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Davoy X, Devémy J, Garruchet S, Dequidt A, Hauret P, Malfreyt P. Toward a Better Understanding of the Poly(glycerol sebacate)-Water Interface. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:11599-11609. [PMID: 38768448 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.4c00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Molecular simulations were conducted to provide a better description of the poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS)-water interface. The density and the glass-transition temperature as well as their dependencies on the degree of esterification were examined in close connection with the available experimental data. The work of adhesion and water contact angle were calculated as a function of the degree of esterification. A direct correlation was established between the strength of the hydrogen bond network in the interfacial region and the change in the water contact angle with respect to the degree of esterification. The interfacial region was described by local density profiles and orientations of the water molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Davoy
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Manufacture Française des Pneumatiques Michelin, 23 Place des Carmes, Clermont-Ferrand 63040, France
| | - Julien Devémy
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Sébastien Garruchet
- Manufacture Française des Pneumatiques Michelin, 23 Place des Carmes, Clermont-Ferrand 63040, France
| | - Alain Dequidt
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Patrice Hauret
- Manufacture Française des Pneumatiques Michelin, 23 Place des Carmes, Clermont-Ferrand 63040, France
| | - Patrice Malfreyt
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Clermont Auvergne INP, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
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Wang Z, Zhang M, Liu L, Mithieux SM, Weiss AS. Polyglycerol sebacate-based elastomeric materials for arterial regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res A 2024; 112:574-585. [PMID: 37345954 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic vascular grafts are commonly used in patients with severe occlusive arterial disease when autologous grafts are not an option. Commercially available synthetic grafts are confronted with challenging outcomes: they have a lower patency rate than autologous grafts and are currently unable to promote arterial regeneration. Polyglycerol sebacate (PGS), a non-toxic polymer with a tunable degradation profile, has shown promising results as a small-diameter vascular graft component that can support the formation of neoarteries. In this review, we first present an overview of the synthesis and modification of PGS followed by an examination of its mechanical properties. We then report on the performance, degradation, regeneration, and remodeling of PGS-based small-diameter vascular grafts, with a focus on efforts to reduce thrombosis, prevent dilation, and promote cellular residency and extracellular matrix regeneration that resembles the native artery in spatial distribution and organization. We also highlight recent advances in the incorporation of novel in situ cell sources for arterial regeneration and their potential application in PGS-based vascular grafts. Finally, we compare vascular grafts fabricated using PGS-based materials with other elastomeric alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Wang
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Miao Zhang
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Linyang Liu
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Suzanne M Mithieux
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anthony S Weiss
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
- The University of Sydney Nano Institute, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
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Ding X, Zhang Z, Kluka C, Asim S, Manuel J, Lee BP, Jiang J, Heiden PA, Heldt CL, Rizwan M. Pair of Functional Polyesters That Are Photo-Cross-Linkable and Electrospinnable to Engineer Elastomeric Scaffolds with Tunable Structure and Properties. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024; 7:863-878. [PMID: 38207114 PMCID: PMC10954299 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c00894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
A pair of alkyne- and thiol-functionalized polyesters are designed to engineer elastomeric scaffolds with a wide range of tunable material properties (e.g., thermal, degradation, and mechanical properties) for different tissues, given their different host responses, mechanics, and regenerative capacities. The two prepolymers are quickly photo-cross-linkable through thiol-yne click chemistry to form robust elastomers with small permanent deformations. The elastic moduli can be easily tuned between 0.96 ± 0.18 and 7.5 ± 2.0 MPa, and in vitro degradation is mediated from hours up to days by adjusting the prepolymer weight ratios. These elastomers bear free hydroxyl and thiol groups with a water contact angle of less than 85.6 ± 3.58 degrees, indicating a hydrophilic nature. The elastomer is compatible with NIH/3T3 fibroblast cells with cell viability reaching 88 ± 8.7% relative to the TCPS control at 48 h incubation. Differing from prior soft elastomers, a mixture of the two prepolymers without a carrying polymer is electrospinnable and UV-cross-linkable to fabricate elastic fibrous scaffolds for soft tissues. The designed prepolymer pair can thus ease the fabrication of elastic fibrous conduits, leading to potential use as a resorbable synthetic graft. The elastomers could find use in other tissue engineering applications as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochu Ding
- Health Research Institute, Michigan Technological University, 202E Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, 609 Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Zhongtian Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Christopher Kluka
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 609 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Saad Asim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - James Manuel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Bruce P. Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Jingfeng Jiang
- Health Research Institute, Michigan Technological University, 202E Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Patricia A. Heiden
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, 609 Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Caryn L. Heldt
- Health Research Institute, Michigan Technological University, 202E Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 203 Chemical Sciences and Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
| | - Muhammad Rizwan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 309 Minerals & Materials Engineering Building, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931
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Kavimani V, Lakkaboyana SK, Trilaksana H, Atanase LI. Mechanical Properties and Degradation Rate of Poly(Sorbitol Adipate-Co-Dioladipate) Copolymers Obtained with a Catalyst-Free Melt Polycondensation Method. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:499. [PMID: 38399877 PMCID: PMC10893197 DOI: 10.3390/polym16040499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
A new family of polyester-based copolymers-poly(sorbitol adipate-co-ethylene glycol adipate) (PSAEG), poly(sorbitol adipate-co-1,4 butane diol adipate) (PSABD), and poly (sorbitol adipate-co-1,6 hexane diol adipate) (PSAHD)-was obtained with a catalyst-free melt polycondensation procedure using the multifunctional non-toxic monomer sorbitol, adipic acid, and diol, which are acceptable to the human metabolism. Synthesized polyesters were characterized by FTIR and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The molecular weight and thermal properties of the polymers were determined by MALDI mass spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis. The degradation rate was investigated, at 37 °C, in 0.1M NaOH (pH 13) and in phosphate-buffered solution (PBS) at pH 7.4. It was found that the polymers degraded faster in NaOH (i.e., in a day) compared to their degradation in PBS, which was much slower (in a week). The highest degradation rate was noticed for the PSAEG sample in both media, whereas PSAHD was the most stable polymer at pH 7.4 and 13. A reduced hydrophilicity of the polymers with diol length was indicated by low swelling percentage and sol content in water and DMSO. Mechanical studies prove that all the polymers are elastomers whose flexibility increases with diol length, shown by the increase in percentage of elongation at break and the decrease in tensile stress and Young's modulus. These biodegradable copolymers with adaptable physicochemical characteristics might be useful for a broad variety of biological applications by merely varying the length of the diol.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Kavimani
- Department of Chemistry, Prathyusha Engineering College, Chennai 600025, India;
| | - Sivarama Krishna Lakkaboyana
- Department of Chemistry, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai 600062, India;
| | - Herri Trilaksana
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Airlangga University, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
| | - Leonard I. Atanase
- Faculty of Medical Dentistry, Apollonia University of Iasi, 700511 Iasi, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, 050045 Bucharest, Romania
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Wu Z, Wang L, Fan Y. Effect of static tensile stress on enzymatic degradation of poly(glycerol sebacate). J Biomed Mater Res A 2023; 111:1513-1524. [PMID: 37070726 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/19/2023]
Abstract
Poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) is an excellent scaffold material in tissue engineering due to good biocompatibility and tunable mechanical properties. The degradation properties of PGS have been primarily explored in static phosphate buffer solution or enzyme solution. It is vital to understand how the tensile stress affect the degradation rate. In this study, PGS was synthetized by melt polycondensation and its properties were characterized. Then an in vitro degradation device which could provide different constant tensile stresses was carefully designed and established, and the enzymatic degradation of PGS was tested under 0-150 kPa at 37°C. It was found that holes of PGS surface arranged almost parallel to each other and perpendicular to the direction of tensile stresses at 100 kPa and 150 kPa after 2-4 days degradation. After 8 days degradation, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of PGS at 150 kPa was 0.28 MPa and the elastic modulus was 1.11 MPa, while the UTS of PGS was 0.44 MPa and the elastic modulus was 1.63 MPa before degradation, both of them have significant differences. Hence, the tensile stress and degradation time were proportional to the appear time and size of holes, leading to the decrease of mass loss, UTS and elastic modulus. The relationship between stress and PGS degradation rates was quantitatively described through our degradation experiments, providing guidance for suitable PGS applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zebin Wu
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Lizhen Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Yubo Fan
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
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Hevilla V, Sonseca Á, Echeverría C, Muñoz-Bonilla A, Fernández-García M. Photocured Poly(Mannitol Sebacate) with Functional Methacrylic Monomer: Analysis of Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15061561. [PMID: 36987340 PMCID: PMC10054831 DOI: 10.3390/polym15061561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we described the formation of polymeric networks with potential antimicrobial character based on an acrylate oligomer, poly(mannitol sebacate) (PMS), and an enzymatically synthesized methacrylic monomer with thiazole groups (MTA). Networks with different content of MTA were prepared, and further physico-chemically characterized by microhardness, water contact angle measurements, and differential scanning calorimetry. Monomer incorporation into the networks and subsequent quaternization to provide thiazolium moieties affected the mechanical behavior and the surface wettability of the networks. Moreover, the introduction of permanent cationic charges in the network surface could give antimicrobial activity to them. Therefore, the antibacterial behavior and the hemotoxicity were analyzed against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and red blood cells, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Hevilla
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Interdisciplinary Platform for "Sustainable Plastics towards a Circular Economy" (SUSPLAST-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Águeda Sonseca
- Instituto de Tecnología de Materiales, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera, s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Coro Echeverría
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Interdisciplinary Platform for "Sustainable Plastics towards a Circular Economy" (SUSPLAST-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alexandra Muñoz-Bonilla
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Interdisciplinary Platform for "Sustainable Plastics towards a Circular Economy" (SUSPLAST-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Fernández-García
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Interdisciplinary Platform for "Sustainable Plastics towards a Circular Economy" (SUSPLAST-CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Cohen J, Shull D, Reed S. Co-delivery of an HIV prophylactic and contraceptive using PGSU as a long-acting multipurpose prevention technology. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2023; 20:285-299. [PMID: 36654482 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2023.2168642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Poly(glycerol sebacate) urethane (PGSU) elastomers formulated with 4'-ethynyl-2-fluoro-2'-deoxyadenosine (EFdA), levonorgestrel (LNG), or a combination thereof can function as multipurpose prevention technology implants for prophylaxis against HIV and unintended pregnancies. For these public health challenges, long-acting drug delivery technologies may improve patient experience and adherence. Traditional polymers encounter challenges delivering multiple drugs with dissimilar physiochemical properties. PGSU offers an alternative option that successfully delivers hydrophilic EFdA alongside hydrophobic LNG. METHODS This article presents the formulation, design, and characterization of PGSU implants, highlighting the impact of API loading, dimensions, and individual- versus combination-loading on release rates. RESULTS Co-delivery of hydrophilic EFdA alongside hydrophobic LNG acted as a porogen to accelerate LNG release. Increasing the surface area of LNG-only implants increased LNG release. All EFdA-LNG, EFdA-only, and LNG-only formulated implants demonstrated low burst release and linear release kinetics over 245 or 122 days studied to date. CONCLUSION PGSU co-delivers two APIs for HIV prevention and contraception at therapeutically relevant concentrations in vitro from a single bioresorbable, elastomeric implant. A new long-acting polymer technology, PGSU demonstrates linear-release kinetics, dual delivery of APIs with disparate physiochemical properties, and biocompatibility through long-term subcutaneous implantation. PGSU can potentially meet the demands of complex MPT or fixed-dose combination products, where better solutions can serve and empower patients.
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Godinho B, Gama N, Ferreira A. Different methods of synthesizing poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS): A review. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1033827. [PMID: 36532580 PMCID: PMC9748623 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1033827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) is a biodegradable elastomer that has attracted increasing attention as a potential material for applications in biological tissue engineering. The conventional method of synthesis, first described in 2002, is based on the polycondensation of glycerol and sebacic acid, but it is a time-consuming and energy-intensive process. In recent years, new approaches for producing PGS, PGS blends, and PGS copolymers have been reported to not only reduce the time and energy required to obtain the final material but also to adjust the properties and processability of the PGS-based materials based on the desired applications. This review compiles more than 20 years of PGS synthesis reports, reported inconsistencies, and proposed alternatives to more rapidly produce PGS polymer structures or PGS derivatives with tailor-made properties. Synthesis conditions such as temperature, reaction time, reagent ratio, atmosphere, catalysts, microwave-assisted synthesis, and PGS modifications (urethane and acrylate groups, blends, and copolymers) were revisited to present and discuss the diverse alternatives to produce and adapt PGS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Godinho
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Nuno Gama
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Artur Ferreira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- ESTGA-Águeda School of Technology and Management, Águeda, Portugal
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Jiang YS, Hu MH, Jan JS, Hu JJ. Incorporation of Glutamic Acid or Amino-Protected Glutamic Acid into Poly(Glycerol Sebacate): Synthesis and Characterization. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14112206. [PMID: 35683879 PMCID: PMC9182726 DOI: 10.3390/polym14112206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a soft, tough elastomer with excellent biocompatibility, has been exploited successfully in many tissue engineering applications. Although tunable to some extent, the rapid in vivo degradation kinetics of PGS is not compatible with the healing rate of some tissues. The incorporation of L-glutamic acid into a PGS network with an aim to retard the degradation rate of PGS through the formation of peptide bonds was conducted in this study. A series of poly(glycerol sebacate glutamate) (PGSE) containing various molar ratios of sebacic acid/L-glutamic acid were synthesized. Two kinds of amino-protected glutamic acids, Boc-L-glutamic acid and Z-L-glutamic acid were used to prepare controls that consist of no peptide bonds, denoted as PGSE-B and PGSE-Z, respectively. The prepolymers were characterized using 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Cured elastomers were characterized using FT-IR, DSC, TGA, mechanical testing, and contact angle measurement. In vitro enzymatic degradation of PGSE over a period of 28 days was investigated. FT-IR spectroscopy confirmed the formation of peptide bonds. The glass transition temperature for the elastomer was found to increase as the ratio of sebacic acid/glutamic acid was increased to four. The decomposition temperature of the elastomer decreased as the amount of glutamic acid was increased. PGSE exhibited less stiffness and larger elongation at break as the ratio of sebacic acid/glutamic acid was decreased. Notably, PGSE-Z was stiffer and had smaller elongation at break than PGSE and PGSE-B at the same molar ratio of monomers. The results of in vitro enzymatic degradation demonstrated that PGSE has a lower degradation rate than does PGS, whereas PGSE-B and PGSE-Z degrade at a greater rate than does PGS. SEM images suggest that the degradation of these crosslinked elastomers is due to surface erosion. The cytocompatibility of PGSE was considered acceptable although slightly lower than that of PGS. The altered mechanical properties and retarded degradation kinetics for PGSE reflect the influence of peptide bonds formed by the introduction of L-glutamic acid. PGSE displaying a lower degradation rate compared to that for PGS can be used as a scaffold material for the repair or regeneration of tissues that are featured by a low healing rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Sheng Jiang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan;
| | - Ming-Hsien Hu
- Bachelor Program for Design and Materials for Medical Equipment and Devices, Da-Yeh University, Changhua 515, Taiwan;
- Orthopedic Department, Showchwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua 500, Taiwan
| | - Jeng-Shiung Jan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan;
- Hierarchical Green-Energy Materials (Hi-GEM) Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (J.-S.J.); (J.-J.H.)
| | - Jin-Jia Hu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (J.-S.J.); (J.-J.H.)
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