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Wool Keratin Hydrolysates for Bioactive Additives Preparation. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14164696. [PMID: 34443218 PMCID: PMC8399299 DOI: 10.3390/ma14164696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this paper was to select keratin hydrolysate with bioactive properties by using the enzymatic hydrolysis of wool. Different proteolytic enzymes such as Protamex, Esperase, and Valkerase were used to break keratin molecules in light of bioactive additive preparation. The enzymatic keratin hydrolysates were assessed in terms of the physico-chemical characteristics related to the content of dry substance, total nitrogen, keratin, ash, cysteic sulphur, and cysteine. The influence of enzymatic hydrolysis on molecular weight and amino acid composition was determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses. Antimicrobial activity of keratin hydrolysates was analysed against Fusarium spp., a pathogenic fungus that can decrease the quality of plants. The bioactivity of enzymatic hydrolysates was tested on maize plants and allowed us to select the keratin hydrolysates processed with the Esperase and Valkerase enzymes. The ratio of organised structures of hydrolysate peptides was analysed by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) deconvolution of the amide I band and may explain the difference in their bioactive behaviour. The most important modifications in the ATR spectra of maize leaves in correlation with the experimentally proven performance on maize development by plant length and chlorophyll index quantification were detailed. The potential of enzymatic hydrolysis to design additives with different bioactivity was shown in the case of plant growth stimulation.
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Chicken Feather Waste Hydrolysate as a Superior Biofertilizer in Agroindustry. Curr Microbiol 2021; 78:2212-2230. [PMID: 33903939 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-021-02491-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Billions of tons of keratinous waste in the form of feathers, antlers, bristles, claws, hair, hoofs, horns, and wool are generated by different industries and their demolition causes environmental deterioration. Chicken feathers have 92% keratin that can be a good source of peptides, amino acids, and minerals. Traditional methods of feather hydrolysis require large energy inputs, and also reduce the content of amino acids and net protein utilization values. Biological treatment of feathers with keratinolytic microbes is a feasible and environmental favorable preference for the formulation of hydrolysate that can be used as bioactive peptides, protein supplement, livestock feed, biofertilizer, etc. The presence of amino acids, soluble proteins, and peptides in hydrolysate facilitates the growth of microbes in rhizosphere that promotes the uptake and utilization of nutrients from soil. Application of hydrolysate enhances water holding capacity, C/N ratio, and mineral content of soil. The plant growth promoting activities of hydrolysate potentiates its possible use in organic farming, and improves soil ecosystem and microbiota. This paper reviews the current scenario on the methods available for management of keratinous waste, nutritional quality of hydrolysate generated using keratinolytic microbes, and its possible application as plant growth promoter in agroindustry.
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Alahyaribeik S, Ullah A. Effects of Ultrasound‐Assisted Alkaline Extraction on Antioxidant Activity and Functional Characteristics of Chicken Feather Keratin Peptides. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202002887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samira Alahyaribeik
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada T5G2P5
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science College of Aburaihan University of Tehran Pakdasht Iran 33916-53755
| | - Aman Ullah
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada T5G2P5
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Feroz S, Muhammad N, Ranayake J, Dias G. Keratin - Based materials for biomedical applications. Bioact Mater 2020; 5:496-509. [PMID: 32322760 PMCID: PMC7171262 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratin constitutes the major component of the feather, hair, hooves, horns, and wool represents a group of biological material having high cysteine content (7-13%) as compared to other structural proteins. Keratin -based biomaterials have been investigated extensively over the past few decades due to their intrinsic biological properties and excellent biocompatibility. Unlike other natural polymers such as starch, collagen, chitosan, the complex three-dimensional structure of keratin requires the use of harsh chemical conditions for their dissolution and extraction. The most commonly used methods for keratin extraction are oxidation, reduction, steam explosion, microbial method, microwave irradiation and use of ionic liquids. Keratin -based materials have been used extensively for various biomedical applications such as drug delivery, wound healing, tissue engineering. This review covers the structure, properties, history of keratin research, methods of extraction and some recent advancements related to the use of keratin derived biomaterials in the form of a 3-D scaffold, films, fibers, and hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandleen Feroz
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences University of Otago, Otago, 9016, New Zealand
| | - Nawshad Muhammad
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre in Biomedical Materials (IRCBM), COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus, Pakistan
| | - Jithendra Ranayake
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences University of Otago, Otago, 9016, New Zealand
| | - George Dias
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences University of Otago, Otago, 9016, New Zealand
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Hassan MA, Abol-Fotouh D, Omer AM, Tamer TM, Abbas E. Comprehensive insights into microbial keratinases and their implication in various biotechnological and industrial sectors: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:567-583. [PMID: 32194110 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Enormous masses of keratinous wastes are annually accumulated in the environment as byproducts of poultry processing and agricultural wastes. Keratin is a recalcitrant fibrous protein, which represents the major constituent of various keratin-rich wastes, which released into the environment in the form of feathers, hair, wool, bristle, and hooves. Chemical treatment methods of these wastes resulted in developing many hazardous gases and toxins to the public health, in addition to the destruction of several amino acids. Accordingly, microbial keratinases have been drawing much interest as an eco-friendly approach to convert keratinous wastes into valuable products. Numerous keratinolytic microorganisms have been identified, which revealed the competence to hydrolyze keratins into peptides and amino acids. Several types of keratinolytic proteases have been produced that possess diverse biochemical characteristics, conferring them the versatility for implementing in multifarious applications such as detergents, leather and textile industries, animal feeding, and production of bio-fertilizers, in addition to medical and pharmaceutical treatments. This review article emphasizes the significance of keratinases and keratinase based-products via comprehensive insights into the keratin structure, diversity of keratinolytic microorganisms, and mechanisms of keratin hydrolysis. Furthermore, we discuss the biochemical properties of the produced keratinases and their feasible applications in diverse disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Hassan
- Protein Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Deyaa Abol-Fotouh
- Electronic Materials Researches Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Omer
- Polymer Materials Research Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Tamer M Tamer
- Polymer Materials Research Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Eman Abbas
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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6
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Zeng X, Kudinha T, Kong F, Zhang QQ. Comparative Genome and Transcriptome Study of the Gene Expression Difference Between Pathogenic and Environmental Strains of Prototheca zopfii. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:443. [PMID: 30899253 PMCID: PMC6416184 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Prototheca zopfii commonly exists in the environment, and causes invasive infections (protothecosis) in humans. The morbidity of protothecosis has increased rapidly in recent years, especially in systemic infections of patients with an impaired immune system. The infection in immunocompromised patients has a poor prognosis due to limited understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease, as most previous studies mainly focused on classification and recognition of pathogenic strains. In this study, we constructed the genome and transcriptome of two pathogenic strains and one environmental strain, by next generation sequencing methods. Based on our preliminary gene expression findings, genes in P. zopfii pathogenic strains are significantly up-regulated in metabolism in peroxisome, such as glyoxylate cycle, which may improve the organism's resistance to the harsh environment in phagolysosome of macrophage and its ability to survive in an anaerobic environment. We also found some significant up-regulated genes, which are related to adherence and penetration in dermatophytes, and we speculate that this may enhance the virulence capacity of pathogenic strains. Finally, the genomes and transcriptomes of P. zopfii described here provide some base for further studies on the pathogenesis of this organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanhao Zeng
- Division of Mycology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Timothy Kudinha
- Charles Sturt University, Leeds Parade, Orange, NSW, Australia
| | - Fanrong Kong
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Laboratory Services, ICPMR-Pathology West, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Qiang-Qiang Zhang
- Division of Mycology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Gräser Y, Monod M, Bouchara JP, Dukik K, Nenoff P, Kargl A, Kupsch C, Zhan P, Packeu A, Chaturvedi V, de Hoog S. New insights in dermatophyte research. Med Mycol 2018. [PMID: 29538740 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophyte research has renewed interest because of changing human floras with changing socioeconomic conditions, and because of severe chronic infections in patients with congenital immune disorders. Main taxonomic traits at the generic level have changed considerably, and now fine-tuning at the species level with state-of-the-art technology has become urgent. Research on virulence factors focuses on secreted proteases now has support in genome data. It is speculated that most protease families are used for degrading hard keratin during nitrogen recycling in the environment, while others, such as Sub6 may have emerged as a result of ancestral gene duplication, and are likely to have specific roles during infection. Virulence may differ between mating partners of the same species and concepts of zoo- and anthropophily may require revision in some recently redefined species. Many of these questions benefit from international cooperation and exchange of materials. The aim of the ISHAM Working Group Dermatophytes aims to stimulate and coordinate international networking on these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Gräser
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Karolina Dukik
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pietro Nenoff
- Labor für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Mölbis, Germany
| | | | - Christiane Kupsch
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ping Zhan
- Jiangxi Dermatology Hospital and Jiangxi Dermatology Institute, Nanchang, China
| | - Ann Packeu
- Mycologie & Aerobiologie Scientific Institute of Public Health, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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8
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Shavandi A, Silva TH, Bekhit AA, Bekhit AEDA. Keratin: dissolution, extraction and biomedical application. Biomater Sci 2018; 5:1699-1735. [PMID: 28686242 DOI: 10.1039/c7bm00411g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Keratinous materials such as wool, feathers and hooves are tough unique biological co-products that usually have high sulfur and protein contents. A high cystine content (7-13%) differentiates keratins from other structural proteins, such as collagen and elastin. Dissolution and extraction of keratin is a difficult process compared to other natural polymers, such as chitosan, starch, collagen, and a large-scale use of keratin depends on employing a relatively fast, cost-effective and time efficient extraction method. Keratin has some inherent ability to facilitate cell adhesion, proliferation, and regeneration of the tissue, therefore keratin biomaterials can provide a biocompatible matrix for regrowth and regeneration of the defective tissue. Additionally, due to its amino acid constituents, keratin can be tailored and finely tuned to meet the exact requirement of degradation, drug release or incorporation of different hydrophobic or hydrophilic tails. This review discusses the various methods available for the dissolution and extraction of keratin with emphasis on their advantages and limitations. The impacts of various methods and chemicals used on the structure and the properties of keratin are discussed with the aim of highlighting options available toward commercial keratin production. This review also reports the properties of various keratin-based biomaterials and critically examines how these materials are influenced by the keratin extraction procedure, discussing the features that make them effective as biomedical applications, as well as some of the mechanisms of action and physiological roles of keratin. Particular attention is given to the practical application of keratin biomaterials, namely addressing the advantages and limitations on the use of keratin films, 3D composite scaffolds and keratin hydrogels for tissue engineering, wound healing, hemostatic and controlled drug release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Shavandi
- Center for Materials Science and Technology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Sinkiewicz I, Staroszczyk H, Śliwińska A. Solubilization of keratins and functional properties of their isolates and hydrolysates. J Food Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Izabela Sinkiewicz
- Department of Food Chemistry, Technology and Biotechnology; Gdansk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12; 80-233 Gdańsk Poland
| | - Hanna Staroszczyk
- Department of Food Chemistry, Technology and Biotechnology; Gdansk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12; 80-233 Gdańsk Poland
| | - Agata Śliwińska
- Department of Food Chemistry, Technology and Biotechnology; Gdansk University of Technology, G. Narutowicza 11/12; 80-233 Gdańsk Poland
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10
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Sahoo DK, Thatoi HN, Mitra B, Mondal KC, Das Mohapatra PK. Advances in Microbial Keratinase and Its Potential Applications. Microb Biotechnol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-6847-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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11
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Kasperova A, Cahlikova R, Kunert J, Sebela M, Novak Z, Raska M. Exposition of dermatophyteTrichophyton mentagrophytesto L-cystine induces expression and activation of cysteine dioxygenase. Mycoses 2014; 57:672-8. [DOI: 10.1111/myc.12220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alena Kasperova
- Department of Immunology; Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry; Palacky University in Olomouc; Olomouc Czech Republic
| | - Romana Cahlikova
- Department of Immunology; Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry; Palacky University in Olomouc; Olomouc Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Kunert
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry; Palacky University in Olomouc; Olomouc Czech Republic
| | - Marek Sebela
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics; Centre of the Region Hana for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research; Faculty of Science; Palacky University in Olomouc; Olomouc Czech Republic
| | - Zdenek Novak
- Department of Surgery; University of Alabama at Birmingham; Birmingham AL USA
| | - Milan Raska
- Department of Immunology; Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry; Palacky University in Olomouc; Olomouc Czech Republic
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12
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Microsporum fulvum IBRL SD3: as novel isolate for chicken feathers degradation. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2013; 171:1900-10. [PMID: 24013862 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-013-0496-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Keratinous wastes have increasingly become a problem and accumulate in the environment mainly in the form of feathers, generated mainly from a large number of poultry industries. As keratins are very difficult to degrade by general proteases, they pose a major environmental problem. Therefore, microorganisms which would effectively degrade keratins are needed for recycling such wastes. A geophilic dermatophyte, Microsporum fulvum IBRL SD3 which was isolated from a soil sample collected from a chicken feather dumping site using a baiting technique, was capable to produce keratinase significantly. The crude keratinase was able to degrade whole chicken feathers effectively. The end product of the degradation was protein that contained essential amino acids and may have potential application in animal feed production. Thus, M. fulvum could be a novel organism to produce keratinase for chicken feathers degradation.
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Eslahi N, Dadashian F, Nejad NH. AN INVESTIGATION ON KERATIN EXTRACTION FROM WOOL AND FEATHER WASTE BY ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2013; 43:624-48. [DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2013.763826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Niloofar Eslahi
- a Department of Textile Engineering , Amirkabir University of Technology , Tehran , Iran
| | - Fatemeh Dadashian
- a Department of Textile Engineering , Amirkabir University of Technology , Tehran , Iran
| | - Nahid Hemmati Nejad
- a Department of Textile Engineering , Amirkabir University of Technology , Tehran , Iran
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14
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Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis of wool fibers for nanoparticles production using response surface methodology. ADV POWDER TECHNOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Danew P, Friedrich E, Fair W, Marquardt I, Aurich H, Haschen RJ. Abbau und Assimilation von Glukose und Aminosäuren durch Microsporum gypseum: Degradation and Assimilation of Glucose and Amino Acids by Microsporum gypseum. Mycoses 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1982.tb02730.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Korniłłowicz-Kowalska T, Bohacz J. Biodegradation of keratin waste: Theory and practical aspects. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2011; 31:1689-1701. [PMID: 21550224 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Keratin-rich by-products, i.e. bristles, horns and hooves, chicken feathers and similar, are a source of nutrients for animals (amino acids) and plants (N, S). Contemporary developments in the management of keratin waste in feeds and fertilizers comply with human and animal health protection regulations and respect the principles of ecological development. Biotechnological methods employing keratinolytic bacteria and microscopic fungi play a key role in processing keratin waste. This study reviews the current knowledge on the ecology and physiology of keratinolytic microorganisms and presents the biodegradation mechanism of native keratin. The structure and chemical composition of keratin proteins are described, and methods of keratin waste biotransformation into products of practical industrial and natural value, especially composts, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Korniłłowicz-Kowalska
- University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Faculty of Agrobioengineering, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Mycological Laboratory, Leszczynskiego 7, 20-069 Lublin, Poland
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17
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Yadav AK, Bachhawat AK. CgCYN1, a plasma membrane cystine-specific transporter of Candida glabrata with orthologues prevalent among pathogenic yeast and fungi. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:19714-23. [PMID: 21507960 PMCID: PMC3103350 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.240648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a novel plasma membrane cystine transporter, CgCYN1, from Candida glabrata, the first such transporter to be described from yeast and fungi. C. glabrata met15Δ strains, organic sulfur auxotrophs, were observed to utilize cystine as a sulfur source, and this phenotype was exploited in the discovery of CgCYN1. Heterologous expression of CgCYN1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae met15Δ strains conferred the ability of S. cerevisiae strains to grow on cystine. Deletion of the CgCYN1 ORF (CAGL0M00154g) in C. glabrata met15Δ strains caused abrogation of growth on cystine with growth being restored when CgCYN1 was reintroduced. The CgCYN1 protein belongs to the amino acid permease family of transporters, with no similarity to known plasma membrane cystine transporters of bacteria and humans, or lysosomal cystine transporters of humans/yeast. Kinetic studies revealed a K(m) of 18 ± 5 μM for cystine. Cystine uptake was inhibited by cystine, but not by other amino acids, including cysteine. The structurally similar cystathionine, lanthionine, and selenocystine alone inhibited transport, confirming that the transporter was specific for cystine. CgCYN1 localized to the plasma membrane and transport was energy-dependent. Functional orthologues could be demonstrated from other pathogenic yeast like Candida albicans and Histoplasma capsulatum, but were absent in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and S. cerevisiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar Yadav
- From the Institute of Microbial Technology (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh 160 036, India and
| | - Anand Kumar Bachhawat
- From the Institute of Microbial Technology (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh 160 036, India and
- the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER Mohali), Mahatma Gandhi State Institute of Public Administration Punjab Complex, Sector 26, Chandigarh 160 019, India
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18
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Danew P, Marquardt I, Friedrich E, Aurich H. Aminosäureassimilation und -sekretion bei Dermatophyten 2. Mitteilung: Aminosäureabbau und Myzelwachstum bei Microsporum gypseum nach Wachstum in Nährlösung mit verschiedenen Aminosäuren. Mycoses 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1981.tb01911.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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Kunert J. Antifungal Effects of Selenocystine and its Derivatives on Dermatophytes: Die antimyzetische Wirkung von Selenocystin und seinen Derivaten auf Dermatophyten. Mycoses 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02260.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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20
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Maranhão FCA, Paião FG, Fachin AL, Martinez-Rossi NM. Membrane transporter proteins are involved in Trichophyton rubrum pathogenesis. J Med Microbiol 2009; 58:163-168. [PMID: 19141731 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.002907-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is a dermatophyte responsible for the majority of human superficial mycoses. The functional expression of proteins important for the initial step and the maintenance of the infection process were identified previously in T. rubrum by subtraction suppression hybridization after growth in the presence of keratin. In this study, sequences similar to genes encoding the multidrug-resistance ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, copper ATPase, the major facilitator superfamily and a permease were isolated, and used in Northern blots to monitor the expression of the genes, which were upregulated in the presence of keratin. A sequence identical to the TruMDR2 gene, encoding an ABC transporter in T. rubrum, was isolated in these experiments, and examination of a T. rubrum DeltaTruMDR2 mutant showed a reduction in infecting activity, characterized by low growth on human nails compared with the wild-type strain. The high expression levels of transporter genes by T. rubrum in mimetic infection and the reduction in virulence of the DeltaTruMDR2 mutant in a disease model in vitro suggest that transporters are involved in T. rubrum pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda C A Maranhão
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernanda G Paião
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nilce M Martinez-Rossi
- Departamento de Genética, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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21
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Monod M. Secreted proteases from dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2008; 166:285-94. [PMID: 18478360 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-008-9105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are highly specialized pathogenic fungi that exclusively infect the stratum corneum, nails or hair, and it is evident that secreted proteolytic activity is important for their virulence. Endo- and exoproteases-secreted by dermatophytes are similar to those of species of the genus Aspergillus. However, in contrast to Aspergillus spp., dermatophyte-secreted endoproteases are multiple and are members of two large protein families, the subtilisins (serine proteases) and the fungalysins (metalloproteases). In addition, dermatophytes excrete sulphite as a reducing agent. In the presence of sulphite, disulphide bounds of the keratin substrate are directly cleaved to cysteine and S-sulphocysteine, and reduced proteins become accessible for further digestion by various endo- and exoproteases secreted by the fungi. Sulphitolysis is likely to be an essential step in the digestion of compact keratinized tissues which precedes the action of all proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Monod
- Service de Dermatologie et Vénéréologie, Laboratoire de Mycologie, BT422, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Léchenne B, Reichard U, Zaugg C, Fratti M, Kunert J, Boulat O, Monod M. Sulphite efflux pumps in Aspergillus fumigatus and dermatophytes. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2007; 153:905-913. [PMID: 17322211 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2006/003335-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes and other filamentous fungi excrete sulphite as a reducing agent during keratin degradation. In the presence of sulphite, cystine in keratin is directly cleaved to cysteine and S-sulphocysteine, and thereby, reduced proteins become accessible to hydrolysis by a variety of secreted endo- and exoproteases. A gene encoding a sulphite transporter in Aspergillus fumigatus (AfuSSU1), and orthologues in the dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum and Arthroderma benhamiae (TruSSU1 and AbeSSU1, respectively), were identified by functional expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Like the S. cerevisiae sulphite efflux pump Ssu1p, AfuSsu1p, TruSsu1p and AbeSsu1p belong to the tellurite-resistance/dicarboxylate transporter (TDT) family which includes the Escherichia coli tellurite transporter TehAp and the Schizosaccharomyces pombe malate transporter Mae1p. Seven genes in the A. fumigatus genome encode transporters of the TDT family. However, gene disruption of AfuSSU1 and of the two more closely related paralogues revealed that only AfuSSU1 encodes a sulphite efflux pump. TruSsulp and AbeSsulp are believed to be the first members of the TDT family identified in dermatophytes. The relatively high expression of TruSSU1 and AbeSSU1 in dermatophytes compared to that of AfuSSU1 in A. fumigatus likely reflects a property of dermatophytes which renders these fungi pathogenic. Sulphite transporters could be a new target for antifungal drugs in dermatology, since proteolytic digestion of hard keratin would not be possible without prior reduction of disulphide bridges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Léchenne
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Utz Reichard
- Department of Medical Microbiology and National Reference Center for Systemic Mycoses, University Hospital of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christophe Zaugg
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marina Fratti
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jiri Kunert
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Olivier Boulat
- Clinical Chemistry Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Filipello Marchisio V, Fusconi A. Morphological evidence for keratinolytic activity of Scopulariopsis spp. isolates from nail lesions and the air. Med Mycol 2001; 39:287-94. [PMID: 11446533 DOI: 10.1080/mmy.39.3.287.294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The morphological expression of human hair and nail invasion in vitro by 31 isolates of nine Scopulariopsis species was studied by light microscopy on whole material and on semi-thin sections, as well as by transmission electron microscopy. Only some isolates of Scopulariopsis brumptii, S. candida, S. carbonaria and S. koningii were keratinolytically active. They came either from nail lesions or from outdoor aerosols. The most active isolate belonged to S. koningii and was recovered from a fingernail lesion. Both hair and nail degradation followed the biochemical and morphogenetic model described by the authors for other keratinolytic fungi.
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Kunert J. Effect of reducing agents on proteolytic and keratinolytic activity of enzymes of Microsporum gypseum. Mycoses 1992; 35:343-8. [PMID: 1284610 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1992.tb00892.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The effect of sodium sulphite, cysteine, glutathione, mercaptoethanol and dithioerythritol (0.1-10 mmol l-1) on the activity of proteases of Microsporum gypseum was studied using azocasein, cross-linked bovine serum albumin and keratin as substrates. With the substrate without disulphide bonds (casein) no stimulation was found, and reducing agents inhibited proteolysis in most cases. With the remaining two substrates, all substances enhanced the activity of proteases probably through the cleavage of the substrate disulphide bonds. Sulphite was more effective than the four used thiols and enhanced the activity against serum albumin up to 3.2 times and against keratin up to 2.9 times. Using sulphitolysed sheep wool, keratinolytic activity increased after sulphitolysis of more than 20% of disulphide bonds. With the fully sulphitolysed wool the activity increased 43 times. The obtained results support the author's hypothesis on keratin degradation by sulphite excretion prior to attack by fungal proteases. Stimulation of proteolysis and keratinolysis by cleavage of disulphide bonds is not specific for dermatophytic proteases because trypsin and pronase behaved similarly in the experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kunert
- Department of Biology, Medical Faculty, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
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Wawrzkiewicz K, Wolski T, Lobarzewski J. Screening the keratinolytic activity of dermatophytes in vitro. Mycopathologia 1991; 114:1-8. [PMID: 1713301 DOI: 10.1007/bf00436684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Sixteen strains out of 12 species dermatophytes were examined in respect to their ability of utilizing keratin substrates as the only sources of C and N. The employed keratin substrates included a solubilized preparation of feather keratin (KS) and native keratin, guinea pig hair and chicken feathers. It has been shown that the preparation KS constitutes a convenient model for a preliminary estimation of fungal keratinolytic activity and it can be a source of information about the localization of these enzymes. It has been found that, among the 16 fungal strains, 13 strains synthesize mainly intracellular keratinases while 3 strains of T. verrucosum release enzymes mainly to the medium. Native keratin from hair and feathers was degraded only by some of the examined strains which, under the experimental conditions, developed characteristic spore forms. Keratin of guinea pigs hair was attacked only by the T. mentagrophytes strains, T. verrucosum and K. ajelloi, and only T. gallinae grew on native keratin from chicken feathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Wawrzkiewicz
- Institute of Infectious and Invasive Diseases, Agricultural Academy, Lublin, Poland
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Kunert J. Biochemical mechanism of keratin degradation by the actinomyceteStreptomyces fradiae and the fungusMicrosporum gypseum: A comparison. J Basic Microbiol 1989. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620290909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Kunert J, Str�nsk� Z. Thiosulfate production from cystine by the keratinolytic prokaryote Streptomyces fradiae. Arch Microbiol 1988. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00408257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
All 16 strains of dermatophytes investigated utilized cystine (added to the gelatin medium) as a source of sulfur and also of carbon and nitrogen. Excess sulfur oxidized and excreted to the medium, primarily as inorganic sulfate. Six strains used up all cystine and excreted more than 90% stoichiometric amount of sulfur. Cystine utilization proceeded in parallel with the development of the culture and was terminated during the stationary phase or as late as in the autolytic phase. Other strains did not use up cystine completely and excreted 17-70% sulfur in the oxidized form. In addition to sulfate, sulfite was always produced during the initial growth phases and in poorly growing strains. Free sulfite was only rarely detected; it usually reacted with the residual cystine yielding S-sulfocysteine that was also used up later. Specific features of cystine metabolism (known from Microsporum gypseum) are generally valid in dermatophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kunert
- Department of Biology, Medical Faculty, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
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Kunert J. Utilization of various concentrations of free cystine by the fungus Microsporum gypseum. J Basic Microbiol 1987; 27:207-13. [PMID: 3430337 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620270410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum was cultivated on two liquid media enriched with 50 to 1000 micrograms/ml free L-cystine. The presence of cystine in concentrations above 250 micrograms/ml (gelatin medium) or 500 micrograms/ml (glucose-glutamate medium) inhibited the growth. In all variants, however, cystine was utilized from the very beginning of growth and exhausted completely until stationary phase. The rate of cystine metabolization grew with its concentration to 500 micrograms/ml but decreased again with 1000 micrograms/ml. The excess sulfur was oxidized and excreted back into the medium mainly as inorganic sulfate. Moreover, sulfite was also produced which immediately reacted with the residual cystine in the medium giving rise to S-sulfocysteine. Sulfite excretion was higher in the initial phases of growth and on the medium with poorer growth (gelatin medium). The sulfate-to-sulfite ratio was different on the two media used but was little influenced by cystine concentration. The excretion of strongly acidic compounds (sulfate, sulfite, and S-sulfocysteine) reduced the usual alkalinization of the medium in the course of growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kunert
- Department of Biology, Medical Faculty of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia
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Kunert J, Trüper HG. Cystine catabolism in mycelia of Microsporum gypseum, a dermatophytic fungus. Arch Microbiol 1986; 145:181-6. [PMID: 3767570 DOI: 10.1007/bf00446777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The fate of 35S label was studied during cystine degradation by mycelia of the dermatophytic fungus Microsporum gypseum. Excess free cystine in the medium was readily taken up and its sulfur moiety excreted as inorganic sulfate and sulfite. At intervals after 3-60 min of incubation with 35S cystine the products of cystine catabolism were extracted from the mycelia by boiling water and separated by thin layer chromatography and electrophoresis. A total of 10 sulfur-containing compounds were identified, and their relative radioactivity was assessed. After 3 min the mycelia contained, in addition to cystine, labeled cysteine and particularly cysteine sulfinic acid which was accompanied by a smaller amount of cysteic acid. Later on, oxidized and reduced glutathione, inorganic sulfate and taurine appeared consecutively. In all extracts, small amounts of labeled S-sulfocysteine were found, not, however, sulfite. The results suggest that the intermediates of cysteine degradation in the fungal mycelia are cysteine, cysteine sulfinate, unstable sulfinylpyruvate, sulfite and sulfate, i.e., that the catabolic pattern is similar to that of higher organisms. The formation and the role of S-sulfocysteine, cysteic acid, and of taurine is not yet completely understood, although certainly autoxidative processes are involved in the formation of the latter two compounds, and sulfitolysis in that of the former compound.
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Abstract
Pathogenic fungi involved in medical and veterinary mycology can be classified in three different groups according to their level of adaptation to parasitism. Only a few species belonging to dermatophytes can be considered genuine parasites as opposed to molds or fungi involved in systemic mycoses. Ecological, ethological, biochemical, and immunological factors can play a role in preadaptation or adaptation to parasitic life and are discussed.
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Kunert J. Metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids in the dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum. II. Acidic amino acid derivatives. J Basic Microbiol 1985; 25:111-8. [PMID: 3925121 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620250207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum was cultivated on a glucose-arginine medium supplemented with five strongly acidic derivatives of cysteine (L-cysteine sulfinic acid, L-cysteic acid, L-serine-O-sulfate and taurine at a concentration of 5 mmol/l, and L-S-sulfocysteine at a concentration of 2.5 mmol/l). The addition of these substances did not stimulate the growth as compared with the control containing 0.5 mmol/l cystine. Cysteine sulfinic acid and cysteic acid showed rather inhibitory effects. A strong inhibition of the growth was caused by the presence of serine sulfate. During the growth, all substances investigated were gradually consumed and utilized not only as a source of sulfur but of nitrogen and carbon as well. Cysteine sulfinic acid and S-sulfocysteine were utilized most rapidly. Cysteic acid was also rapidly utilized but after a certain adaptation. Taurine was utilized slowly and serine sulfate very slowly. Excess sulfur contained in the substances used was excreted into the medium in the form of sulfate. Sulfate excretion was most rapid with cysteine sulfinic acid and slowest with taurine. With cysteine sulfinic acid, S-sulfocysteine and cysteic acid, small amounts of sulfite were found in the medium. The results obtained are in accordance with the presumption that cysteine sulfinic acid (but not cysteic acid and taurine) is an intermediate of cysteine catabolism in dermatophytes.
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Kunert J, Krajcí D. An electron microscopy study of keratin degradation by the fungus Microsporum gypseum in vitro. MYKOSEN 1981; 24:485-96. [PMID: 6168906 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.1981.tb01898.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Kunert J. Organic sulphur sources for the growth of the dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 1981; 26:201-6. [PMID: 7274842 DOI: 10.1007/bf02927424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The suitability of 30 organic compounds (of them 19 sulphur-containing amino acids) at a concentration of 1 mM as sulphur sources for the growth of the dermatophyte Microsporum gypseum was investigated. The dry mass of the mycelium after an 11-d growth served as a measure of utilizability. Of sulphur amino acid cystine, cysteine, reduced and oxidized glutathione, cysteic and cysteinesulphinic acids, S-sulphocysteine, lanthionine, taurine and serine sulphate were the best sources. Methionine and methionine-sulphone were utilized slightly less effectively. Other compounds were medium to poor sources and only S-carboxymethylcysteine was not utilized at all. All organic compounds that are not of amino acid type were poor sulphate sources or were utilized at all. Sodium dodecyl sulphate inhibited germination and growth completely.
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