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Achanta LB, Thomas DS, Housley GD, Rae CD. AMP-activated protein kinase activators have compound and concentration-specific effects on brain metabolism. J Neurochem 2024; 168:677-692. [PMID: 36977628 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key sensor of energy balance playing important roles in the balancing of anabolic and catabolic activities. The high energy demands of the brain and its limited capacity to store energy indicate that AMPK may play a significant role in brain metabolism. Here, we activated AMPK in guinea pig cortical tissue slices, both directly with A769662 and PF 06409577 and indirectly with AICAR and metformin. We studied the resultant metabolism of [1-13C]glucose and [1,2-13C]acetate using NMR spectroscopy. We found distinct activator concentration-dependent effects on metabolism, which ranged from decreased metabolic pool sizes at EC50 activator concentrations with no expected stimulation in glycolytic flux to increased aerobic glycolysis and decreased pyruvate metabolism with certain activators. Further, activation with direct versus indirect activators produced distinct metabolic outcomes at both low (EC50) and higher (EC50 × 10) concentrations. Specific direct activation of β1-containing AMPK isoforms with PF 06409577 resulted in increased Krebs cycle activity, restoring pyruvate metabolism while A769662 increased lactate and alanine production, as well as labelling of citrate and glutamine. These results reveal a complex metabolic response to AMPK activators in brain beyond increased aerobic glycolysis and indicate that further research is warranted into their concentration- and mechanism-dependent impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavanya B Achanta
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Barker St, Randwick, New South Wales, 2031, Australia
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Biomedical Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Donald S Thomas
- Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Gary D Housley
- Translational Neuroscience Facility, School of Biomedical Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Caroline D Rae
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Barker St, Randwick, New South Wales, 2031, Australia
- School of Psychology, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
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2
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Absalom NL, Liao VWY, Kothur K, Indurthi DC, Bennetts B, Troedson C, Mohammad SS, Gupta S, McGregor IS, Bowen MT, Lederer D, Mary S, De Waele L, Jansen K, Gill D, Kurian MA, McTague A, Møller RS, Ahring PK, Dale RC, Chebib M. Gain-of-function GABRB3 variants identified in vigabatrin-hypersensitive epileptic encephalopathies. Brain Commun 2020; 2:fcaa162. [PMID: 33585817 PMCID: PMC7869430 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcaa162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Variants in the GABRB3 gene encoding the β3-subunit of the γ-aminobutyric acid type A ( receptor are associated with various developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. Typically, these variants cause a loss-of-function molecular phenotype whereby γ-aminobutyric acid has reduced inhibitory effectiveness leading to seizures. Drugs that potentiate inhibitory GABAergic activity, such as nitrazepam, phenobarbital or vigabatrin, are expected to compensate for this and thereby reduce seizure frequency. However, vigabatrin, a drug that inhibits γ-aminobutyric acid transaminase to increase tonic γ-aminobutyric acid currents, has mixed success in treating seizures in patients with GABRB3 variants: some patients experience seizure cessation, but there is hypersensitivity in some patients associated with hypotonia, sedation and respiratory suppression. A GABRB3 variant that responds well to vigabatrin involves a truncation variant (p.Arg194*) resulting in a clear loss-of-function. We hypothesized that patients with a hypersensitive response to vigabatrin may exhibit a different γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor phenotype. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated the phenotype of de novo variants in GABRB3 (p.Glu77Lys and p.Thr287Ile) associated with patients who are clinically hypersensitive to vigabatrin. We introduced the GABRB3 p.Glu77Lys and p.Thr287Ile variants into a concatenated synaptic and extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor construct, to resemble the γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor expression by a patient heterozygous for the GABRB3 variant. The mRNA of these constructs was injected into Xenopus oocytes and activation properties of each receptor measured by two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology. Results showed an atypical gain-of-function molecular phenotype in the GABRB3 p.Glu77Lys and p.Thr287Ile variants characterized by increased potency of γ-aminobutyric acid A without change to the estimated maximum open channel probability, deactivation kinetics or absolute currents. Modelling of the activation properties of the receptors indicated that either variant caused increased chloride flux in response to low concentrations of γ-aminobutyric acid that mediate tonic currents. We therefore propose that the hypersensitivity reaction to vigabatrin is a result of GABRB3 variants that exacerbate GABAergic tonic currents and caution is required when prescribing vigabatrin. In contrast, drug strategies increasing tonic currents in loss-of-function variants are likely to be a safe and effective therapy. This study demonstrates that functional genomics can explain beneficial and adverse anti-epileptic drug effects, and propose that vigabatrin should be considered in patients with clear loss-of-function GABRB3 variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan L Absalom
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Vivian W Y Liao
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Kavitha Kothur
- Kids Neuroscience Centre at The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Dinesh C Indurthi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Bruce Bennetts
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Adolescent Health, The Children's Hospital at Westmead Clinical School, The University of Sydney, 2145, Australia
| | - Christopher Troedson
- T.Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Shekeeb S Mohammad
- Kids Neuroscience Centre at The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Sachin Gupta
- T.Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- Faculty of Science, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Michael T Bowen
- Faculty of Science, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Damien Lederer
- Institute of Pathology and Genetics, Center for Human Genetics, Gosselies 6041, Belgium
| | - Sandrine Mary
- Institute of Pathology and Genetics, Center for Human Genetics, Gosselies 6041, Belgium
| | - Liesbeth De Waele
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KULeuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Katrien Jansen
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KULeuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Deepak Gill
- Kids Neuroscience Centre at The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Manju A Kurian
- Molecular Neurosciences, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Neurology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Amy McTague
- Molecular Neurosciences, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Neurology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Rikke S Møller
- Department of Epilepsy Genetics and Personalized Medicine, Danish Epilepsy Centre, Dianalund 4293, Denmark
- Department of Regional Health Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5230, Denmark
| | - Philip K Ahring
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Russell C Dale
- Kids Neuroscience Centre at The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
| | - Mary Chebib
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Pharmacy, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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CRPS Is Not Associated with Altered Sensorimotor Cortex GABA or Glutamate. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0389-19.2020. [PMID: 31980452 PMCID: PMC7029188 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0389-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a debilitating chronic pain disorder typically in the upper or lower limbs. While CRPS usually develops from a peripheral event, it is likely maintained by CNS changes. Indeed, CRPS is reported to be associated with sensorimotor cortex changes, or functional “reorganization,” as well as deficits such as poor tactile acuity. While the mechanisms underpinning cortical reorganization in CRPS are unknown, some have hypothesized that it involves disinhibition (i.e., a reduction in GABA activity). In this study, we addressed this hypothesis by using edited magnetic resonance spectroscopy to determine sensorimotor GABA and glutamate concentrations in 16 humans with CRPS and 30 matched control subjects and the relationship of these concentrations with tactile acuity. We found that individuals with upper limb CRPS displayed reduced tactile acuity in the painful hand, compared with the nonpainful hand and pain-free control subjects. Despite this acuity deficit, CRPS was not associated with altered GABA or glutamate concentrations within the sensorimotor cortex on either the side that represents the affected or unaffected hand. Furthermore, there was no significant relationship between sensorimotor GABA or glutamate concentrations and tactile acuity in CRPS subjects or control subjects. Although our sample was small, these data suggest that CRPS is not associated with altered total sensorimotor GABA or glutamate concentrations. While these results are at odds with the sensorimotor cortex disinhibition hypothesis, it is possible that GABAergic mechanisms other than total GABA concentration may contribute to such disinhibition.
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Piras F, Piras F, Banaj N, Ciullo V, Vecchio D, Edden RAE, Spalletta G. Cerebellar GABAergic correlates of cognition-mediated verbal fluency in physiology and schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2019; 139:582-594. [PMID: 30887499 DOI: 10.1111/acps.13027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Defective cerebellar GABAergic inhibitory control may participate to the cognitive impairments seen in SZ. We tested the prediction of a model for the relationship between cerebellar GABA concentration and the associative/executive processes required by verbal fluency in patients with schizophrenia (SZ) and matched healthy controls (HC). METHOD Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of GABA was performed using a 3 Tesla scanner and verbal fluency assessed by the Controlled Word (WFT) and Semantic (SFT) Fluency tests. Cerebellar GABA measurements were obtained using the MEGA-PRESS acquisition sequence. Linear correlations between cerebellar GABA levels and the WFT, SFT score were performed to test differences between correlation coefficients of SZ and HC. Quantile regressions between GABA levels and the WFT score were performed. RESULTS Higher cerebellar GABA concentration was associated in SZ with lower phonemic fluency and reduced number of switches among subcategories as opposed to what observed in HC (with higher cerebellar GABA associated with higher number of words and phonemic switches). GABA levels explained phonemic fluency in SZ performing above the group mean. CONCLUSION Studying cerebellar GABA provides a valid heuristic to explore the molecular mechanisms of SZ. This is crucial for developing pharmacological treatments to improve cognition and functional recovery in SZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Piras
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - F Piras
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - N Banaj
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - V Ciullo
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - D Vecchio
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - R A E Edden
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.,F.M. Kirby Center for Functional Brain Imaging, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - G Spalletta
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy.,Beth K. and Stuart C. Yudofsky Division of Neuropsychiatry, Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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5
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Activation induced changes in GABA: Functional MRS at 7T with MEGA-sLASER. Neuroimage 2017; 156:207-213. [PMID: 28533117 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS) has been used to assess the dynamic metabolic responses of the brain to a physiological stimulus non-invasively. However, only limited information on the dynamic functional response of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, is available. We aimed to measure the activation-induced changes in GABA unambiguously using a spectral editing method, instead of the conventional direct detection techniques used in previous fMRS studies. The Mescher-Garwood-semi-localised by adiabatic selective refocusing (MEGA-sLASER) sequence was developed at 7T to obtain the time course of GABA concentration without macromolecular contamination. A significant decrease (-12±5%) in the GABA to total creatine ratio (GABA/tCr) was observed in the motor cortex during a period of 10min of hand-clenching, compared to an initial baseline level (GABA/tCr =0.11±0.02) at rest. An increase in the Glx (glutamate and glutamine) to tCr ratio was also found, which is in agreement with previous findings. In contrast, no significant changes in NAA/tCr and tCr were detected. With consistent and highly efficient editing performance for GABA detection and the advantage of visually identifying GABA resonances in the spectra, MEGA-sLASER is demonstrated to be an effective method for studying of dynamic changes in GABA at 7T.
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Furlong TM, Duncan JR, Corbit LH, Rae CD, Rowlands BD, Maher AD, Nasrallah FA, Milligan CJ, Petrou S, Lawrence AJ, Balleine BW. Toluene inhalation in adolescent rats reduces flexible behaviour in adulthood and alters glutamatergic and GABAergic signalling. J Neurochem 2016; 139:806-822. [PMID: 27696399 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Toluene is a commonly abused inhalant that is easily accessible to adolescents. Despite the increasing incidence of use, our understanding of its long-term impact remains limited. Here, we used a range of techniques to examine the acute and chronic effects of toluene exposure on glutameteric and GABAergic function, and on indices of psychological function in adult rats after adolescent exposure. Metabolomics conducted on cortical tissue established that acute exposure to toluene produces alterations in cellular metabolism indicative of a glutamatergic and GABAergic profile. Similarly, in vitro electrophysiology in Xenopus oocytes found that acute toluene exposure reduced NMDA receptor signalling. Finally, in an adolescent rodent model of chronic intermittent exposure to toluene (10 000 ppm), we found that, while toluene exposure did not affect initial learning, it induced a deficit in updating that learning when response-outcome relationships were reversed or degraded in an instrumental conditioning paradigm. There were also group differences when more effort was required to obtain the reward; toluene-exposed animals were less sensitive to progressive ratio schedules and to delayed discounting. These behavioural deficits were accompanied by changes in subunit expression of both NMDA and GABA receptors in adulthood, up to 10 weeks after the final exposure to toluene in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and ventromedial striatum; regions with recognized roles in behavioural flexibility and decision-making. Collectively, our data suggest that exposure to toluene is sufficient to induce adaptive changes in glutamatergic and GABAergic systems and in adaptive behaviour that may underlie the deficits observed following adolescent inhalant abuse, including susceptibility to further drug-use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teri M Furlong
- Brain & Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jhodie R Duncan
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura H Corbit
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Caroline D Rae
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Benjamin D Rowlands
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anthony D Maher
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - Carol J Milligan
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Steven Petrou
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew J Lawrence
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bernard W Balleine
- Brain & Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Psychology, University of NSW, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
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Rae C, Nasrallah FA, Balcar VJ, Rowlands BD, Johnston GAR, Hanrahan JR. Metabolomic Approaches to Defining the Role(s) of GABAρ Receptors in the Brain. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2015; 10:445-56. [PMID: 25577264 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-014-9579-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts through various types of receptors in the central nervous system. GABAρ receptors, defined by their characteristic pharmacology and presence of ρ subunits in the channel structure, are poorly understood and their role in the cortex is ill-defined. Here, we used a targeted pharmacological, NMR-based functional metabolomic approach in Guinea pig brain cortical tissue slices to identify a distinct role for these receptors. We compared metabolic fingerprints generated by a range of ligands active at GABAρ and included these in a principal components analysis with a library of other metabolic fingerprints obtained using ligands active at GABAA and GABAB, with inhibitors of GABA uptake and with compounds acting to inhibit enzymes active in the GABAergic system. This enabled us to generate a metabolic "footprint" of the GABAergic system which revealed classes of metabolic activity associated with GABAρ which are distinct from other GABA receptors. Antagonised GABAρ produce large metabolic effects at extrasynaptic sites suggesting they may be involved in tonic inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Rae
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Barker St, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia,
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Rae C, Balcar VJ. A Chip Off the Old Block: The Brain Slice as a Model for Metabolic Studies of Brain Compartmentation and Neuropharmacology. BRAIN ENERGY METABOLISM 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1059-5_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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9
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Rae CD, Davidson JE, Maher AD, Rowlands BD, Kashem MA, Nasrallah FA, Rallapalli SK, Cook JM, Balcar VJ. Ethanol, not detectably metabolized in brain, significantly reduces brain metabolism, probably via action at specific GABA(A) receptors and has measureable metabolic effects at very low concentrations. J Neurochem 2013; 129:304-14. [PMID: 24313287 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ethanol is a known neuromodulatory agent with reported actions at a range of neurotransmitter receptors. Here, we measured the effect of alcohol on metabolism of [3-¹³C]pyruvate in the adult Guinea pig brain cortical tissue slice and compared the outcomes to those from a library of ligands active in the GABAergic system as well as studying the metabolic fate of [1,2-¹³C]ethanol. Analyses of metabolic profile clusters suggest that the significant reductions in metabolism induced by ethanol (10, 30 and 60 mM) are via action at neurotransmitter receptors, particularly α4β3δ receptors, whereas very low concentrations of ethanol may produce metabolic responses owing to release of GABA via GABA transporter 1 (GAT1) and the subsequent interaction of this GABA with local α5- or α1-containing GABA(A)R. There was no measureable metabolism of [1,2-¹³C]ethanol with no significant incorporation of ¹³C from [1,2-¹³C]ethanol into any measured metabolite above natural abundance, although there were measurable effects on total metabolite sizes similar to those seen with unlabelled ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline D Rae
- Neuroscience Research Australia, and Brain Sciences UNSW, Randwick, NSW, Australia
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10
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Rae CD. A Guide to the Metabolic Pathways and Function of Metabolites Observed in Human Brain 1H Magnetic Resonance Spectra. Neurochem Res 2013; 39:1-36. [PMID: 24258018 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-013-1199-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Metabolism, Compartmentation, Transport and Production of Acetate in the Cortical Brain Tissue Slice. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:2541-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0847-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 07/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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