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Schmalhausen EV, Medvedeva MV, Muronetz VI. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Biochem Biophys 2024; 758:110065. [PMID: 38906311 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2024.110065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
One of important characteristics of Alzheimer's disease is a persistent oxidative/nitrosative stress caused by pro-oxidant properties of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) and chronic inflammation in the brain. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is easily oxidized under oxidative stress. Numerous data indicate that oxidative modifications of GAPDH in vitro and in cell cultures stimulate GAPDH denaturation and aggregation, and the catalytic cysteine residue Cys152 is important for these processes. Both intracellular and extracellular GAPDH aggregates are toxic for the cells. Interaction of denatured GAPDH with soluble Aβ results in mixed insoluble aggregates with increased toxicity. The above-described properties of GAPDH (sensitivity to oxidation and propensity to form aggregates, including mixed aggregates with Aβ) determine its role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 40, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| | - M V Medvedeva
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 73, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 40, 119991, Moscow, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, Bld 73, 119991, Moscow, Russia
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2
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Lamontagne F, Paz-Trejo C, Zamorano Cuervo N, Grandvaux N. Redox signaling in cell fate: Beyond damage. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2024; 1871:119722. [PMID: 38615720 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2024.119722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
This review explores the nuanced role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cell fate, challenging the traditional view that equates ROS with cellular damage. Through significant technological advancements in detecting localized redox states and identifying oxidized cysteines, a paradigm shift has emerged: from ROS as merely damaging agents to crucial players in redox signaling. We delve into the intricacies of redox mechanisms, which, although confined, exert profound influences on cellular physiological responses. Our analysis extends to both the positive and negative impacts of these mechanisms on cell death processes, including uncontrolled and programmed pathways. By unraveling these complex interactions, we argue against the oversimplified notion of a 'stress response', advocating for a more nuanced understanding of redox signaling. This review underscores the importance of localized redox states in determining cell fate, highlighting the sophistication and subtlety of ROS functions beyond mere damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Lamontagne
- CRCHUM - Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, 900 rue Saint Denis, Montréal H2X 0A9, Québec, Canada
| | - Cynthia Paz-Trejo
- CRCHUM - Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, 900 rue Saint Denis, Montréal H2X 0A9, Québec, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal H3C 3J7, Québec, Canada
| | - Natalia Zamorano Cuervo
- CRCHUM - Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, 900 rue Saint Denis, Montréal H2X 0A9, Québec, Canada
| | - Nathalie Grandvaux
- CRCHUM - Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, 900 rue Saint Denis, Montréal H2X 0A9, Québec, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal H3C 3J7, Québec, Canada.
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3
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Anjo SI, He Z, Hussain Z, Farooq A, McIntyre A, Laughton CA, Carvalho AN, Finelli MJ. Protein Oxidative Modifications in Neurodegenerative Diseases: From Advances in Detection and Modelling to Their Use as Disease Biomarkers. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:681. [PMID: 38929122 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13060681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Oxidation-reduction post-translational modifications (redox-PTMs) are chemical alterations to amino acids of proteins. Redox-PTMs participate in the regulation of protein conformation, localization and function, acting as signalling effectors that impact many essential biochemical processes in the cells. Crucially, the dysregulation of redox-PTMs of proteins has been implicated in the pathophysiology of numerous human diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. This review aims to highlight the current gaps in knowledge in the field of redox-PTMs biology and to explore new methodological advances in proteomics and computational modelling that will pave the way for a better understanding of the role and therapeutic potential of redox-PTMs of proteins in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we summarize the main types of redox-PTMs of proteins while providing examples of their occurrence in neurodegenerative diseases and an overview of the state-of-the-art methods used for their detection. We explore the potential of novel computational modelling approaches as essential tools to obtain insights into the precise role of redox-PTMs in regulating protein structure and function. We also discuss the complex crosstalk between various PTMs that occur in living cells. Finally, we argue that redox-PTMs of proteins could be used in the future as diagnosis and prognosis biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra I Anjo
- CNC-Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
- Centre for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Zhicheng He
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Zohaib Hussain
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Aruba Farooq
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Alan McIntyre
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Charles A Laughton
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Andreia Neves Carvalho
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Mattéa J Finelli
- Biodiscovery Institute, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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4
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Scirè A, Casari G, Romaldi B, de Bari L, Antognelli C, Armeni T. Glutathionyl Hemoglobin and Its Emerging Role as a Clinical Biomarker of Chronic Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1976. [PMID: 38001829 PMCID: PMC10669486 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12111976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemoglobin is one of the proteins that are more susceptible to S-glutathionylation and the levels of its modified form, glutathionyl hemoglobin (HbSSG), increase in several human pathological conditions. The scope of the present review is to provide knowledge about how hemoglobin is subjected to S-glutathionylation and how this modification affects its functionality. The different diseases that showed increased levels of HbSSG and the methods used for its quantification in clinical investigations will be also outlined. Since there is a growing need for precise and reliable methods for markers of oxidative stress in human blood, this review highlights how HbSSG is emerging more and more as a good indicator of severe oxidative stress but also as a key pathogenic factor in several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scirè
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences (Di.S.V.A.), Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Giulia Casari
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Brenda Romaldi
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Lidia de Bari
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), National Research Council (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Cinzia Antognelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Degli Studi di Perugia, 06129 Perugia, Italy;
| | - Tatiana Armeni
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
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5
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Medvedeva MV, Kleimenov SY, Samygina VR, Muronetz VI, Schmalhausen EV. S-nitrosylation and S-glutathionylation of GAPDH: Similarities, differences, and relationships. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2023; 1867:130418. [PMID: 37355052 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to compare the effect of reversible post-translational modifications, S-nitrosylation and S-glutathionylation, on the properties of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and to reveal the mechanism of the relationship between these modifications. Comparison of S-nitrosylated and S-glutathionylated GAPDH showed that both modifications inactivate the enzyme and change its spatial structure, decreasing the thermal stability of the protein and increasing its sensitivity to trypsin cleavage. Both modifications are reversible in the presence of dithiothreitol, however, in the presence of reduced glutathione and glutaredoxin 1, the reactivation of S-glutathionylated GAPDH is much slower (10% in 2 h) compared to S-nitrosylated GAPDH (60% in 10 min). This suggests that S-glutathionylation is a much less reversible modification compared to S-nitrosylation. Incubation of HEK 293 T cells in the presence of H2O2 or with the NO donor diethylamine NONOate results in accumulation of sulfenated GAPDH (by data of Western blotting) and S-glutathionylated GAPDH (by data of immunoprecipitation with anti-GSH antibodies). Besides GAPDH, a protein of 45 kDa was found to be sulfenated and S-glutathionylated in the cells treated with H2O2 or NO. This protein was identified as beta-actin. The results of this study confirm the previously proposed hypothesis based on in vitro investigations, according to which S-nitrosylation of the catalytic cysteine residue (Cys152) of GAPDH with subsequent formation of cysteine sulfenic acid at Cys152 may promote its S-glutathionylation in the presence of cellular GSH. Presumably, the mechanism may be valid in the case of beta-actin.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Medvedeva
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - S Yu Kleimenov
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky prospect 33, bld. 2, Moscow 119071, Russia; Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Vavilova 26, Moscow 119334, Russia
| | - V R Samygina
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre Crystallography and Photonics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky prospect 59, Moscow 119333, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia.
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6
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Petrushanko IY, Mitkevich VA, Makarov AA. Effect of β-amyloid on blood-brain barrier properties and function. Biophys Rev 2023; 15:183-197. [PMID: 37124923 PMCID: PMC10133432 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-023-01052-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The deposition of beta-amyloid (Aβ) aggregates in the brain, accompanied by impaired cognitive function, is a characteristic feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). An important role in this process is played by vascular disorders, in particular, a disturbance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB controls the entry of Aβ from plasma to the brain via the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and the removal of brain-derived Aβ via the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP1). The balance between the input of Aβ to the brain from the periphery and its output is disturbed during AD. Aβ changes the redox-status of BBB cells, which in turn changes the functioning of mitochondria and disrupts the barrier function of endothelial cells by affecting tight junction proteins. Aβ oligomers have the greatest toxic effect on BBB cells, and oligomers are most rapidly transferred by transcytosis from the brain side of the BBB to the blood side. Both the cytotoxic effect of Aβ and the impairment of barrier function are partly due to the interaction of Aβ monomers and oligomers with membrane-bound RAGE. AD therapies based on the disruption of this interaction or the creation of decoys for Aβ are being developed. The question of the transfer of various Aβ isoforms through the BBB is important, since it can influence the development of AD. It is shown that the rate of input of Aβ40 and Aβ42 from the blood into the brain is different. The actual question of the transfer of pathogenic Aβ isoforms with post-translational modifications or mutations through the BBB still remains open.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Yu. Petrushanko
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A. Mitkevich
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander A. Makarov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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7
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Chithra Y, Dey G, Ghose V, Chandramohan V, Gowthami N, Vasudev V, Srinivas Bharath MM. Mitochondrial Complex I Inhibition in Dopaminergic Neurons Causes Altered Protein Profile and Protein Oxidation: Implications for Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Res 2023:10.1007/s11064-023-03907-x. [PMID: 36964824 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-023-03907-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are critical to neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). Mitochondrial dysfunction in PD entails inhibition of the mitochondrial complex I (CI) in the dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra. The events contributing to CI inhibition and downstream pathways are not completely elucidated. We conducted proteomic analysis in a dopaminergic neuronal cell line exposed individually to neurotoxic CI inhibitors: rotenone (Rot), paraquat (Pq) and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). Mass spectrometry (MS) revealed the involvement of biological processes including cell death pathways, structural changes and metabolic processes among others, most of which were common across all models. The proteomic changes induced by Pq were significantly higher than those induced by Rot and MPP+. Altered metabolic processes included downregulated mitochondrial proteins such as CI subunits. MS of CI isolated from the models revealed oxidative post-translational modifications with Tryptophan (Trp) oxidation as the predominant modification. Further, 62 peptides in 22 subunits of CI revealed Trp oxidation with 16 subunits common across toxins. NDUFV1 subunit had the greatest number of oxidized Trp and Rot model displayed the highest number of Trp oxidation events compared to the other models. Molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) of NDUFV1 revealed that oxidized Trp 433 altered the local conformation thereby changing the distance between the Fe-S clusters, Fe-S 301(N1a) to Fe-S 502 (N3) and Fe-S 802 (N4) to Fe-S 801 (N5), potentially affecting the efficiency of electron transfer. The events triggered by the neurotoxins represent CI damage, mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogeshachar Chithra
- Department of Bioscience, P.G. Center, Hemagangotri, University of Mysore, Hassan, Karnataka, 573220, India
| | - Gourav Dey
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066, India
| | - Vivek Ghose
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Udupi, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Vivek Chandramohan
- Department of Biotechnology, Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka, 572103, India
| | - Niya Gowthami
- Department of Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neurotoxicology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), No. 2900, Hosur Road, Lakkasandra, Bangalore, 560029, India
| | - V Vasudev
- Department of Bioscience, P.G. Center, Hemagangotri, University of Mysore, Hassan, Karnataka, 573220, India
| | - M M Srinivas Bharath
- Department of Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neurotoxicology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), No. 2900, Hosur Road, Lakkasandra, Bangalore, 560029, India.
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8
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Origin of Elevated S-Glutathionylated GAPDH in Chronic Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065529. [PMID: 36982600 PMCID: PMC10056234 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
H2O2-oxidized glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) catalytic cysteine residues (Cc(SH) undergo rapid S-glutathionylation. Restoration of the enzyme activity is accomplished by thiol/disulfide SN2 displacement (directly or enzymatically) forming glutathione disulfide (G(SS)G) and active enzyme, a process that should be facile as Cc(SH) reside on the subunit surface. As S-glutathionylated GAPDH accumulates following ischemic and/or oxidative stress, in vitro/silico approaches have been employed to address this paradox. Cc(SH) residues were selectively oxidized and S-glutathionylated. Kinetics of GAPDH dehydrogenase recovery demonstrated that glutathione is an ineffective reactivator of S-glutathionylated GAPDH compared to dithiothreitol. Molecular dynamic simulations (MDS) demonstrated strong binding interactions between local residues and S-glutathione. A second glutathione was accommodated for thiol/disulfide exchange forming a tightly bound glutathione disulfide G(SS)G. The proximal sulfur centers of G(SS)G and Cc(SH) remained within covalent bonding distance for thiol/disulfide exchange resonance. Both these factors predict inhibition of dissociation of G(SS)G, which was verified by biochemical analysis. MDS also revealed that both S-glutathionylation and bound G(SS)G significantly perturbed subunit secondary structure particularly within the S-loop, region which interacts with other cellular proteins and mediates NAD(P)+ binding specificity. Our data provides a molecular rationale for how oxidative stress elevates S-glutathionylated GAPDH in neurodegenerative diseases and implicates novel targets for therapeutic intervention.
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9
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Modulations in human neutrophil metabolome and S-glutathionylation of glycolytic pathway enzymes during the course of extracellular trap formation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2023; 1869:166581. [PMID: 36265832 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2022.166581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis) has been irrefutably referred to as a distinct and unique form of active cell death with the purpose to counteract invading pathogens or augmenting the inflammatory cascade. Since the discovery, consistent efforts have been made to understand the various aspects of the initiation and sustenance of NETosis. In this study, using a global metabolomics approach during the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) induced NETosis in human neutrophils, various metabolic pathways were found to be altered which includes intermediates related to, carbohydrate metabolism, and redox related metabolites, nucleic acid metabolism, and amino acids metabolism. Enrichment analysis of the metabolite sets highlighted the importance of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and glutathione metabolism PMA-induced NETotic neutrophils. Further, analysis of the glutathyniolation status of neutrophil proteins by Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) indicated six different glutathionylated proteins: among them, two metabolically important proteins were α-enolase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) with MALDI score 166 and 70 respectively. Other proteins were lactoferrin, β-actin, c-myc promoter-binding protein, and uracil DNA glycosylase with MALDI scores of 96, 167, 104, and 68 respectively. Besides, activation of signalling proteins involved in metabolic regulation is also correlated with NETosis. Altogether, a balance between reactive oxygen species-glutathione metabolism seems to regulate the activity of glycolytic enzymes such as GAPDH and α-enolase during PMA-induced NETosis in a time-dependent manner.
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10
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Morgan CE, Zhang Z, Miyagi M, Golczak M, Yu EW. Toward structural-omics of the bovine retinal pigment epithelium. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111876. [PMID: 36577381 PMCID: PMC9875382 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of an integrated systems biology approach to investigate tissues and organs has been thought to be impracticable in the field of structural biology, where the techniques mainly focus on determining the structure of a particular biomacromolecule of interest. Here, we report the use of cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) to define the composition of a raw bovine retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lysate. From this sample, we simultaneously identify and solve cryo-EM structures of seven different RPE enzymes whose functions affect neurotransmitter recycling, iron metabolism, gluconeogenesis, glycolysis, axonal development, and energy homeostasis. Interestingly, dysfunction of these important proteins has been directly linked to several neurodegenerative disorders, including Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia. Our work underscores the importance of cryo-EM in facilitating tissue and organ proteomics at the atomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher E. Morgan
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA,Department of Chemistry, Thiel College, Greenville, PA 16125, USA,These authors contributed equally
| | - Zhemin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA,These authors contributed equally
| | - Masaru Miyagi
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Marcin Golczak
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA,Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Edward W. Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA,Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA,Lead contact,Correspondence:
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11
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Vrettou S, Wirth B. S-Glutathionylation and S-Nitrosylation in Mitochondria: Focus on Homeostasis and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415849. [PMID: 36555492 PMCID: PMC9779533 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Redox post-translational modifications are derived from fluctuations in the redox potential and modulate protein function, localization, activity and structure. Amongst the oxidative reversible modifications, the S-glutathionylation of proteins was the first to be characterized as a post-translational modification, which primarily protects proteins from irreversible oxidation. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that S-glutathionylation plays a key role in core cell processes, particularly in mitochondria, which are the main source of reactive oxygen species. S-nitrosylation, another post-translational modification, was identified >150 years ago, but it was re-introduced as a prototype cell-signaling mechanism only recently, one that tightly regulates core processes within the cell’s sub-compartments, especially in mitochondria. S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation are modulated by fluctuations in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and, in turn, orchestrate mitochondrial bioenergetics machinery, morphology, nutrients metabolism and apoptosis. In many neurodegenerative disorders, mitochondria dysfunction and oxidative/nitrosative stresses trigger or exacerbate their pathologies. Despite the substantial amount of research for most of these disorders, there are no successful treatments, while antioxidant supplementation failed in the majority of clinical trials. Herein, we discuss how S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation interfere in mitochondrial homeostasis and how the deregulation of these modifications is associated with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Friedreich’s ataxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Vrettou
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Correspondence: (S.V.); (B.W.)
| | - Brunhilde Wirth
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Rare Diseases, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Correspondence: (S.V.); (B.W.)
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12
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Li X, Zhang T, Day NJ, Feng S, Gaffrey MJ, Qian WJ. Defining the S-Glutathionylation Proteome by Biochemical and Mass Spectrometric Approaches. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2272. [PMID: 36421458 PMCID: PMC9687251 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation (SSG) is a reversible post-translational modification (PTM) featuring the conjugation of glutathione to a protein cysteine thiol. SSG can alter protein structure, activity, subcellular localization, and interaction with small molecules and other proteins. Thus, it plays a critical role in redox signaling and regulation in various physiological activities and pathological events. In this review, we summarize current biochemical and analytical approaches for characterizing SSG at both the proteome level and at individual protein levels. To illustrate the mechanism underlying SSG-mediated redox regulation, we highlight recent examples of functional and structural consequences of SSG modifications. Finally, we discuss the analytical challenges in characterizing SSG and the thiol PTM landscape, future directions for understanding of the role of SSG in redox signaling and regulation and its interplay with other PTMs, and the potential role of computational approaches to accelerate functional discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Wei-Jun Qian
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA
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13
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Jayaraman A, Reynolds R. Diverse pathways to neuronal necroptosis in Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2022; 56:5428-5441. [PMID: 35377966 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Necroptosis, or programmed necrosis, involves the kinase activity of receptor interacting kinases 1 and 3, the activation of the pseudokinase mixed lineage kinase domain-like and formation of a complex called the necrosome. It is one of the non-apoptotic cell death pathways that has gained interest in the recent years, especially as a neuronal cell death pathway occurring in Alzheimer's disease. In this review, we focus our discussion on the various molecular mechanisms that could trigger neuronal death through necroptosis and have been shown to play a role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis and neuroinflammation. We describe how each of these pathways, such as tumour necrosis factor signalling, reactive oxygen species, endosomal sorting complex, post-translational modifications and certain individual molecules, is dysregulated or activated in Alzheimer's disease, and how this dysregulation/activation could trigger necroptosis. At the cellular level, many of these molecular mechanisms and pathways may act in parallel to synergize with each other or inhibit one another, and changes in the balance between them may determine different cellular vulnerabilities at different disease stages. However, from a therapeutic standpoint, it remains unclear how best to target one or more of these pathways, given that such diverse pathways could all contribute to necroptotic cell death in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anusha Jayaraman
- Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Richard Reynolds
- Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Division of Neuroscience, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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14
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Na,K-ATPase Acts as a Beta-Amyloid Receptor Triggering Src Kinase Activation. Cells 2022; 11:cells11172753. [PMID: 36078160 PMCID: PMC9455167 DOI: 10.3390/cells11172753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta-amyloid (Aβ) has a dual role, both as an important factor in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease and as a regulator in brain physiology. The inhibitory effect of Aβ42 oligomers on Na,K-ATPase contributes to neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. Still, the physiological role of the monomeric form of Aβ42 interaction with Na,K-ATPase remains unclear. We report that Na,K-ATPase serves as a receptor for Aβ42 monomer, triggering Src kinase activation. The co-localization of Aβ42 with α1- and β1-subunits of Na,K-ATPase, and Na,K-ATPase with Src kinase in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, was observed. Treatment of cells with 100 nM Aβ42 causes Src kinase activation, but does not alter Na,K-ATPase transport activity. The interaction of Aβ42 with α1β1 Na,K-ATPase isozyme leads to activation of Src kinase associated with the enzyme. Notably, prevention of Na,K-ATPase:Src kinase interaction by a specific inhibitor pNaKtide disrupts the Aβ-induced Src kinase activation. Stimulatory effect of Aβ42 on Src kinase was lost under hypoxic conditions, which was similar to the effect of specific Na,K-ATPase ligands, the cardiotonic steroids. Our findings identify Na,K-ATPase as a Aβ42 receptor, thus opening a prospect on exploring the physiological and pathological Src kinase activation caused by Aβ42 in the nervous system.
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15
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Reich N, Hölscher C. The neuroprotective effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease: An in-depth review. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:970925. [PMID: 36117625 PMCID: PMC9475012 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.970925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is no disease-modifying treatment available for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease (AD and PD) and that includes the highly controversial approval of the Aβ-targeting antibody aducanumab for the treatment of AD. Hence, there is still an unmet need for a neuroprotective drug treatment in both AD and PD. Type 2 diabetes is a risk factor for both AD and PD. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is a peptide hormone and growth factor that has shown neuroprotective effects in preclinical studies, and the success of GLP-1 mimetics in phase II clinical trials in AD and PD has raised new hope. GLP-1 mimetics are currently on the market as treatments for type 2 diabetes. GLP-1 analogs are safe, well tolerated, resistant to desensitization and well characterized in the clinic. Herein, we review the existing evidence and illustrate the neuroprotective pathways that are induced following GLP-1R activation in neurons, microglia and astrocytes. The latter include synaptic protection, improvements in cognition, learning and motor function, amyloid pathology-ameliorating properties (Aβ, Tau, and α-synuclein), the suppression of Ca2+ deregulation and ER stress, potent anti-inflammatory effects, the blockage of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis pathways, enhancements in the neuronal insulin sensitivity and energy metabolism, functional improvements in autophagy and mitophagy, elevated BDNF and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) synthesis as well as neurogenesis. The many beneficial features of GLP-1R and GLP-1/GIPR dual agonists encourage the development of novel drug treatments for AD and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Reich
- Biomedical and Life Sciences Division, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Niklas Reich,
| | - Christian Hölscher
- Neurology Department, Second Associated Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Zhengzhou, China
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16
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Ma Y, Zhu S, Yi M, Zhang W, Xue Y, Liu X, Deng H. Profiling Glutathionylome in CD38-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. J Proteome Res 2022; 21:1240-1250. [PMID: 35420434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation is an important posttranslational modification that regulates various cellular processes. However, changes in glutathionylome in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a crucial cellular process for embryonic development, wound healing, and carcinoma progression and metastasis, have not been fully characterized. Our previous study revealed that CD38 overexpression decreased cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) levels and caused cells to undergo EMT. In the present study, we engineered a cell system in which the glutathione synthetase (GS) mutant was expressed that catalyzed the formation of a glutathione analogue from azido-alanine to profile changes of glutathionylome in CD38-overexpressing cells. We identified 1298 glutathionylated proteins and revealed that proteins with changed glutathionylation levels involved in EMT associated pathways including epithelial adherens junction, actin cytoskeleton, and integrin signaling. Moreover, the glutathionylation level of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH) was increased in CD38-overexpressing cells. We further demonstrated that glutathionylation of Cys63 residue in 15-PGDH led to decreased enzymatic activity that could promote EMT by increasing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Taken together, these results indicate that the clickable glutathione is an effective probe for glutathionylome profiling, and glutathionylation of 15-PGDH on Cys63 inhibits its enzymatic activity to promote EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Ma
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Songbiao Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Meiqi Yi
- BeiGene (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wenhao Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xue
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Haiteng Deng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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17
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Argaev-Frenkel L, Rosenzweig T. Complexity of NAC Action as an Antidiabetic Agent: Opposing Effects of Oxidative and Reductive Stress on Insulin Secretion and Insulin Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23062965. [PMID: 35328386 PMCID: PMC8950759 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23062965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysregulated redox balance is involved in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. While the benefit of antioxidants in neutralizing oxidative stress is well characterized, the potential harm of antioxidant-induced reductive stress is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the dose-dependent effects of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on various tissues involved in the regulation of blood glucose and the mechanisms underlying its functions. H2O2 was used as an oxidizing agent in order to compare the outcomes of oxidative and reductive stress on cellular function. Cellular death in pancreatic islets and diminished insulin secretion were facilitated by H2O2-induced oxidative stress but not by NAC. On the other hand, myotubes and adipocytes were negatively affected by NAC-induced reductive stress, as demonstrated by the impaired transmission of insulin signaling and glucose transport, as opposed to H2O2-stimulatory action. This was accompanied by redox balance alteration and thiol modifications of proteins. The NAC-induced deterioration of insulin signaling was also observed in healthy mice, while both insulin secretion and insulin signaling were improved in diabetic mice. This study establishes the tissue-specific effects of NAC and the importance of the delicate maintenance of redox balance, emphasizing the challenge of implementing antioxidant therapy in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tovit Rosenzweig
- Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel;
- Department of Nutritional Studies, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-3937-1433
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18
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Ontario ML, Siracusa R, Modafferi S, Scuto M, Sciuto S, Greco V, Bertuccio MP, Salinaro AT, Crea R, Calabrese EJ, Di Paola R, Calabrese V. POTENTIAL PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS BY OLIVE POLYPHENOLS AND HYDROX. Mech Ageing Dev 2022; 203:111637. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2022.111637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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19
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Metabolic Features of Brain Function with Relevance to Clinical Features of Alzheimer and Parkinson Diseases. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27030951. [PMID: 35164216 PMCID: PMC8839962 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain metabolism is comprised in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Since the brain primarily relies on metabolism of glucose, ketone bodies, and amino acids, aspects of these metabolic processes in these disorders—and particularly how these altered metabolic processes are related to oxidative and/or nitrosative stress and the resulting damaged targets—are reviewed in this paper. Greater understanding of the decreased functions in brain metabolism in AD and PD is posited to lead to potentially important therapeutic strategies to address both of these disorders, which cause relatively long-lasting decreased quality of life in patients.
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20
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Semenovich DS, Plotnikov EY, Titko OV, Lukiyenko EP, Kanunnikova NP. Effects of Panthenol and N-Acetylcysteine on Changes in the Redox State of Brain Mitochondria under Oxidative Stress In Vitro. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10111699. [PMID: 34829571 PMCID: PMC8614675 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10111699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The glutathione system in the mitochondria of the brain plays an important role in maintaining the redox balance and thiol–disulfide homeostasis, whose violations are the important component of the biochemical shifts in neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondrial dysfunction is known to be accompanied by the activation of free radical processes, changes in energy metabolism, and is involved in the induction of apoptotic signals. The formation of disulfide bonds is a leading factor in the folding and maintenance of the three-dimensional conformation of many specific proteins that selectively accumulate in brain structures during neurodegenerative pathology. In this study, we estimated brain mitochondria redox status and functioning during induction of oxidative damage in vitro. We have shown that the development of oxidative stress in vitro is accompanied by inhibition of energy metabolism in the brain mitochondria, a shift in the redox potential of the glutathione system to the oxidized side, and activation of S-glutathionylation of proteins. Moreover, we studied the effects of pantothenic acid derivatives—precursors of coenzyme A (CoA), primarily D-panthenol, that exhibit high neuroprotective activity in experimental models of neurodegeneration. Panthenol contributes to the significant restoration of the activity of enzymes of mitochondrial energy metabolism, normalization of the redox potential of the glutathione system, and a decrease in the level of S-glutathionylated proteins in brain mitochondria. The addition of succinate and glutathione precursor N-acetylcysteine enhances the protective effects of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry S. Semenovich
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-(925)-465-78-52
| | - Egor Yu. Plotnikov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Oksana V. Titko
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
| | - Elena P. Lukiyenko
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
| | - Nina P. Kanunnikova
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
- Department of Technology, Physiology and Food Hygiene, State University of Grodno, 230030 Grodno, Belarus
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21
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Schmalhausen EV, Medvedeva MV, Serebryakova MV, Chagovets VV, Muronetz VI. Products of S-nitrosylation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase: Relation between S-nitrosylation and oxidation. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1866:130032. [PMID: 34627945 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is one of the major targets of NO in cells, especially in neurodegenerative diseases. S-Nitrosylation of GAPDH is accompanied by its translocation into the nucleus with subsequent apoptosis. The product of GAPDH modification by NO is considered to be S-nitrosylated GAPDH (GAPDH-SNO). However, this has not been confirmed by direct methods. METHODS Products of GAPDH modification in the presence of the NO donor diethylamine NONOate were analyzed by MALDI- and ESI- mass spectrometry methods. RESULTS The adduct between GAPDH and dimedone was detected by MALDI-MS analysis after incubation of S-nitrosylated GAPDH with dimedone, which points to the formation of cysteine-sulfenic acid (GAPDH-SOH) in the protein. Analysis of the protein hydrolysate revealed the incorporation of dimedone into the catalytic residue Cys150. An additional peak that corresponded to GAPDH-SNO was detected by ESI-MS analysis in GAPDH after the incubation with the NO donor. The content of GAPDH-SNO and GAPDH-SOH in the modified GAPDH was evaluated by different approaches and constituted 2.3 and 0.7 mol per mol GAPDH, respectively. A small fraction of GAPDH was irreversibly inactivated after NO treatment, suggesting that a minor part of the products includes cysteine-sulfinic or cysteine-sulfonic acids. CONCLUSIONS The main products of GAPDH modification by NO are GAPDH-SNO and GAPDH-SOH that is presumably formed due to the hydrolysis of GAPDH-SNO. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE The obtained results are important for understanding the molecular mechanism of redox regulation of cell functions and the role of GAPDH in the development of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia.
| | - M V Medvedeva
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - M V Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - V V Chagovets
- Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology of Ministry of Healthcare of Russia, Akademika Oparina 4, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
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22
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Haddad M, Hervé V, Ben Khedher MR, Rabanel JM, Ramassamy C. Glutathione: An Old and Small Molecule with Great Functions and New Applications in the Brain and in Alzheimer's Disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2021; 35:270-292. [PMID: 33637005 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2020.8129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Glutathione (GSH) represents the most abundant and the main antioxidant in the body with important functions in the brain related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recent Advances: Oxidative stress is one of the central mechanisms in AD. We and others have demonstrated the alteration of GSH levels in the AD brain, its important role in the detoxification of advanced glycation end-products and of acrolein, a by-product of lipid peroxidation. Recent in vivo studies found a decrease of GSH in several areas of the brain from control, mild cognitive impairment, and AD subjects, which are correlated with cognitive decline. Critical Issues: Several strategies were developed to restore its intracellular level with the l-cysteine prodrugs or the oral administration of γ-glutamylcysteine to prevent alterations observed in AD. To date, no benefit on GSH level or on oxidative biomarkers has been reported in clinical trials. Thus, it remains uncertain if GSH could be considered a potential preventive or therapeutic approach or a biomarker for AD. Future Directions: We address how GSH-coupled nanocarriers represent a promising approach for the functionalization of nanocarriers to overcome the blood/brain barrier (BBB) for the brain delivery of GSH while avoiding cellular toxicity. It is also important to address the presence of GSH in exosomes for its potential intercellular transfer or its shuttle across the BBB under certain conditions. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 35, 270-292.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Haddad
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Canada.,Institute on Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Vincent Hervé
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Canada.,Institute on Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Mohamed Raâfet Ben Khedher
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Canada.,Institute on Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Charles Ramassamy
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Canada.,Institute on Nutrition and Functional Foods, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
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23
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Pham TK, Buczek WA, Mead RJ, Shaw PJ, Collins MO. Proteomic Approaches to Study Cysteine Oxidation: Applications in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:678837. [PMID: 34177463 PMCID: PMC8219902 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.678837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress appears to be a key feature of many neurodegenerative diseases either as a cause or consequence of disease. A range of molecules are subject to oxidation, but in particular, proteins are an important target and measure of oxidative stress. Proteins are subject to a range of oxidative modifications at reactive cysteine residues, and depending on the level of oxidative stress, these modifications may be reversible or irreversible. A range of experimental approaches has been developed to characterize cysteine oxidation of proteins. In particular, mass spectrometry-based proteomic methods have emerged as a powerful means to identify and quantify cysteine oxidation sites on a proteome scale; however, their application to study neurodegenerative diseases is limited to date. Here we provide a guide to these approaches and highlight the under-exploited utility of these methods to measure oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases for biomarker discovery, target engagement and to understand disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trong Khoa Pham
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Weronika A. Buczek
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. Mead
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Pamela J. Shaw
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Mark O. Collins
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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24
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Pentkowski NS, Rogge-Obando KK, Donaldson TN, Bouquin SJ, Clark BJ. Anxiety and Alzheimer's disease: Behavioral analysis and neural basis in rodent models of Alzheimer's-related neuropathology. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 127:647-658. [PMID: 33979573 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology is commonly associated with cognitive decline but is also composed of neuropsychiatric symptoms including psychological distress and alterations in mood, including anxiety and depression. Emotional dysfunction in AD is frequently modeled using tests of anxiety-like behavior in transgenic rodents. These tests often include the elevated plus-maze, light/dark test and open field test. In this review, we describe prototypical behavioral paradigms used to examine emotional dysfunction in transgenic models of AD, specifically anxiety-like behavior. Next, we summarize the results of studies examining anxiety-like behavior in transgenic rodents, noting that the behavioral outcomes using these paradigms have produced inconsistent results. We suggest that future research will benefit from using a battery of tests to examine emotional behavior in transgenic AD models. We conclude by discussing putative, overlapping neurobiological mechanisms underlying AD-related neuropathology, stress and anxiety-like behavior reported in AD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan S Pentkowski
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87109, Mexico.
| | | | - Tia N Donaldson
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87109, Mexico
| | - Samuel J Bouquin
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87109, Mexico
| | - Benjamin J Clark
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87109, Mexico.
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25
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Zhang X, Alshakhshir N, Zhao L. Glycolytic Metabolism, Brain Resilience, and Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:662242. [PMID: 33994936 PMCID: PMC8113697 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.662242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of age-related dementia. Despite decades of research, the etiology and pathogenesis of AD are not well understood. Brain glucose hypometabolism has long been recognized as a prominent anomaly that occurs in the preclinical stage of AD. Recent studies suggest that glycolytic metabolism, the cytoplasmic pathway of the breakdown of glucose, may play a critical role in the development of AD. Glycolysis is essential for a variety of neural activities in the brain, including energy production, synaptic transmission, and redox homeostasis. Decreased glycolytic flux has been shown to correlate with the severity of amyloid and tau pathology in both preclinical and clinical AD patients. Moreover, increased glucose accumulation found in the brains of AD patients supports the hypothesis that glycolytic deficit may be a contributor to the development of this phenotype. Brain hyperglycemia also provides a plausible explanation for the well-documented link between AD and diabetes. Humans possess three primary variants of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene - ApoE∗ϵ2, ApoE∗ϵ3, and ApoE∗ϵ4 - that confer differential susceptibility to AD. Recent findings indicate that neuronal glycolysis is significantly affected by human ApoE isoforms and glycolytic robustness may serve as a major mechanism that renders an ApoE2-bearing brain more resistant against the neurodegenerative risks for AD. In addition to AD, glycolytic dysfunction has been observed in other neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, strengthening the concept of glycolytic dysfunction as a common pathway leading to neurodegeneration. Taken together, these advances highlight a promising translational opportunity that involves targeting glycolysis to bolster brain metabolic resilience and by such to alter the course of brain aging or disease development to prevent or reduce the risks for not only AD but also other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Nadine Alshakhshir
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Liqin Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
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26
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Ogata FT, Branco V, Vale FF, Coppo L. Glutaredoxin: Discovery, redox defense and much more. Redox Biol 2021; 43:101975. [PMID: 33932870 PMCID: PMC8102999 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.101975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutaredoxin, Grx, is a small protein containing an active site cysteine pair and was discovered in 1976 by Arne Holmgren. The Grx system, comprised of Grx, glutathione, glutathione reductase, and NADPH, was first described as an electron donor for Ribonucleotide Reductase but, from the first discovery in E.coli, the Grx family has impressively grown, particularly in the last two decades. Several isoforms have been described in different organisms (from bacteria to humans) and with different functions. The unique characteristic of Grxs is their ability to catalyse glutathione-dependent redox regulation via glutathionylation, the conjugation of glutathione to a substrate, and its reverse reaction, deglutathionylation. Grxs have also recently been enrolled in iron sulphur cluster formation. These functions have been implied in various physiological and pathological conditions, from immune defense to neurodegeneration and cancer development thus making Grx a possible drug target. This review aims to give an overview on Grxs, starting by a phylogenetic analysis of vertebrate Grxs, followed by an analysis of the mechanisms of action, the specific characteristics of the different human isoforms and a discussion on aspects related to human physiology and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando T Ogata
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Biology, CTCMol, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Mirassol, 207. 04044-010, São Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Vasco Branco
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Filipa F Vale
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed-ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lucia Coppo
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Solnavägen 9, SE-17165, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Tossounian MA, Zhang B, Gout I. The Writers, Readers, and Erasers in Redox Regulation of GAPDH. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9121288. [PMID: 33339386 PMCID: PMC7765867 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9121288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a key glycolytic enzyme, which is crucial for the breakdown of glucose to provide cellular energy. Over the past decade, GAPDH has been reported to be one of the most prominent cellular targets of post-translational modifications (PTMs), which divert GAPDH toward different non-glycolytic functions. Hence, it is termed a moonlighting protein. During metabolic and oxidative stress, GAPDH is a target of different oxidative PTMs (oxPTM), e.g., sulfenylation, S-thiolation, nitrosylation, and sulfhydration. These modifications alter the enzyme’s conformation, subcellular localization, and regulatory interactions with downstream partners, which impact its glycolytic and non-glycolytic functions. In this review, we discuss the redox regulation of GAPDH by different redox writers, which introduce the oxPTM code on GAPDH to instruct a redox response; the GAPDH readers, which decipher the oxPTM code through regulatory interactions and coordinate cellular response via the formation of multi-enzyme signaling complexes; and the redox erasers, which are the reducing systems that regenerate the GAPDH catalytic activity. Human pathologies associated with the oxidation-induced dysregulation of GAPDH are also discussed, featuring the importance of the redox regulation of GAPDH in neurodegeneration and metabolic disorders.
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Stepler KE, Mahoney ER, Kofler J, Hohman TJ, Lopez OL, Robinson RAS. Inclusion of African American/Black adults in a pilot brain proteomics study of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 146:105129. [PMID: 33049317 PMCID: PMC7990397 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) disproportionately affects certain racial and ethnic subgroups, such as African American/Black and Hispanic adults. Genetic, comorbid, and socioeconomic risk factors contribute to this disparity; however, the molecular contributions have been largely unexplored. Herein, we conducted a pilot proteomics study of postmortem brains from African American/Black and non-Hispanic White adults neuropathologically diagnosed with AD compared to closely-matched cognitively normal individuals. Examination of hippocampus, inferior parietal lobule, and globus pallidus regions using quantitative proteomics resulted in 568 differentially-expressed proteins in AD. These proteins were consistent with the literature and included glial fibrillary acidic protein, peroxiredoxin-1, and annexin A5. In addition, 351 novel proteins in AD were identified, which could partially be due to cohort diversity. From linear regression analyses, we identified 185 proteins with significant race x diagnosis interactions across various brain regions. These differences generally were reflective of differential expression of proteins in AD that occurred in only a single racial/ethnic group. Overall, this pilot study suggests that disease understanding can be furthered by including diversity in racial/ethnic groups; however, this must be done on a larger scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn E Stepler
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, United States of America
| | - Emily R Mahoney
- Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, United States of America; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America
| | - Julia Kofler
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - Timothy J Hohman
- Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, United States of America; Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America; Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America
| | - Oscar L Lopez
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - Renã A S Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, United States of America; Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, United States of America; Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America; Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, United States of America.
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Musaogullari A, Chai YC. Redox Regulation by Protein S-Glutathionylation: From Molecular Mechanisms to Implications in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218113. [PMID: 33143095 PMCID: PMC7663550 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
S-glutathionylation, the post-translational modification forming mixed disulfides between protein reactive thiols and glutathione, regulates redox-based signaling events in the cell and serves as a protective mechanism against oxidative damage. S-glutathionylation alters protein function, interactions, and localization across physiological processes, and its aberrant function is implicated in various human diseases. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of S-glutathionylation and describe the changing levels of expression of S-glutathionylation in the context of aging, cancer, cardiovascular, and liver diseases.
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30
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Muronetz VI, Melnikova AK, Saso L, Schmalhausen EV. Influence of Oxidative Stress on Catalytic and Non-glycolytic Functions of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:2040-2058. [PMID: 29848267 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180530101057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a unique enzyme that, besides its main function in glycolysis (catalysis of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate oxidation), possesses a number of non-glycolytic activities. The present review summarizes information on the role of oxidative stress in the regulation of the enzymatic activity as well as non-glycolytic functions of GAPDH. METHODS Based on the analysis of literature data and the results obtained in our research group, mechanisms of the regulation of GAPDH functions through the oxidation of the sulfhydryl groups in the active site of the enzyme have been suggested. RESULTS Mechanism of GAPDH oxidation includes consecutive oxidation of the catalytic Cysteine (Cys150) into sulfenic, sulfinic, and sulfonic acid derivatives, resulting in the complete inactivation of the enzyme. The cysteine sulfenic acid reacts with reduced glutathione (GSH) to form a mixed disulfide (S-glutathionylated GAPDH) that further reacts with Cys154 yielding the disulfide bond in the active site of the enzyme. In contrast to the sulfinic and sulfonic acids, the mixed disulfide and the intramolecular disulfide bond are reversible oxidation products that can be reduced in the presence of GSH or thioredoxin. CONCLUSION Oxidation of sulfhydryl groups in the active site of GAPDH is unavoidable due to the enhanced reactivity of Cys150. The irreversible oxidation of Cys150 is prevented by Sglutathionylation and disulfide bonding with Cys154. The oxidation/reduction of the sulfhydryl groups in the active site of GAPDH can be used for regulation of glycolysis and numerous side activities of this enzyme including the induction of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Aleksandra K Melnikova
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Luciano Saso
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "Vittorio Erspamer"Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
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Tsai CW, Tsai CF, Lin KH, Chen WJ, Lin MS, Hsieh CC, Lin CC. An investigation of the correlation between the S-glutathionylated GAPDH levels in blood and Alzheimer's disease progression. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233289. [PMID: 32469899 PMCID: PMC7259681 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by two aggregates, namely, amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (tau-p), which are released into the blood in a very small amount and cannot be easily detected. An increasing number of recent studies have suggested that S-glutathionylated glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is highly correlated with Aβ in patients with AD and that S-glutathionylated GAPDH plays a role as a proapoptotic factor in AD. We found that S-glutathionylated GAPDH is abundant in the blood of AD patients, which is unusual because S-glutathionylated GAPDH cannot exist in the blood under normal conditions. The aim of this study was to further explore the correlation between the S-glutathionylated GAPDH levels in blood plasma and AD progression. As controls, we recruited 191 people without AD, which included 111 healthy individuals and 37 patients with depression and insomnia, in the psychosomatic clinic. Moreover, 47 patients with AD (aged 40–89 years) were recruited at the neurology clinic. The blood S-glutathionylated GAPDH levels in the AD patients were significantly (p < 0.001) higher (752.7 ± 301.7 ng/dL) than those in the controls (59.92 ± 122.4 ng/dL), irrespective of gender and age. For AD diagnosis, the criterion blood S-glutathionylated GAPDH level > 251.62 ng/dL exhibited 95.74% sensitivity and 92.67% specificity. In fact, the individuals aged 70–89 years, namely, 37 patients from the psychosomatic clinic and 42 healthy individuals, showed significant blood S-glutathionylated GAPDH levels (230.5 ± 79.3 and 8.05 ± 20.51 ng/dL, respectively). This finding might indicate neurodegenerative AD progression in psychosomatic patients and suggests that the degree of neuronal apoptosis during AD progression might be sensitively evaluated based on the level of S-glutathionylated GAPDH in blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wei Tsai
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Chia Fan Tsai
- Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuan Hung Lin
- Department of Neurology, Taiwan Adventist Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei Jung Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Muh Shi Lin
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan.,Department of Surgery, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Care, Hung Kuang University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Health Business Administration, College of Medical and Health Care, Hung Kuang University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | | | - Chai Ching Lin
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
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Barinova KV, Serebryakova MV, Eldarov MA, Kulikova AA, Mitkevich VA, Muronetz VI, Schmalhausen EV. S-glutathionylation of human glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and possible role of Cys152-Cys156 disulfide bridge in the active site of the protein. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2020; 1864:129560. [PMID: 32061786 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2020.129560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously showed that glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is S-glutathionylated in the presence of H2O2 and GSH. S-glutathionylation was shown to result in the formation of a disulfide bridge in the active site of the protein. In the present work, the possible biological significance of the disulfide bridge was investigated. METHODS Human recombinant GAPDH with the mutation C156S (hGAPDH_C156S) was obtained to prevent the formation of the disulfide bridge. Properties of S-glutathionylated hGAPDH_C156S were studied in comparison with those of the wild-type protein hGAPDH. RESULTS S-glutathionylation of hGAPDH and hGAPDH_C156S results in the reversible inactivation of the proteins. In both cases, the modification results in corresponding mixed disulfides between the catalytic Cys152 and GSH. In the case of hGAPDH, the mixed disulfide breaks down yielding Cys152-Cys156 disulfide bridge in the active site. In hGAPDH_C156S, the mixed disulfide is stable. Differential scanning calorimetry method showed that S-glutathionylation leads to destabilization of hGAPDH molecule, but does not affect significantly hGAPDH_C156S. Reactivation of S-glutathionylated hGAPDH in the presence of GSH and glutaredoxin 1 is approximately two-fold more efficient compared to that of hGAPDH_C156S. CONCLUSIONS S-glutathionylation induces the formation of Cys152-Cys156 disulfide bond in the active site of hGAPDH, which results in structural changes of the protein molecule. Cys156 is important for reactivation of S-glutathionylated GAPDH by glutaredoxin 1. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE The described mechanism may be important for interaction between GAPDH and other proteins and ligands, involved in cell signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Barinova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - M V Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - M A Eldarov
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky prosp. 33-2, Moscow 119071, Russia
| | - A A Kulikova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - V A Mitkevich
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia.
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Alcock LJ, Langini M, Stühler K, Remke M, Perkins MV, Bernardes GJL, Chalker JM. Proteome‐Wide Survey of Cysteine Oxidation by Using a Norbornene Probe. Chembiochem 2020; 21:1329-1334. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa J. Alcock
- Flinders University College of Science and Engineering Sturt Road Bedford Park South Australia 5042 Australia
- Flinders University Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology Sturt Road Bedford Park South Australia 5042 Australia
| | - Maike Langini
- Molecular Proteomics Laboratory (MPL) Biomedical Research Center (BMFZ) Heinrich Heine University Universitätsstrasse 1 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neuro-Oncogenomics German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner site University Hospital Düsseldorf Moorenstrasse 5 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology Medical Faculty Heinrich Heine University Universitätsstrasse 1 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Institute of Neuropathology Medical Faculty Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Moorenstrasse 5 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Kai Stühler
- Molecular Proteomics Laboratory (MPL) Biomedical Research Center (BMFZ) Heinrich Heine University Universitätsstrasse 1 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Institute of Molecular Medicine University Hospital Düsseldorf Universitätsstrasse 1 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Marc Remke
- Division of Pediatric Neuro-Oncogenomics German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) Partner site University Hospital Düsseldorf Moorenstrasse 5 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Clinical Immunology Medical Faculty Heinrich Heine University Universitätsstrasse 1 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
- Institute of Neuropathology Medical Faculty Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Moorenstrasse 5 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Michael V. Perkins
- Flinders University College of Science and Engineering Sturt Road Bedford Park South Australia 5042 Australia
| | - Gonçalo J. L. Bernardes
- University of Cambridge Department of Chemistry Lensfield Road Cambridge CB2 1EW UK
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular Faculdade de Medicina Universidade de Lisboa Avenida Professor Egas Moniz 1649-028 Lisboa Portugal
| | - Justin M. Chalker
- Flinders University College of Science and Engineering Sturt Road Bedford Park South Australia 5042 Australia
- Flinders University Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology Sturt Road Bedford Park South Australia 5042 Australia
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Abstract
Sickle cell hemoglobin (HbS) is an example of a genetic variant of human hemoglobin where a point mutation in the β globin gene results in substitution of glutamic acid to valine at sixth position of the β globin chain. Association between tetrameric hemoglobin molecules through noncovalent interactions between side chain residue of βVal6 and hydrophobic grooves formed by βAla70, βPhe85 and βLeu88 amino acid residues of another tetramer followed by the precipitation of the elongated polymer leads to the formation of sickle-shaped RBCs in the deoxygenated state of HbS. There are multiple non-covalent interactions between residues across intra- and inter-strands that stabilize the polymer. The clinical phenotype of sickling of RBCs manifests as sickle cell anemia, which was first documented in the year 1910 in an African patient. Although the molecular reason of the disease has been understood well over the decades of research and several treatment procedures have been explored to date, an effective therapeutic strategy for sickle cell anemia has not been discovered yet. Surprisingly, it has been observed that the oxy form of HbS and glutathionylated form of deoxy HbS inhibits polymerization. In addition to describe the residue level interactions in the HbS polymer that provides its stability, here we explain the mechanism of inhibition in the polymerization of HbS in its oxy state. Additionally, we reported the molecular insights of inhibition in the polymerization for glutathionyl HbS, a posttranslational modification of hemoglobin, even in its deoxy state. In this chapter we briefly consider the available treatment procedures of sickle cell anemia and propose that the elevation of glutathionylation of HbS within RBCs, without inducing oxidative stress, might be an effective therapeutic strategy for sickle cell anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar Mandal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, 741246, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
| | - Amrita Mitra
- Clinical Proteomics Unit, Division of Molecular Medicine, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, 100 ft road, Koramangala, Bangalore, 560034, India
| | - Rajdeep Das
- Clinical Proteomics Unit, Division of Molecular Medicine, St. John's Research Institute, St. John's National Academy of Health Sciences, 100 ft road, Koramangala, Bangalore, 560034, India
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Kommaddi RP, Tomar DS, Karunakaran S, Bapat D, Nanguneri S, Ray A, Schneider BL, Nair D, Ravindranath V. Glutaredoxin1 Diminishes Amyloid Beta-Mediated Oxidation of F-Actin and Reverses Cognitive Deficits in an Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 31:1321-1338. [PMID: 31617375 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.7754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Aims: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis through multiple sources are implicated in synaptic pathology observed in the disease. We have previously shown F-actin disassembly in dendritic spines in early AD (34). The actin cytoskeleton can be oxidatively modified resulting in altered F-actin dynamics. Therefore, we investigated whether disruption of redox signaling could contribute to actin network disassembly and downstream effects in the amyloid precursor protein/presenilin-1 double transgenic (APP/PS1) mouse model of AD. Results: Synaptosomal preparations from 1-month-old APP/PS1 mice showed an increase in ROS levels, coupled with a decrease in the reduced form of F-actin and increase in glutathionylated synaptosomal actin. Furthermore, synaptic glutaredoxin 1 (Grx1) and thioredoxin levels were found to be lowered. Overexpressing Grx1 in the brains of these mice not only reversed F-actin loss seen in APP/PS1 mice but also restored memory recall after contextual fear conditioning. F-actin levels and F-actin nanoarchitecture in spines were also stabilized by Grx1 overexpression in APP/PS1 primary cortical neurons, indicating that glutathionylation of F-actin is a critical event in early pathogenesis of AD, which leads to spine loss. Innovation: Loss of thiol/disulfide oxidoreductases in the synapse along with increase in ROS can render F-actin nanoarchitecture susceptible to oxidative modifications in AD. Conclusions: Our findings provide novel evidence that altered redox signaling in the form of S-glutathionylation and reduced Grx1 levels can lead to synaptic dysfunction during AD pathogenesis by directly disrupting the F-actin nanoarchitecture in spines. Increasing Grx1 levels is a potential target for novel disease-modifying therapies for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Deepti Bapat
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Ajit Ray
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Deepak Nair
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Vijayalakshmi Ravindranath
- Centre for Neuroscience, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.,Centre for Brain Research, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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36
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SOD1 deficiency alters gastrointestinal microbiota and metabolites in mice. Exp Gerontol 2019; 130:110795. [PMID: 31805337 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Redox imbalance induces oxidative damage and causes age-related pathologies. Mice lacking the antioxidant enzyme SOD1 (Sod1-/-) exhibit various aging-like phenotypes throughout the body and are used as aging model mice. Recent reports suggested that age-related changes in the intestinal environment are involved in various diseases. We investigated cecal microbiota profiles and gastrointestinal metabolites in wild-type (Sod1+/+) and Sod1-/- mice. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were dominant in Sod1+/+ mice, and most of the detected bacterial species belong to these two phyla. Meanwhile, the Sod1-/- mice had an altered Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes ratio compared to Sod1+/+ mice. Among the identified genera, Paraprevotella, Prevotella, Ruminococcus, and Bacteroides were significantly increased, but Lactobacillus was significantly decreased in Sod1-/- mice compared to Sod1+/+ mice. The correlation analyses between cecal microbiota and liver metabolites showed that Bacteroides and Prevotella spp. were grouped into the same cluster, and Paraprevotella and Ruminococcus spp. were also grouped as another cluster. These four genera showed a positive and a negative correlation with increased and decreased liver metabolites in Sod1-/- mice, respectively. In contrast, Lactobacillus spp. showed a negative correlation with increased liver metabolites and a positive correlation with decreased liver metabolites in Sod1-/- mice. These results suggest that the redox imbalance induced by Sod1 loss alters gastrointestinal microflora and metabolites.
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Muronetz VI, Melnikova AK, Barinova KV, Schmalhausen EV. Inhibitors of Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase and Unexpected Effects of Its Reduced Activity. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2019; 84:1268-1279. [PMID: 31760917 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297919110051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The review describes the use of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) inhibitors to study the enzyme and to suppress its activity in various cell types. The main problem of selective GAPDH inhibition is a highly conserved nature of the enzyme active site and, especially, Cys150 environment important for the catalytic action of cysteine sulfhydryl group. Numerous attempts to find specific inhibitors of sperm GAPDH and enzymes from Trypanosoma sp. and Mycobacterium tuberculosis that would not inhibit GAPDH of somatic mammalian cells have failed, which has pushed researchers to search for new ways to solve this problem. The sections of the review are devoted to the studies of GAPDH inactivation by reactive oxygen species, glutathione, and glycating agents. The final section discusses possible effects of GAPDH inhibition and inactivation on glycolysis and related metabolic pathways (pentose phosphate pathway, uncoupling of the glycolytic oxidation and phosphorylation, etc.).
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Affiliation(s)
- V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia. .,Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - A K Melnikova
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - K V Barinova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
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38
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Stapper ZA, Jahn TR. Changes in Glutathione Redox Potential Are Linked to Aβ 42-Induced Neurotoxicity. Cell Rep 2019; 24:1696-1703. [PMID: 30110626 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione is the major low-molecular weight thiol of eukaryotic cells. It is central to one of the two major NADPH-dependent reducing systems and is likely to play a role in combating oxidative stress, a process suggested to play a key role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the nature and relevance of redox changes in the onset and progression of AD are still uncertain. Here, we combine genetically encoded redox sensors with our Drosophila models of amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation. We find that changes in glutathione redox potential (EGSH) closely correlate with disease onset and progression. We observe this redox imbalance specifically in neurons, but not in glia cells. EGSH changes and Aβ42 deposition are also accompanied by increased JNK stress signaling. Furthermore, pharmacologic and genetic manipulation of glutathione synthesis modulates Aβ42-mediated neurotoxicity, suggesting a causal relationship between disturbed glutathione redox homeostasis and early AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeenna A Stapper
- Schaller Research Group Proteostasis in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Heidelberg and the DKFZ, INF 581, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, INF 234, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Center of Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), INF 280 and 282, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thomas R Jahn
- Schaller Research Group Proteostasis in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Heidelberg and the DKFZ, INF 581, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Akram M, Ali Shah SM, Munir N, Daniyal M, Tahir IM, Mahmood Z, Irshad M, Akhlaq M, Sultana S, Zainab R. Hexose monophosphate shunt, the role of its metabolites and associated disorders: A review. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:14473-14482. [PMID: 30697723 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt acts as an essential component of cellular metabolism in maintaining carbon homeostasis. The HMP shunt comprises two phases viz. oxidative and nonoxidative, which provide different intermediates for the synthesis of biomolecules like nucleotides, DNA, RNA, amino acids, and so forth; reducing molecules for anabolism and detoxifying the reactive oxygen species during oxidative stress. The HMP shunt is significantly important in the liver, adipose tissue, erythrocytes, adrenal glands, lactating mammary glands and testes. We have researched the articles related to the HMP pathway, its metabolites and disorders related to its metabolic abnormalities. The literature for this paper was taken typically from a personal database, the Cochrane database of systemic reviews, PubMed publications, biochemistry textbooks, and electronic journals uptil date on the hexose monophosphate shunt. The HMP shunt is a tightly controlled metabolic pathway, which is also interconnected with other metabolic pathways in the body like glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and glucuronic acid depending upon the metabolic needs of the body and depending upon the biochemical demand. The HMP shunt plays a significant role in NADPH2 formation and in pentose sugars that are biosynthetic precursors of nucleic acids and amino acids. Cells can be protected from highly reactive oxygen species by NADPH 2 . Deficiency in the hexose monophosphate pathway is linked to numerous disorders. Furthermore, it was also reported that this metabolic pathway could act as a therapeutic target to treat different types of cancers, so treatments at the molecular level could be planned by limiting the synthesis of biomolecules required for proliferating cells provided by the HMP shunt, hence, more experiments still could be carried out to find additional discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Akram
- Department of Eastern Medicine, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Syed Muhammad Ali Shah
- Department of Eastern Medicine, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Naveed Munir
- College of Allied Health Professional, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan.,Department of Biochemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Daniyal
- TCM and Ethnomedicine Innovation & Development International Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, China
| | - Imtiaz Mahmood Tahir
- College of Allied Health Professional, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Zahed Mahmood
- Department of Biochemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Irshad
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir (UoKAJK), Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Akhlaq
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, DIK, KP, Pakistan
| | - Sabira Sultana
- Department of Eastern Medicine, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Rida Zainab
- Department of Eastern Medicine, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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40
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Altinoz MA, Guloksuz S, Schmidt-Kastner R, Kenis G, Ince B, Rutten BPF. Involvement of hemoglobins in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Exp Gerontol 2019; 126:110680. [PMID: 31382012 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hemoglobins (Hbs) are heme-containing proteins binding oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide. While erythrocytes are the most well-known location of Hbs, Hbs also exist in neurons, glia and oligodendroglia and they are primarily localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane of neurons with likely roles in cellular respiration and buffering protons. Recently, studies have suggested links between hypoxia and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer Disease (AD) and furthermore suggested involvement of Hbs in the pathogenesis of AD. While cellular immunohistochemical studies on AD brains have observed reduced levels of Hb in the cytoplasm of pre-tangle and tangle-bearing neurons, other studies on homogenates of AD brain samples observed increased Hb levels. This potential discrepancy may result from differential presence and function of intracellular versus extracellular Hbs. Intracellular Hbs may protect neurons against hypoxia and hyperoxia. On the other hand, extracellular free Hb and its degradation products may trigger inflammatory immune and oxidative reactions against neural macromolecules and/or damage the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, biological processes leading to reduction of Hb transcription (including clinically silent Hb mutations) may influence intra-erythrocytic and neural Hbs, and reduce the transport of oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitric oxide which may be involved in the (patho)physiology of neurodegenerative disorders such as AD. Agents such as erythropoietin, which stimulate both erythropoiesis, reduce eryptosis and induce intracellular neural Hbs may exert multiple beneficial effects on the onset and course of AD. Thus, evidence accumulates for a role of Hbs in the central nervous system while Hbs deserve more attention as possible candidate molecules involved in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meric A Altinoz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
| | - Sinan Guloksuz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rainald Schmidt-Kastner
- Integrated Medical Science Department, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University (FAU), Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Gunter Kenis
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Bahri Ince
- Department of Psychiatry, Mazhar Osman Bakirkoy Mental Diseases Research and Education Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Bart P F Rutten
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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de Bari L, Atlante A, Armeni T, Kalapos MP. Synthesis and metabolism of methylglyoxal, S-D-lactoylglutathione and D-lactate in cancer and Alzheimer's disease. Exploring the crossroad of eternal youth and premature aging. Ageing Res Rev 2019; 53:100915. [PMID: 31173890 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2019.100915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Both cancer and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are emerging as metabolic diseases in which aberrant/dysregulated glucose metabolism and bioenergetics occur, and play a key role in disease progression. Interestingly, an enhancement of glucose uptake, glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway occurs in both cancer cells and amyloid-β-resistant neurons in the early phase of AD. However, this metabolic shift has its adverse effects. One of them is the increase in methylglyoxal production, a physiological cytotoxic by-product of glucose catabolism. Methylglyoxal is mainly detoxified via cytosolic glyoxalase route comprising glyoxalase 1 and glyoxalase 2 with the production of S-D-lactoylglutathione and D-lactate as intermediate and end-product, respectively. Due to the existence of mitochondrial carriers and intramitochondrial glyoxalase 2 and D-lactate dehydrogenase, the transport and metabolism of both S-D-lactoylglutathione and D-lactate in mitochondria can contribute to methylglyoxal elimination, cellular antioxidant power and energy production. In this review, it is supposed that the different ability of cancer cells and AD neurons to metabolize methylglyoxal, S-D-lactoylglutathione and D-lactate scores cell fate, therefore being at the very crossroad of the "eternal youth" of cancer and the "premature death" of AD neurons. Understanding of these processes would help to elaborate novel metabolism-based therapies for cancer and AD treatment.
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Butterfield DA. Phosphoproteomics of Alzheimer disease brain: Insights into altered brain protein regulation of critical neuronal functions and their contributions to subsequent cognitive loss. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:2031-2039. [PMID: 31167728 PMCID: PMC6602546 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is the major locus of dementia worldwide. In the USA there are nearly 6 million persons with this disorder, and estimates of 13-20 million AD cases in the next three decades. The molecular bases for AD remain unknown, though processes involving amyloid beta-peptide as small oligomeric forms are gaining attention as known agents to both lead to oxidative stress and synaptic dysfunction associated with cognitive dysfunction in AD and its earlier forms, including amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and possibly preclinical Alzheimer disease (PCAD). Altered brain protein phosphorylation is a hallmark of AD, and phosphoproteomics offers an opportunity to identify these altered phosphoproteins in order to gain more insights into molecular mechanisms of neuronal dysfunction and death that lead to cognitive loss. This paper reviews what, to this author, are believed to be the known phosphoproteomics studies related to in vitro and in vivo models of AD as well as phosphoproteomics studies of brains from subjects with AD, and in at least one case in MCI and PCAD as well. The results of this review are discussed with relevance to new insights into AD brain protein dysregulation in critical neuronal functions and to potential therapeutic targets to slow, or in favorable cases, halt progression of this dementing disorder that affects millions of persons and their families worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Allan Butterfield
- Department of Chemistry and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
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43
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Dyer RR, Ford KI, Robinson RAS. The roles of S-nitrosylation and S-glutathionylation in Alzheimer's disease. Methods Enzymol 2019; 626:499-538. [PMID: 31606089 PMCID: PMC6908309 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2019.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating dementia with complex pathophysiological alterations including modifications to endogenous cysteine. S-nitrosylation (SNO) is a well-studied posttranslational modification (PTM) in the context of AD while S-glutathionylation (PSSG) remains less studied. Excess reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) directly or indirectly generate SNO and PSSG. SNO is dysregulated in AD and plays a pervasive role in processes such as protein function, cell signaling, metabolism, and apoptosis. Despite some studies into the role of SNO in AD, multiple identified SNO proteins lack deep investigation and SNO modifications outside of brain tissues are limited, leaving the full role of SNO in AD to be elucidated. PSSG homeostasis is perturbed in AD and may affect a myriad of cellular processes. Here we overview the role of nitric oxide (NO) in AD, discuss proteomic methodologies to investigate SNO and PSSG, and review SNO and PSSG in AD. A more thorough understanding of SNO, PSSG, and other cysteinyl PTMs in AD will be helpful for the development of novel therapeutics against neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R Dyer
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Katarena I Ford
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Renã A S Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States; Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Memory & Alzheimer's Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Nashville, TN, United States.
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44
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Molecular insights of inhibition in sickle hemoglobin polymerization upon glutathionylation: hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and molecular dynamics simulation-based approach. Biochem J 2018; 475:2153-2166. [DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In sickle cell anemia, polymerization of hemoglobin in its deoxy state leads to the formation of insoluble fibers that result in sickling of red blood cells. Stereo-specific binding of isopropyl group of βVal6, the mutated amino-acid residue of a tetrameric sickle hemoglobin molecule (HbS), with hydrophobic groove of another HbS tetramer initiates the polymerization. Glutathionylation of βCys93 in HbS was reported to inhibit the polymerization. However, the mechanism of inhibition in polymerization is unknown to date. In our study, the molecular insights of inhibition in polymerization were investigated by monitoring the conformational dynamics in solution phase using hydrogen/deuterium exchange-based mass spectrometry. The conformational rigidity imparted due to glutathionylation of HbS results in solvent shielding of βVal6 and perturbation in the conformation of hydrophobic groove of HbS. Additionally, molecular dynamics simulation trajectory showed that the stereo-specific localization of glutathione moiety in the hydrophobic groove across the globin subunit interface of tetrameric HbS might contribute to inhibition in polymerization. These conformational insights in the inhibition of HbS polymerization upon glutathionylation might be translated in the molecularly targeted therapeutic approaches for sickle cell anemia.
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Kudryavtseva AV, Krasnov GS, Dmitriev AA, Alekseev BY, Kardymon OL, Sadritdinova AF, Fedorova MS, Pokrovsky AV, Melnikova NV, Kaprin AD, Moskalev AA, Snezhkina AV. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in aging and cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 7:44879-44905. [PMID: 27270647 PMCID: PMC5216692 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging and cancer are the most important issues to research. The population in the world is growing older, and the incidence of cancer increases with age. There is no doubt about the linkage between aging and cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this association are still unknown. Several lines of evidence suggest that the oxidative stress as a cause and/or consequence of the mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the main drivers of these processes. Increasing ROS levels and products of the oxidative stress, which occur in aging and age-related disorders, were also found in cancer. This review focuses on the similarities between ageing-associated and cancer-associated oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction as their common phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna V Kudryavtseva
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,National Medical Research Radiological Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - George S Krasnov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey A Dmitriev
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Boris Y Alekseev
- National Medical Research Radiological Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga L Kardymon
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Asiya F Sadritdinova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,National Medical Research Radiological Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Maria S Fedorova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Nataliya V Melnikova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey D Kaprin
- National Medical Research Radiological Center, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey A Moskalev
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Russia
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Abstract
Proteomics and lipidomics are powerful tools to the large-scale study of proteins and lipids, respectively. Several methods can be employed with particular benefits and limitations in the study of human brain. This is a review of the rationale use of current techniques with particular attention to limitations and pitfalls inherent to each one of the techniques, and more importantly, to their use in the study of post-mortem brain tissue. These aspects are cardinal to avoid false interpretations, errors and unreal expectancies. Other points are also stressed as exemplified in the analysis of human neurodegenerative diseases which are manifested by disease-, region-, and stage-specific modifications commonly in the context of aging. Information about certain altered protein clusters and proteins oxidatively damaged is summarized for Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro Ferrer
- Pathologic Anatomy Service, Institute of Neuropathology, Bellvitge University Hospital; Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona; and Network Center of Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute Carlos III; Hospitalet de Llobregat, Llobregat, Spain.
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47
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Protein Glutathionylation in the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2017; 2017:2818565. [PMID: 29456785 PMCID: PMC5804111 DOI: 10.1155/2017/2818565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein glutathionylation is a redox-mediated posttranslational modification that regulates the function of target proteins by conjugating glutathione with a cysteine thiol group on the target proteins. Protein glutathionylation has several biological functions such as regulation of metabolic pathways, calcium homeostasis, signal transduction, remodeling of cytoskeleton, inflammation, and protein folding. However, the exact role and mechanism of glutathionylation during irreversible oxidative stress has not been completely defined. Irreversible oxidative damage is implicated in a number of neurological disorders. Here, we discuss and highlight the most recent findings and several evidences for the association of glutathionylation with neurodegenerative diseases and the role of glutathionylation of specific proteins in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding the important role of glutathionylation in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases may provide insights into novel therapeutic interventions.
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48
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Ren X, Zou L, Zhang X, Branco V, Wang J, Carvalho C, Holmgren A, Lu J. Redox Signaling Mediated by Thioredoxin and Glutathione Systems in the Central Nervous System. Antioxid Redox Signal 2017; 27:989-1010. [PMID: 28443683 PMCID: PMC5649126 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2016.6925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The thioredoxin (Trx) and glutathione (GSH) systems play important roles in maintaining the redox balance in the brain, a tissue that is prone to oxidative stress due to its high-energy demand. These two disulfide reductase systems are active in various areas of the brain and are considered to be critical antioxidant systems in the central nervous system (CNS). Various neuronal disorders have been characterized to have imbalanced redox homeostasis. Recent Advances: In addition to their detrimental effects, recent studies have highlighted that reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) act as critical signaling molecules by modifying thiols in proteins. The Trx and GSH systems, which reversibly regulate thiol modifications, regulate redox signaling involved in various biological events in the CNS. CRITICAL ISSUES In this review, we focus on the following: (i) how ROS/RNS are produced and mediate signaling in CNS; (ii) how Trx and GSH systems regulate redox signaling by catalyzing reversible thiol modifications; (iii) how dysfunction of the Trx and GSH systems causes alterations of cellular redox signaling in human neuronal diseases; and (iv) the effects of certain small molecules that target thiol-based signaling pathways in the CNS. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Further study on the roles of thiol-dependent redox systems in the CNS will improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of many human neuronal disorders and also help to develop novel protective and therapeutic strategies against neuronal diseases. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 989-1010.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyuan Ren
- 1 Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lili Zou
- 1 Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden .,2 Translational Neuroscience and Neural Regeneration and Repair Institute/Institute of Cell Therapy, The First Hospital of Yichang, Three Gorges University , Yichang, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- 1 Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Vasco Branco
- 3 Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa) , Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jun Wang
- 2 Translational Neuroscience and Neural Regeneration and Repair Institute/Institute of Cell Therapy, The First Hospital of Yichang, Three Gorges University , Yichang, China
| | - Cristina Carvalho
- 3 Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa) , Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Arne Holmgren
- 1 Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jun Lu
- 4 School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University , Chongqing, China
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Giustarini D, Colombo G, Garavaglia ML, Astori E, Portinaro NM, Reggiani F, Badalamenti S, Aloisi AM, Santucci A, Rossi R, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I. Assessment of glutathione/glutathione disulphide ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 112:360-375. [PMID: 28807817 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is the major non-protein thiol in humans and other mammals, which is present in millimolar concentrations within cells, but at much lower concentrations in the blood plasma. GSH and GSH-related enzymes act both to prevent oxidative damage and to detoxify electrophiles. Under oxidative stress, two GSH molecules become linked by a disulphide bridge to form glutathione disulphide (GSSG). Therefore, assessment of the GSH/GSSG ratio may provide an estimation of cellular redox metabolism. Current evidence resulting from studies in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells suggests that GSH also plays a prominent role in protein redox regulation via S -glutathionylation, i.e., the conjugation of GSH to reactive protein cysteine residues. A number of methodologies that enable quantitative analysis of GSH/GSSG ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins (PSSG), as well as identification and visualization of PSSG in tissue sections or cultured cells are currently available. Here, we have considered the main methodologies applied for GSH, GSSG and PSSG detection in biological samples. This review paper provides an up-to-date critical overview of the application of the most relevant analytical, morphological, and proteomics approaches to detect and analyse GSH, GSSG and PSSG in mammalian samples as well as discusses their current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Graziano Colombo
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Emanuela Astori
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Marcello Portinaro
- Clinica ortopedica e traumatologica, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Reggiani
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Salvatore Badalamenti
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Aloisi
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Annalisa Santucci
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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50
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Barinova KV, Serebryakova MV, Muronetz VI, Schmalhausen EV. S-glutathionylation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase induces formation of C150-C154 intrasubunit disulfide bond in the active site of the enzyme. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:3167-3177. [PMID: 28935607 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2017.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a glycolytic protein involved in numerous non-glycolytic functions. S-glutathionylated GAPDH was revealed in plant and animal tissues. The role of GAPDH S-glutathionylation is not fully understood. METHODS Rabbit muscle GAPDH was S-glutathionylated in the presence of H2O2 and reduced glutathione (GSH). The modified protein was assayed by MALDI-MS analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic light scattering, and ultracentrifugation. RESULTS Incubation of GAPDH in the presence of H2O2 together with GSH resulted in the complete inactivation of the enzyme. In contrast to irreversible oxidation of GAPDH by H2O2, this modification could be reversed in the excess of GSH or dithiothreitol. By data of MALDI-MS analysis, the modified protein contained both mixed disulfide between Cys150 and GSH and the intrasubunit disulfide bond between Cys150 and Cys154 (different subunits of tetrameric GAPDH may contain different products). S-glutathionylation results in loosening of the tertiary structure of GAPDH, decreases its affinity to NAD+ and thermal stability. CONCLUSIONS The mixed disulfide between Cys150 and GSH is an intermediate product of S-glutathionylation: its subsequent reaction with Cys154 results in the intrasubunit disulfide bond in the active site of GAPDH. The mixed disulfide and the C150-C154 disulfide bond protect GAPDH from irreversible oxidation and can be reduced in the excess of thiols. Conformational changes that were observed in S-glutathionylated GAPDH may affect interactions between GAPDH and other proteins (ligands), suggesting the role of S-glutathionylation in the redox signaling. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE The manuscript considers one of the possible mechanisms of redox regulation of cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Barinova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - M V Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - V I Muronetz
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - E V Schmalhausen
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia.
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