Development of biodegradable nanoparticles for liver-specific ribavirin delivery

Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Viral Diseases: Smaller Solution to Bigger Problems

The continuous evolution of new viruses poses a danger to world health. Rampant outbreaks may advance to pandemic level, often straining financial and medical resources to breaking point. While vaccination remains the gold standard to prevent viral illnesses, these are mostly prophylactic and offer minimal assistance to those who have already developed viral illnesses. Moreover, the timeline to vaccine development and testing can be extensive, leading to a lapse in controlling the spread of viral infection during pandemics. Antiviral therapeutics can provide a temporary fix to tide over the time lag when vaccines are not available during the commencement of a disease outburst. At times, these medications can have negative side effects that outweigh the benefits, and they are not always effective against newly emerging virus strains. Several limitations with conventional antiviral therapies may be addressed by nanotechnology. By using nano delivery vehicles, for instance, the pharmacokinetic profile of antiviral medications can be significantly improved while decreasing systemic toxicity. The virucidal or virus-neutralizing qualities of other special nanomaterials can be exploited. This review focuses on the recent advancements in nanomedicine against RNA viruses, including nano-vaccines and nano-herbal therapeutics.

Medicinal plant molecules against hepatitis C virus: Current status and future prospect

Hepatitis C virus (HCV), a global malady, causes acute and chronic hepatitis leading to permanent liver damage, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death. Modern anti-HCV therapies are efficient, but mostly inaccessible for residents of underdeveloped regions. To innovate more effective treatments at affordable cost, medicinal plant-based products need to be explored. The aim of this article is to review plant constituents in the light of putative anti-HCV mechanisms of action, and discuss existing problems, challenges, and future directions for their potential application in therapeutic settings. One hundred sixty literatures were collected by using appropriate search strings via scientific search engines: Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. Bibliography was prepared using Mendeley desktop software. We found a substantial number of plants that were reported to inhibit different stages of HCV life cycle. Traditional medicinal plants such as Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. and Thonn., Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk., and Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile exhibited strong anti-HCV activities. Again, several phytochemicals such as epigallocatechin-3-gallate, honokilol, punicalagin, and quercetin have shown broad-spectrum anti-HCV effect. We have presented promising phytochemicals like silymarin, curcumin, glycyrrhizin, and camptothecin for nanoparticle-based hepatocyte-targeted drug delivery. Nevertheless, only a few animal studies have been performed to validate the anti-HCV effect of these plant products. Again, insufficient clinical evaluation of the safety and effectiveness of herbal medications remain a problem. Selected plants products could be developed as novel therapeutics for HCV patients only after scrupulous evaluation of their safety and efficacy in a clinical set-up.

Therapeutic strategies and promising vaccine for hepatitis C virus infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is still a significant global health problem despite therapeutic advancements. Ribavirin and interferon therapy have been the sole available treatments for HCV infection for a number of years with low efficacy. Thus, currently, a number of therapeutic strategies are being used, including nanoparticles (NPs), micro-RNAs such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), RNAi-based gene silencing and antisense oligonucleotide-based microRNA-122, microRNA-155, and short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs), and immunotherapeutic approaches such as anti-programmed cell death 1(PD-1), monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb), and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (Mo-DCs). Furthermore, direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) and host-targeting agents (HTA) were also the current therapeutic approaches with great efficacy. In spite of different clinical trials on HCV vaccine developments, nowadays there is no effective HCV vaccine in opposition to virus due to various challenges including genetic diversity, lack of immunocompetent small animal models, shortage of HCV vaccination testing alternatives, lack of an effective tissue culture method for replicating HCV, and inadequate knowledge regarding to immune responses against HCV infection. Nowadays, mRNA vaccine, recombinant viral vector, peptides vaccine, virus-like particles, DNA vaccine, rational designed vaccine, and recombinant polyantigenic T-cell-based vaccine are novel promising candidates for HCV vaccine based on various clinical trials. This review summarizes the different therapeutic approaches and the advancements of vaccine candidates for HCV infection.

Superior possibilities and upcoming horizons for nanoscience in COVID-19: noteworthy approach for effective diagnostics and management of SARS-CoV-2 outbreak

The outbreak of COVID-19 has caused great havoc and affected many parts of the world. It has imposed a great challenge to the medical and health fraternity with its ability to continue mutating and increasing the transmission rate. Some challenges include the availability of current knowledge of active drugs against the virus, mode of delivery of the medicaments, its diagnosis, which are relatively limited and do not suffice for further prognosis. One recently developed drug delivery system called nanoparticles is currently being utilized in combating COVID-19. This article highlights the existing methods for diagnosis of COVID-19 such as computed tomography scan, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, nucleic acid sequencing, immunoassay, point-of-care test, detection from breath, nanotechnology-based bio-sensors, viral antigen detection, microfluidic device, magnetic nanosensor, magnetic resonance platform and internet-of-things biosensors. The latest detection strategy based on nanotechnology, biosensor, is said to produce satisfactory results in recognizing SARS-CoV-2 virus. It also highlights the successes in the research and development of COVID-19 treatments and vaccines that are already in use. In addition, there are a number of nanovaccines and nanomedicines currently in clinical trials that have the potential to target COVID-19.

Quantum dots against SARS-CoV-2: diagnostic and therapeutic potentials

The application of quantum dots (QDs) for detecting and treating various types of coronaviruses is very promising, as their low toxicity and high surface performance make them superior among other nanomaterials; in conjugation with fluorescent probes they are promising semiconductor nanomaterials for the detection of various cellular processes and viral infections. In view of the successful results for inhibiting SARS-CoV-2, functional QDs could serve eminent role in the growth of safe nanotherapy for the cure of viral infections in the near future; their large surface areas help bind numerous molecules post-synthetically. Functionalized QDs with high functionality, targeted selectivity, stability and less cytotoxicity can be employed for highly sensitive co-delivery and imaging/diagnosis. Besides, due to the importance of safety and toxicity issues, QDs prepared from plant sources (e.g. curcumin) are much more attractive, as they provide good biocompatibility and low toxicity. In this review, the recent developments pertaining to the diagnostic and inhibitory potentials of QDs against SARS-CoV-2 are deliberated including important challenges and future outlooks. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Arabinogalactan derived from Larix gmelinii (Rupr.) Kuzen. Alleviates cisplatin-induced acute intestinal injury in vitro and in vivo through IRE1α/JNK axis mediated apoptotic signaling pathways

Many dietary polysaccharides have been shown to protect against various harmful external stimuli by protecting the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Arabinogalactan (AG) is a high molecular weight polysaccharide composed of arabinose and galactose, which has good immunomodulatory, antioxidant and intestinal conditioning activities. Gastrointestinal injury caused by cisplatin (CP) is an inevitable damage during CP chemotherapy. This research explored the ameliorative effect of AG on cisplatin-induced intestinal toxicity and its possible molecular targets and mechanisms. The results showed that AG (200, 400 mg/kg) could significantly reverse the intestinal histopathological changes and oxidative stress injury caused by CP. Meantime, AG could target the IRE1α/JNK axis to inhibit the expression of apoptosis-related proteins and block the apoptotic cascade, thus reducing intestinal damage. In vitro, AG (10, 20, and 40 μg/mL) could regulate the IRE1α/JNK axis, inhibit apoptosis, and restore the antioxidant defense system damaged by CP to play a protective role in the intestine. In addition, 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), a specific inhibitor of endoplasmic reticulum stress, was used to verify that AG also affected protein expression levels by regulating the IRE1α/JNK pathway-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway, thereby alleviating CP-induced gastrointestinal dysfunction. Therefore, AG may be a potential drug to prevent CP-induced intestinal damage.

Contribution of Nanotechnologies to Vaccine Development and Drug Delivery against Respiratory Viruses

According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the coronavirus disease 2019, a respiratory viral illness linked to significant morbidity, mortality, production loss, and severe economic depression, was the third-largest cause of death in 2020. Respiratory viruses such as influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, SARS-CoV-2, and adenovirus, are among the most common causes of respiratory illness in humans, spreading as pandemics or epidemics throughout all continents. Nanotechnologies are particles in the nanometer range made from various compositions. They can be lipid-based, polymer-based, protein-based, or inorganic in nature, but they are all bioinspired and virus-like. In this review, we aimed to present a short review of the different nanoparticles currently studied, in particular those which led to publications in the field of respiratory viruses. We evaluated those which could be beneficial for respiratory disease-based viruses; those which already have contributed, such as lipid nanoparticles in the context of COVID-19; and those which will contribute in the future either as vaccines or antiviral drug delivery systems. We present a short assessment based on a critical selection of evidence indicating nanotechnology's promise in the prevention and treatment of respiratory infections.

Repurpose but also (nano)-reformulate! The potential role of nanomedicine in the battle against SARS-CoV2

The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) has taken the world by surprise. To date, a worldwide approved treatment remains lacking and hence in the context of rapid viral spread and the growing need for rapid action, drug repurposing has emerged as one of the frontline strategies in the battle against SARS-CoV2. Repurposed drugs currently being evaluated against COVID-19 either tackle the replication and spread of SARS-CoV2 or they aim at controlling hyper-inflammation and the rampaged immune response in severe disease. In both cases, the target for such drugs resides in the lungs, at least during the period where treatment could still provide substantial clinical benefit to the patient. Yet, most of these drugs are administered systemically, questioning the percentage of administered drug that actually reaches the lung and as a consequence, the distribution of the remainder of the dose to off target sites. Inhalation therapy should allow higher concentrations of the drug in the lungs and lower concentrations systemically, hence providing a stronger, more localized action, with reduced adverse effects. Therefore, the nano-reformulation of the repurposed drugs for inhalation is a promising approach for targeted drug delivery to lungs. In this review, we critically analyze, what nanomedicine could and ought to do in the battle against SARS-CoV2. We start by a brief description of SARS-CoV2 structure and pathogenicity and move on to discuss the current limitations of repurposed antiviral and immune-modulating drugs that are being clinically investigated against COVID-19. This account focuses on how nanomedicine could address limitations of current therapeutics, enhancing the efficacy, specificity and safety of such drugs. With the appearance of new variants of SARS-CoV2 and the potential implication on the efficacy of vaccines and diagnostics, the presence of an effective therapeutic solution is inevitable and could be potentially achieved via nano-reformulation. The presence of an inhaled nano-platform capable of delivering antiviral or immunomodulatory drugs should be available as part of the repertoire in the fight against current and future outbreaks.

Nanotechnology against COVID-19: Immunization, diagnostic and therapeutic studies

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in early 2020 soon led to the global pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Since then, the clinical and scientific communities have been closely collaborating to develop effective strategies for controlling the ongoing pandemic. The game-changing fields of recent years, nanotechnology and nanomedicine have the potential to not only design new approaches, but also to improve existing methods for the fight against COVID-19. Nanomaterials can be used in the development of highly efficient, reusable personal protective equipment, and antiviral nano-coatings in public settings could prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Smart nanocarriers have accelerated the design of several therapeutic, prophylactic, or immune-mediated approaches against COVID-19. Some nanovaccines have even entered Phase IΙ/IIΙ clinical trials. Several rapid and cost-effective COVID-19 diagnostic techniques have also been devised based on nanobiosensors, lab-on-a-chip systems, or nanopore technology. Here, we provide an overview of the emerging role of nanotechnology in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19.

Repurposed drug against COVID-19: nanomedicine as an approach for finding new hope in old medicines

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a threat to global public health. It is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and has triggered over 17 lakh causalities worldwide. Regrettably, no drug or vaccine has been validated for the treatment of COVID-19 and standard treatment for COVID-19 is currently unavailable. Most of the therapeutics moieties which were originally intended for the other disease are now being evaluated for the potential to be effective against COVID-19 (re-purpose). Nanomedicine has emerged as one of the most promising technologies in the field of drug delivery with the potential to deal with various diseases efficiently. It has addressed the limitations of traditional repurposed antiviral drugs including solubility and toxicity. It has also imparted enhanced potency and selectivity to antivirals towards viral cells. This review emphasizes the scope of repositioning of traditional therapeutic approaches, in addition to the fruitfulness of nanomedicine against COVID-19.

Nanomedicine as a future therapeutic approach for Hepatitis C virus

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is not easily cleared from the human body and in most cases turned into chronic infection. This chronicity is a major cause of liver damage, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, immediate detection and treatment of HCV guarantees eradication of the virus and prevention of chronicity complications. Since discovery of HCV in 1989, several emerging treatments were developed such as polyethylene glycol(PEG)-ylated interferon/ribavirin, direct acting antivirals and host targeting antivirals. Despite the progress in anti-HCV therapy, there is still a pressing need of new approaches for affordable and effective drug delivery systems using nanomedicine. In this review, the contribution of nanoparticles as a promising delivery system for HCV immunizing, diagnostic and therapeutic agents are discussed.

Nanoformulations: A Valuable Tool in the Therapy of Viral Diseases Attacking Humans and Animals

Various viruses can be considered as one of the most frequent causes of human diseases, from mild illnesses to really serious sicknesses that end fatally. Numerous viruses are also pathogenic to animals and plants, and many of them, mutating, become pathogenic also to humans. Several cases of affecting humans by originally animal viruses have been confirmed. Viral infections cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans, the increase of which is caused by general immunosuppression of the world population, changes in climate, and overall globalization. In spite of the fact that the pharmaceutical industry pays great attention to human viral infections, many of clinically used antivirals demonstrate also increased toxicity against human cells, limited bioavailability, and thus, not entirely suitable therapeutic profile. In addition, due to resistance, a combination of antivirals is needed for life-threatening infections. Thus, the development of new antiviral agents is of great importance for the control of virus spread. On the other hand, the discovery and development of structurally new antivirals represent risks. Therefore, another strategy is being developed, namely the reformulation of existing antivirals into nanoformulations and investigation of various metal and metalloid nanoparticles with respect to their diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic antiviral applications. This chapter is focused on nanoscale materials/formulations with the potential to be used for the treatment or inhibition of the spread of viral diseases caused by human immunodeficiency virus, influenza A viruses (subtypes H3N2 and H1N1), avian influenza and swine influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, Ebola and Marburg viruses, Newcastle disease virus, dengue and Zika viruses, and pseudorabies virus. Effective antiviral long-lasting and target-selective nanoformulations developed for oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intranasal, intrarectal, intravaginal, and intradermal applications are discussed. Benefits of nanoparticle-based vaccination formulations with the potential to secure cross protection against divergent viruses are outlined as well.

Polymeric therapeutic delivery systems for the treatment of infectious diseases

Infectious diseases caused by germs, parasites, fungi, virus and bacteria are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Polymeric therapeutics are nanomedicines that offer several advantages making them useful for the treatment of infectious diseases such as targeted drug release mechanism, ability to maintain the drug concentration within a therapeutic window for a desired duration, biocompatibility with low immunogenicity and reduced drug toxicity resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy of the incorporated drug. Although polymeric therapeutics have been evaluated for the treatment of infectious diseases in vitro and in vivo with improved therapeutic efficacy, most treatments for infectious disease have not been evaluated using polymeric therapeutics. This review will focus on the applications of polymeric therapeutics for the treatment of infectious diseases (preclinical studies and clinical trials), with particular focus on parasitic and viral infections.

Taribavirin and 5-Fluorouracil-Loaded Pegylated-Lipid Nanoparticle Synthesis, p38 Docking, and Antiproliferative Effects on MCF-7 Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

Breast cancer is the second most common cause of mortality in women in the United States. Targeted delivery of antitumor breast cancer drugs as a drug-delivery strategy may allow direct delivery into the tumor. Currently, chemotherapy is one of the principle strategies for cancer treatment, but it can have toxic side effects. Nanotechnology attempts to resolve these challenges by loading drugs in nanoparticles, such as solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN). In response to the breast cancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), p38MAPK signaling has been investigated since the 1990s. Ribavirin, a nucleotide derivative, inhibits p38MAPK in infected hepatocytes. A ribavirin prodrug, taribavirin (TBV), was recently synthesized to concentrate in the liver and have minimal concentration in red blood cells.

METHODS

In this study, TBV and 5-FU-pegylated SLNs were prepared and characterized. The in vitro cytotoxicity was evaluated against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Using molecular docking experiments, 5-FU and TBV were docked on p38MAPK protein.

RESULTS

The TBV nanoformulation had the highest cytotoxic effects, achieving IC₅₀ = 0.690 μM after 24 h, compared with free TBV, which also achieved a good cytotoxic effect (IC₅₀ = 0.756 μM). However, there was a detectable cytotoxic effect and an undetectable IC₅₀ of 5-FU nanoparticles and free 5-FU on MCF-7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of TBV nanoparticles on MCF-7 cells may be due to its inhibitory effect against p38MAPK protein, where it fits inside the active pocket site of the p38 protein molecular surface, with a minimum binding affinity of -5.5 kcal/mol (rmsd of 1.07), and it formed strong hydrogen bonds with amino acids ASP'168, ILE'166, HIS'148, and ILE'147. Further studies are warranted to investigate the mechanistic details of the proposed approach.

EPR Technology as Sensitive Method for Oxidative Stress Detection in Primary and Secondary Keratinocytes Induced by Two Selected Nanoparticles

Exogenous factors can cause an imbalance in the redox state of biological systems, promoting the development of oxidative stress, especially reactive oxygen species (ROS). To monitor the intensity of ROS production in secondary keratinocytes (HaCaT) by diesel exhaust particles and thermoresponsive nanogels (tNG), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy after 1 and 24 h of incubation, respectively, was applied. Their cytotoxicity was analyzed by a cell viability assay (XTT). For tNG an increase in the cell viability and ROS production of 10% was visible after 24 h, whereas 1 h showed no effect. A ten times lower concentration of diesel exhaust particles exhibited no significant toxic effects on HaCaT cells for both incubation times, thus normal adult human keratinocytes (NHK) were additionally analyzed by XTT and EPR spectroscopy. Here, after 24 h a slight increase of 18% in metabolic activity was observed. However, this effect could not be explained by the ROS formation. A slight increase in the ROS production was only visible after 1 h of incubation time for HaCaT (9%) and NHK (14%).

Hepatitis C virus management: potential impact of nanotechnology

Around 170–200 million individuals have hepatitis C virus (HCV), which represents ~ 3% of the world population, including ~ 3–5 million people in the USA. According to the WHO regional office in the Middle East, Egypt has the highest prevalence in the world, with 7% prevalence in adults. There had been no effective vaccine for HCV; a combination of PEG-Interferon and ribavirin for at least 48 weeks was the standard therapy, but it failed in more than 40% of the patients and has a high cost and serious side effects. The recent introduction of direct-acting antivirals (DAA) resulted in major advances toward the cure of HCV. However, relapse and reduced antiviral efficacy in fibrotic, cirrhotic HCV patients in addition to some undesired effects restrain the full potential of these combinations. There is a need for new approaches for the combinations of different DAA and their targeted delivery using novel nanotechnology approaches. In this review, the role of nanoparticles as a carrier for HCV vaccines, anti-HCV combinations, and their targeted delivery are discussed.

Poly(malic acid) bearing Doxorubicin and N-Acetyl Galactosamine as a site-specific prodrug for targeting hepatocellular carcinoma

In the past, several systems of drug delivery carriers have been designed with a high capacity to target specific cells and/or tissues and a reduced non-specific toxicity. In this context, we synthesized and characterized novel poly(malic acid) derivatives bearing Doxorubicin (Dox), Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and/or N-Acetyl Galactosamine (NAcGal) for drug delivery. These poly(malic acid) derivatives were obtained by chemical modification of the carboxylic acid lateral groups of poly(malic acid) (PMLA). The resulting nanoplatforms were evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxicity using the human HepaRG hepatoma cell line. Results reveal that the PMLA nanoplatform modified with PEG and Dox has an IC₅₀ of 936 nM corresponding to a Dox concentration of 47 nM, while the grafting of NAcGal onto the nanoplatform reduced the IC₅₀ to 527 nM corresponding to a Dox concentration of 26 nM. The presence of the targeting moiety, NAcGal, thus improves the cellular toxicity of the Dox.

Biofabricated nanoparticle coating for liver-cell targeting

Biology routinely uses noncovalent interactions to perform complex functions that range from the molecular recognition of ligand-receptor binding to the reversible self-assembly/disassembly of hierarchical nanostructures (e.g., virus particles). Potentially, biological materials that offer such recognition and reversible self-assembly functionality can be applied to nanomedicine. Here, polysaccharides with the multifunctional polysaccharide-binding protein Concanavalin A (Con A) are coupled to create a functional nanoparticle coating. This coating is self-assembled in a layer-by-layer format by sequentially contacting a nanoparticle with Con A and the polysaccharide glycogen. In the final assembly step, a galactomannan targeting ligand is self-assembled into the coating. Evidence indicates that the mannose residues of the galactomannan backbone are responsible for assembly into the coating by Con A binding, while the galactose side chain residues are responsible for targeting to the liver-specific asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R). Binding to ASGP-R induces endocytic uptake, while the low endosomal pH triggers disassembly of the coating and release of the nanoparticle-entrapped drug. In vitro cell studies indicate that the coating confers liver-cell-specific function for both nanoparticle uptake and drug delivery. These studies extend the use of Con A to sugar-mediated and organ-specific targeting, and further illustrate the potential of biologically based fabrication for generating functional materials.