plasma creatinine (Cr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) measurements. The fractional excretion of Na(+) (FE(Na+)) and urinary N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) activities were also measured. Renal section damage was evaluated by light microscopy, and oxidative stress status was evaluated by measurements of plasma and renal vitamin E levels.

RESULTS

We found that MnTBAP significantly reduced the I/R-mediated increases in plasma Cr, BUN, AST, FE(Na+), and NAG and improved the renal tissue histology.

CONCLUSION

Our results showed that MnTBAP was effective in preventing the development of I/R-induced renal injury.

Excitotoxic brain damage involves early peroxynitrite formation in a model of Huntington’s disease in rats: Protective role of iron porphyrinate 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrinate iron (III)

Oxidative/nitrosative stress is involved in NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxic brain damage produced by the glutamate analog quinolinic acid. The purpose of this work was to study a possible role of peroxynitrite, a reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, in the course of excitotoxic events evoked by quinolinic acid in the brain. The effects of Fe(TPPS) (5,10,15,20-tetrakis (4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrinate iron (III)), an iron porphyrinate and putative peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst, were tested on lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial function in brain synaptic vesicles exposed to quinolinic acid, as well as on peroxynitrite formation, nitric oxide synthase and superoxide dismutase activities, lipid peroxidation, caspase-3-like activation, DNA fragmentation, and GABA levels in striatal tissue from rats lesioned by quinolinic acid. Circling behavior was also evaluated. Increasing concentrations of Fe(TPPS) reduced lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by quinolinic acid (100 microM) in synaptic vesicles in a concentration-dependent manner (10-800 microM). In addition, Fe(TPPS) (10 mg/kg, i.p.) administered 2 h before the striatal lesions, prevented the formation of peroxynitrite, the increased nitric oxide synthase activity, the decreased superoxide dismutase activity and the increased lipid peroxidation induced by quinolinic acid (240 nmol/microl) 120 min after the toxin infusion. Enhanced caspase-3-like activity and DNA fragmentation were also reduced by the porphyrinate 24 h after the injection of the excitotoxin. Circling behavior from quinolinic acid-treated rats was abolished by Fe(TPPS) six days after quinolinic acid injection, while the striatal levels of GABA, measured one day later, were partially recovered. The protective effects that Fe(TPPS) exerted on quinolinic acid-induced lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction in synaptic vesicles suggest a primary action of the porphyrinate as an antioxidant molecule. In vivo findings suggest that the early production of peroxynitrite, altogether with the enhanced risk of superoxide anion (O2*-) and nitric oxide formation (its precursors) induced by quinolinic acid in the striatum, are attenuated by Fe(TPPS) through a recovery in the basal activities of nitric oxide synthase and superoxide dismutase. The porphyrinate-mediated reduction in DNA fragmentation simultaneous to the decrease in caspase-3-like activation from quinolinic acid-lesioned rats suggests a prevention in the risk of peroxynitrite-mediated apoptotic events during the course of excitotoxic damage in the striatum. In summary, the protective effects that Fe(TPPS) exhibited both under in vitro and in vivo conditions support an active role of peroxynitrite and its precursors in the pattern of brain damage elicited by excitotoxic events in the experimental model of Huntington's disease. The neuroprotective mechanisms of Fe(TPPS) are discussed.

Mouse spinal cord compression injury is ameliorated by intrathecal cationic manganese(III) porphyrin catalytic antioxidant therapy

This study evaluated the effects of the cationic manganese(III) tetrakis(N,N'-diethylimidazolium-2-yl)porphyrin catalytic antioxidant Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ (AEOL 10150) on outcome from spinal cord compression (SCC) in the mouse. C57BL/6J mice were subjected to 60 min thoracic SCC after discontinuation of halothane anesthesia. In Experiment 1, mice were given intravenous Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ (0.5 mg/kg bolus followed by 1 mg kg(-1) h(-1) for 24 h), methylprednisolone (30 mg/kg bolus followed by 5.4 mg kg(-1) h(-1) for 24 h), or vehicle (n = 25 per group). In Experiment 2, mice were given intrathecal Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ (2.5 or 5.0 microg/kg) or vehicle (n = 18 per group). In both experiments, treatment began 5 min post-SCC onset. Rotarod performance was measured on post-SCC days 3, 7, 14, and 21. On post-SCC day 21, the spinal cord was histologically examined and a total damage score was calculated. Neither intravenous Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ nor methylprednisolone altered rotarod performance (accelerated rate P = 0.11, fixed rate P = 0.11) or mean +/- S.D. total damage score (Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ = 21 +/- 9, methylprednisolone = 24 +/- 8, vehicle = 22 +/- 10; P = 0.47; shams = 0). Intrathecal Mn(III)TDE-2-ImP5+ (both 2.5 and 5.0 microg) given at SCC-onset improved rotarod performance (P = 0.05) and total damage score (2.5 microg = 19 +/- 10, P = 0.04; 5.0 microg =19 +/- 8, P = 0.03) versus vehicle (26 +/- 10). These studies demonstrate sustained benefit from manganese(III) porphyrin catalytic antioxidant therapy after SCC. However, efficacy was dependent upon route of administration suggesting that bioavailability is critical in defining efficacy.

Rodent models for treatment of spinal cord injury: research trends and progress toward useful repair

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we have documented some current research trends in rodent models of spinal cord injury. We have also catalogued the treatments used in studies published between October 2002 and November 2003, with special attention given to studies in which treatments were delayed for at least 4 days after injury.

RECENT FINDINGS

Most spinal cord injury studies are performed with one of three general injury models: transection, compression, or contusion. Although most treatments are begun immediately after injury, a growing number of studies have used delayed interventions. Mice and the genetic tools they offer are gaining in popularity. Some researchers are setting their sights beyond locomotion, to issues more pressing for people with spinal cord injury (especially bladder function and pain).

SUMMARY

Delayed treatment protocols may extend the window of opportunity for treatment of spinal cord injury, whereas continued progress in the prevention of secondary cell death will reduce the severity of new cases. The use of mice will hopefully accelerate progress towards useful regeneration in humans. Researchers must improve cross-study comparability to allow balanced decisions about potentially useful treatments.

Hydroxyl radicals generated in the rat spinal cord at the level produced by impact injury induce cell death by necrosis and apoptosis: protection by a metalloporphyrin

We previously measured the time courses of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (*OH), and catalytic iron increases following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). This study determines whether the SCI-elevated level of *OH causes cell death. OH was generated by administering H2O2 and Fe2+ at the concentrations attained following SCI, each through a separate microdialysis fiber inserted laterally into the gray matter of the cord. The duration of *OH generation mimics the duration of its elevation after SCI. The death of neurons and astrocytes was characterized at 24 h post-*OH exposure and quantitated by counting surviving cells along the fiber track in sections stained with Cresyl Violet, or immunohistochemically stained with anti-neuron-specific enolase (anti-NSE) and anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (anti-GFAP). DNA fragmentation in neurons was characterized by double staining with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) and anti-NSE. Using a one way ANOVA followed by the Tukey test, we demonstrated that *OH generated in the cord induced significant losses of neurons in both Cresyl Violet (P<0.001) and anti-NSE-stained sections (P<0.001), and of astrocytes in GFAP-stained sections (P=0.001). *OH generated in the cord increased numbers of TUNEL-positive neurons compared with Ringer's solution administered as a control (P=0.001). Mn (III) tetrakis (4-benzoic acid) porphyrin (MnTBAP), a superoxide dismutase mimetic and a broad spectrum reactive species scavenger, significantly reduced *OH-induced death of neurons (P<0.001 in anti-NSE stained sections and P=0.002 in the Cresyl Violet-stained sections) and astrocytes (P=0.03). It also reduced the numbers of TUNEL-positive neurons (P=0.01). Electron microscopy confirmed that generated *OH induced neuronal and glial death with characteristic features of both necrosis and apoptosis. We conclude that 1) SCI-elevated *OH is sufficient to induce both necrosis and apoptosis, criteria for identifying an endogenous secondary damaging agent; 2) MnTBAP reduces *OH-induced cell death, perhaps by removing H2O2 administered in the tissue, thereby blocking formation of *OH, and also by scavenging downstream reactive species.