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Li X, Zhang X, Kang Y, Cai M, Yan J, Zang C, Gao Y, Qi Y. Scutellarein Suppresses the Production of ROS and Inflammatory Mediators of LPS-Activated Bronchial Epithelial Cells and Attenuates Acute Lung Injury in Mice. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:710. [PMID: 38929149 PMCID: PMC11200809 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13060710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Scutellarein is a key active constituent present in many plants, especially in Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi and Erigeron breviscapus (vant.) Hand-Mazz which possesses both anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activities. It also is the metabolite of scutellarin, with the ability to relieve LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI), strongly suggesting that scutellarein could suppress respiratory inflammation. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of scutellarein on lung inflammation by using LPS-activated BEAS-2B cells (a human bronchial epithelial cell line) and LPS-induced ALI mice. The results showed that scutellarein could reduce intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation through inhibiting the activation of NADPH oxidases, markedly downregulating the transcription and translation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL) 8 in LPS-activated BEAS-2B cells. The mechanism study revealed that it suppressed the phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα, consequently hindering the translocation of p65 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and its subsequent binding to DNA, thereby decreasing NF-κB-regulated gene transcription. Notably, scutellarein had no impact on the activation of AP-1 signaling. In LPS-induced ALI mice, scutellarein significantly decreased IL-6, CCL2, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, attenuated lung injury, and inhibited neutrophil infiltration. Our findings suggest that scutellarein may be a beneficial agent for the treatment of infectious pneumonia by virtue of its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Yuan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; (X.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.K.); (M.C.); (J.Y.); (C.Z.)
| | - Yun Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China; (X.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.K.); (M.C.); (J.Y.); (C.Z.)
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Merchand-Reyes G, Bull MF, Santhanam R, Valencia-Pena ML, Murugesan RA, Chordia A, Mo XM, Robledo-Avila FH, Ruiz-Rosado JDD, Carson WE, Byrd JC, Woyach JA, Tridandapani S, Butchar JP. NOD2 activation enhances macrophage Fcγ receptor function and may increase the efficacy of antibody therapy. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1409333. [PMID: 38919608 PMCID: PMC11196781 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1409333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Therapeutic antibodies have become a major strategy to treat oncologic diseases. For chronic lymphocytic leukemia, antibodies against CD20 are used to target and elicit cytotoxic responses against malignant B cells. However, efficacy is often compromised due to a suppressive microenvironment that interferes with cellular immune responses. To overcome this suppression, agonists of pattern recognition receptors have been studied which promote direct cytotoxicity or elicit anti-tumoral immune responses. NOD2 is an intracellular pattern recognition receptor that participates in the detection of peptidoglycan, a key component of bacterial cell walls. This detection then mediates the activation of multiple signaling pathways in myeloid cells. Although several NOD2 agonists are being used worldwide, the potential benefit of these agents in the context of antibody therapy has not been explored. Methods Primary cells from healthy-donor volunteers (PBMCs, monocytes) or CLL patients (monocytes) were treated with versus without the NOD2 agonist L18-MDP, then antibody-mediated responses were assessed. In vivo, the Eµ-TCL1 mouse model of CLL was used to test the effects of L18-MDP treatment alone and in combination with anti-CD20 antibody. Results Treatment of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with L18-MDP led to activation of monocytes from both healthy donors and CLL patients. In addition, there was an upregulation of activating FcγR in monocytes and a subsequent increase in antibody-mediated phagocytosis. This effect required the NF-κB and p38 signaling pathways. Treatment with L18-MDP plus anti-CD20 antibody in the Eµ-TCL model of CLL led to a significant reduction of CLL load, as well as to phenotypic changes in splenic monocytes and macrophages. Conclusions Taken together, these results suggest that NOD2 agonists help overturn the suppression of myeloid cells, and may improve the efficacy of antibody therapy for CLL.
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MESH Headings
- Nod2 Signaling Adaptor Protein/agonists
- Nod2 Signaling Adaptor Protein/metabolism
- Nod2 Signaling Adaptor Protein/immunology
- Animals
- Humans
- Receptors, IgG/metabolism
- Receptors, IgG/immunology
- Mice
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/immunology
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/metabolism
- Acetylmuramyl-Alanyl-Isoglutamine/pharmacology
- Female
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Signal Transduction
- Phagocytosis
- Rituximab/pharmacology
- Rituximab/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Merchand-Reyes
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Mikayla F. Bull
- College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Ramasamy Santhanam
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Maria L. Valencia-Pena
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | | | - Aadesh Chordia
- College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Xiaokui-Molly Mo
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Frank H. Robledo-Avila
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Juan De Dios Ruiz-Rosado
- Kidney and Urinary Tract Center, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology and Hypertension, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, United States
| | | | - John C. Byrd
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Jennifer A. Woyach
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Susheela Tridandapani
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Jonathan P. Butchar
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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Kamboj A, Patil MT, Petrovsky N, Salunke DB. Structure-activity relationship in NOD2 agonistic muramyl dipeptides. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 271:116439. [PMID: 38691886 PMCID: PMC11099613 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) is a receptor of the innate immune system that is capable of perceiving bacterial and viral infections. Muramyl dipeptide (MDP, N-acetyl muramyl L-alanyl-d-isoglutamine), identified as the minimal immunologically active component of bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan (PGN) is recognized by NOD2. In terms of biological activities, MDP demonstrated vaccine adjuvant activity and stimulated non-specific protection against bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections and cancer. However, MDP has certain drawbacks including pyrogenicity, rapid elimination, and lack of oral bioavailability. Several detailed structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies around MDP scaffolds are being carried out to identify better NOD2 ligands. The present review elaborates a comprehensive SAR summarizing structural aspects of MDP derivatives in relation to NOD2 agonistic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarzoo Kamboj
- Department of Chemistry and Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh, 160014, India
| | - Madhuri T Patil
- Department of Chemistry, Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women, Chandigarh 160036, India
| | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- Vaxine Pty Ltd, Warradale, Australia; Australian Respiratory and Sleep Medicine Institute, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
| | - Deepak B Salunke
- Department of Chemistry and Centre of Advanced Studies in Chemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh, 160014, India; National Interdisciplinary Centre of Vaccine, Immunotherapeutics and Antimicrobials, Panjab University, Chandigarh, 160014, India.
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Russo C, Russomanno P, D'Amore VM, Alfano AI, Santoro F, Guzelj S, Gobec M, Amato J, Pagano B, Marinelli L, Carotenuto A, Tron GC, Di Leva FS, Jakopin Ž, Brancaccio D, Giustiniano M. Discovery of 2,3-Diaminoindole Derivatives as a Novel Class of NOD Antagonists. J Med Chem 2024; 67:3004-3017. [PMID: 38301029 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
NOD1 and NOD2 are members of the pattern recognition receptors involved in the innate immune response. Overactivation of NOD1 is implicated in inflammatory disorders, multiple sclerosis, and cancer cell metastases. NOD1 antagonists would represent valuable pharmacological tools to gain further insight into protein roles, potentially leading to new therapeutic strategies. We herein report the expansion of the chemical space of NOD1 antagonists via a multicomponent synthetic approach affording a novel chemotype, namely, 2,3-diaminoindoles. These efforts resulted in compound 37, endowed with low micromolar affinity toward NOD1. Importantly, a proof-of-evidence of direct binding to NOD1 of Noditinib-1 and derivative 37 is provided here for the first time. Additionally, the combination of computational studies and NMR-based displacement assays enabled the characterization of the binding modality of 37 to NOD1, thus providing key unprecedented knowledge for the design of potent and selective NOD1 antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Russo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Pasquale Russomanno
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Maria D'Amore
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Antonella Ilenia Alfano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Federica Santoro
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Samo Guzelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva 7, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Martina Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva 7, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Jussara Amato
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Bruno Pagano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Luciana Marinelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Alfonso Carotenuto
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Gian Cesare Tron
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, Largo Donegani 2, Novara 28100, Italy
| | - Francesco Saverio Di Leva
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva 7, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Diego Brancaccio
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Mariateresa Giustiniano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
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Griffin ME, Tsukidate T, Hang HC. N-Arylpyrazole NOD2 Agonists Promote Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:1368-1377. [PMID: 37172210 PMCID: PMC10578902 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The characterization of microbiota mechanisms in health and disease has reinvigorated pattern recognition receptors as prominent targets for immunotherapy. Notably, our recent studies on Enterococcus species revealed peptidoglycan remodeling and activation of NOD2 as key mechanisms for microbiota enhancement of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Inspired by this work and other studies of NOD2 activation, we performed in silico ligand screening and developed N-arylpyrazole dipeptides as novel NOD2 agonists. Importantly, our N-arylpyrazole NOD2 agonist is enantiomer-specific and effective at promoting immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and requires NOD2 for activity in vivo. Given the significant functions of NOD2 in innate and adaptive immunity, these next-generation agonists afford new therapeutic leads and adjuvants for a variety of NOD2-responsive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E. Griffin
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Taku Tsukidate
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Howard C. Hang
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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6
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Griffin ME, Tsukidate T, Hang HC. N -arylpyrazole NOD2 agonists promote immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.26.525573. [PMID: 36747725 PMCID: PMC9901186 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.26.525573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The characterization of microbiota mechanisms in health and disease has reinvigorated pattern recognition receptors as prominent targets for immunotherapy. Notably, our recent studies on Enterococcus species revealed peptidoglycan remodeling and activation of NOD2 as key mechanisms for microbiota enhancement of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Inspired by this work and other studies of NOD2 activation, we performed in silico ligand screening and developed N -arylpyrazole dipeptides as novel NOD2 agonists. Importantly, our N -arylpyrazole NOD2 agonist is enantiomer-specific, effective at promoting immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy and requires NOD2 for activity in vivo . Given the significant functions of NOD2 in innate and adaptive immunity, these next-generation agonists afford new therapeutic leads and adjuvants for a variety of NOD2-responsive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E. Griffin
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Taku Tsukidate
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065
| | - Howard C. Hang
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037
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Khan FA, Yaqoob S, Ali S, Tanveer N, Wang Y, Ashraf S, Hasan KA, Khalifa SAM, Shou Q, Ul-Haq Z, Jiang ZH, El-Seedi HR. Designing Functionally Substituted Pyridine-Carbohydrazides for Potent Antibacterial and Devouring Antifungal Effect on Multidrug Resistant (MDR) Strains. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 28:molecules28010212. [PMID: 36615406 PMCID: PMC9822510 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28010212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens and the gradual depletion of available antibiotics have exacerbated the need for novel antimicrobial agents with minimal toxicity. Herein, we report functionally substituted pyridine carbohydrazide with remarkable antimicrobial effect on multi-drug resistant strains. In the series, compound 6 had potent activity against four MDR strains of Candida spp., with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values being in the range of 16-24 µg/mL and percentage inhibition up to 92.57%, which was exceptional when compared to broad-spectrum antifungal drug fluconazole (MIC = 20 µg/mL, 81.88% inhibition). Substitution of the octyl chain in 6 with a shorter butyl chain resulted in a significant anti-bacterial effect of 4 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), the MIC value being 2-fold superior to the standard combination of ampicillin/cloxacillin. Time-kill kinetics assays were used to discern the efficacy and pharmacodynamics of the potent compounds. Further, hemolysis tests confirmed that both compounds had better safety profiles than the standard drugs. Besides, molecular docking simulations were used to further explore their mode of interaction with target proteins. Overall results suggest that these compounds have the potential to become promising antimicrobial drugs against MDR strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farooq-Ahmad Khan
- Third World Center for Science and Technology, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- Correspondence: (F.-A.K.); (K.A.H.); (H.R.E.-S.)
| | - Sana Yaqoob
- Third World Center for Science and Technology, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Shujaat Ali
- Third World Center for Science and Technology, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Nimra Tanveer
- Third World Center for Science and Technology, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Yan Wang
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Sajda Ashraf
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Khwaja Ali Hasan
- Molecular and Structural Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
- Correspondence: (F.-A.K.); (K.A.H.); (H.R.E.-S.)
| | - Shaden A. M. Khalifa
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Qiyang Shou
- Second Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Zaheer Ul-Haq
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Zi-Hua Jiang
- Department of Chemistry, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario P7B 5E1, Canada
| | - Hesham R. El-Seedi
- International Research Center for Food Nutrition and Safety, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
- Pharmacognosy Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 591, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
- International Joint Research Laboratory of Intelligent Agriculture and Agri-Products Processing (Jiangsu University), Jiangsu Education Department, Nanjing 210024, China
- Correspondence: (F.-A.K.); (K.A.H.); (H.R.E.-S.)
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8
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Guzelj S, Šišić M, Bizjak Š, Frkanec L, Frkanec R, Jakopin Ž. Lipidation of NOD2 Agonists with Adamantane and Stearoyl Moieties Differentially Regulates Their In Vivo Adjuvant Activity. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122755. [PMID: 36559249 PMCID: PMC9785857 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
NOD2 is an innate immune receptor that constitutes an important target for the development of small molecule immunopotentiators with great potential to be used as vaccine adjuvants. We report here the results of an in vivo study of the adjuvant properties of a desmuramylpeptide NOD2 agonist SG29 and its lipidated analogs featuring an adamantyl moiety or a stearoyl group. These compounds have been synthesized, incorporated into liposomes, and evaluated for their in vivo adjuvant activity. The characterization of liposome formulations of examined compounds revealed that their size increased in comparison to that of empty liposomes. The introduction of a stearoyl or an adamantane lipophilic anchor into the structure of SG29, to produce SG115 and ZSB63, respectively, substantially improved the in vivo adjuvant activity. Of note, the attachment of the stearoyl moiety produced a Th2-biased immune response, while the incorporation of the adamantyl moiety greatly enhanced the production of total IgG but mostly augmented the production of IgG2a antibodies, which indicated a shift toward a Th1 immune response. The identified bona fide capacity of ZSB63 to initiate a cellular immune response thus highlights its untapped potential as an alternative vaccine adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samo Guzelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marcela Šišić
- Centre for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Špela Bizjak
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Leo Frkanec
- Rudjer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ruža Frkanec
- Centre for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Correspondence: (R.F.); (Ž.J.)
| | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence: (R.F.); (Ž.J.)
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Guzelj S, Jakopin Ž. Nucleotide-Binding Oligomerization Domain 1/Toll-Like Receptor 4 Co-Engagement Promotes Non-Specific Immune Response Against K562 Cancer Cells. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:920928. [PMID: 35935855 PMCID: PMC9354050 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.920928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) receptor and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) belong to the family of pattern recognition receptors. Interactions between these receptors profoundly shape the innate immune responses. We previously demonstrated that co-stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with D-glutamyl-meso-diaminopimelic acid (iE-DAP)-based NOD1 agonists and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a TLR4 agonist, synergistically increased the cytokine production. Herein, we postulate that stimulation of NOD1 alone or a combined stimulation of NOD1 and TLR4 could also strengthen PBMC-mediated cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Initially, an in-house library of iE-DAP analogs was screened for NOD1 agonist activity to establish their potency in HEK-Blue NOD1 cells. Next, we showed that our most potent NOD1 agonist SZZ-38 markedly enhanced the LPS-induced cytokine secretion from PBMCs, in addition to PBMC- and natural killer (NK) cell-mediated killing of K562 cancer cells. Activation marker analysis revealed that the frequencies of CD69+, CD107a+, and IFN-γ+ NK cells are significantly upregulated following NOD1/TLR4 co-stimulation. Of note, SZZ-38 also enhanced the IFN-γ-induced PBMC cytotoxicity. Overall, our findings provide further insight into how co-engagement of two pathways boosts the non-specific immune response and attest to the importance of such interplay between NOD1 and TLR4.
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Guzelj S, Bizjak Š, Jakopin Ž. Discovery of Desmuramylpeptide NOD2 Agonists with Single-Digit Nanomolar Potency. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:1270-1277. [PMID: 35978688 PMCID: PMC9377006 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Samo Guzelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Špela Bizjak
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Chen Z, Li L, Li Z, Wang X, Han M, Gao Z, Wang M, Hu G, Xie X, Du H, Xie Z, Zhang H. Identification of key serum biomarkers for the diagnosis and metastatic prediction of osteosarcoma by analysis of immune cell infiltration. Cancer Cell Int 2022; 22:78. [PMID: 35151325 PMCID: PMC8841093 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-022-02500-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
The role of circular RNAs (circRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) in osteosarcoma (OS) development has not been fully elucidated. Further, the contribution of the immune response to OS progression is not well defined. However, it is known that circRNAs and miRNAs can serve as biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of many cancers. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify novel key serum biomarkers for the diagnosis and metastatic prediction of OS by analysis of immune cell infiltration and associated RNA molecules.
Methods
Human OS differentially expressed circRNAs (DEcircRNAs), differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs), and differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) were identified by analysis of microarray data downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. Further, characteristic patterns of OS-infiltrating immune cells were analyzed. On this basis, we identified statistically significant transcription factors. Moreover we performed pathway enrichment analysis, constructed protein–protein interaction networks, and devised competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks. Biological targets of the ceRNA networks were evaluated and potential OS biomarkers confirmed by RT-qPCR analysis of the patients’ serum.
Results
Seven differentially expressed circRNAs, 166 differentially expressed miRNAs, and 175 differentially expressed mRNAs were identified. An evaluation of cellular OS infiltration identified the highest level of infiltration by M0 macrophages, M2 macrophages, and CD8+ T cells, with M0 macrophages and CD8+ T cells as the most prominent. Significant patterns of tumor-infiltrating immune cells were identified by principal component analysis. Moreover, 185 statistically significant transcription factors were associated with OS. Further, in association with immune cell infiltration, hsa-circ-0010220, hsa-miR-326, hsa-miR-338-3p, and FAM98A were identified as potential novel biomarkers for OS diagnosis. Of these, FAM98A had the most promise as a diagnostic marker for OS and OS metastasis. Most importantly, a novel diagnostic model consisting of these four biomarkers (hsa-circ-0010220, hsa-miR-326, hsa-miR-338-3p, and FAM98A) was established with a 0.928 AUC value.
Conclusions
In summary, potential serum biomarkers for OS diagnosis and metastatic prediction were identified based on an analysis of immune cell infiltration. A novel diagnostic model consisting of these four promising serum biomarkers was established. Taken together, the results of this study provide a new perspective by which to understand immunotherapy of OS.
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12
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Li K, Zhang Z, Mei Y, Li M, Yang Q, WU Q, Yang H, HE LIANGCAN, Liu S. Targeting innate immune system by nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy. J Mater Chem B 2022; 10:1709-1733. [DOI: 10.1039/d1tb02818a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Various cancer therapies have advanced remarkably over the past decade. Unlike the direct therapeutic targeting of tumor cells, cancer immunotherapy is a new strategy that boosts the host's immune system...
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13
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Khan F, Khanam R, Wasim Qasim M, Wang Y, Jiang Z. Improved Synthesis of D‐Isoglutamine: Rapid Access to Desmuramyl Analogues of Muramyl Dipeptide for the Activation of Intracellular NOD2 Receptor and Vaccine Adjuvant Applications. European J Org Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202101170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Farooq‐Ahmad Khan
- Third World Center (TWC) for Chemical Sciences International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
| | - Rahila Khanam
- Third World Center (TWC) for Chemical Sciences International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Wasim Qasim
- Third World Center (TWC) for Chemical Sciences International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
| | - Yan Wang
- H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry International Center for Chemical & Biological Sciences University of Karachi-75270 Pakistan
| | - Zi‐Hua Jiang
- Department of Chemistry Lakehead University 955 Oliver Rd Thunder Bay Ontario P7B 5E1 Canada
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14
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15
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Trends in Tumor Site-Specific Survival of Bone Sarcomas from 1980 to 2018: A Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results-Based Study. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215381. [PMID: 34771548 PMCID: PMC8582558 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES As diagnosis and treatment guidelines for bone sarcomas continue updating, it is important to examine whether, when, and which kinds of patients have had a survival improvement over the last four decades. METHODS This cohort study included 9178 patients with primary bone and joint sarcomas from 1 January 1980 to 31 December 2018 using data from Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER)-9 Registries. The follow-up period was extended to November 2020. Patients were divided by decade into four time periods: 1980-1989, 1990-1999, 2000-2009, and 2010-2018. The primary endpoint was bone sarcomas-specific mortality (CSM). The 5-year bone sarcomas-specific survival (CSS) rate was determined stratified by demographic, neoplastic, temporal, economic, and geographic categories. The associations between time periods and CSM were examined using a multivariable Cox regression model, with reported hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS The 5-year CSS rate for bone sarcomas was 58.7%, 69.9%, 71.0%, and 69.2%, in the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s, respectively. Older age, male gender, tumor sites at pelvic bones, sacrum, coccyx and associated joints, as well as vertebral column, osteosarcoma and Ewing tumor, and residence in non-metropolitan areas were independently associated with higher CSM risk. After adjusting for the covariates above, patients in the 1990s (HR = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.68-0.82), 2000s (HR = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.65-0.78), and 2010s (HR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.62-0.76) had significantly lower CSM risks than patients in the 1980s. However, patients in the 2000s and 2010s did not have lower CSM risks than those in the 1990s (both p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Although bone sarcomas survival has significantly improved since 1990, it almost halted over the next three decades. Bone sarcomas survival should improve over time, similar to common cancers. New diagnostic and therapeutic strategies such as emerging immune and targeted agents are warranted to overcome this survival stalemate.
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Diao X, Guo C, Liu L, Wang G, Li S. Identification and validation of an individualized prognostic signature of lung squamous cell carcinoma based on ferroptosis-related genes. Thorac Cancer 2021; 12:3236-3247. [PMID: 34672420 PMCID: PMC8636213 DOI: 10.1111/1759-7714.14195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC), one of the main pathological types of lung cancer, has led to consequential socioeconomic burden. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of cell death process with potentials for therapeutic target in various kinds of tumors. However, whether ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) are associated with the prognosis of LUSC patients is still unclear. The aim of this study was to establish a FRGs-based signature which could stratify patients with LUSC. METHODS The RNA sequencing profiles and corresponding clinical data of LUSC patients were retrieved from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset. A FRG-based signature was developed using the TCGA-LUSC cohort and validated in the GEO cohort. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and analysis of immune cell characteristics were conducted to assess the relationship between FRGs and biological function or immune status. A nomogram based on selected clinical factors and the risk scores which were generated from the FRG-based signature was developed using the TCGA cohort and validated in the GEO cohort. RESULTS A set of 16 FRGs, significantly associated with overall survival (OS) in the TCGA cohort, was identified and could classify LUSC patients into two risk groups. Kaplan-Meier analysis illustrated that the survival rate of the high-risk group was significantly lower than the low-risk group. Assessment and external validation of the signature showed that the survival predictive performance of this signature was adequate. Additionally, multiple pathways and functions were enriched through GSEA and the analysis of immune cell characteristics showed significantly different abundances of immune cells among the two risk groups. Finally, a nomogram integrating the FRG-based signature and selected clinical factors was also developed and assessed in both the TCGA and GEO cohort. CONCLUSION This study indicated the association between the FRGs and prognosis of patients with LUSC. Targeting ferroptosis may serve as a novel potential therapeutic alternative for LUSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiayao Diao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Guo
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Guige Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Shanqing Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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17
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Actin Cytoskeleton Dynamics and Type I IFN-Mediated Immune Response: A Dangerous Liaison in Cancer? BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10090913. [PMID: 34571790 PMCID: PMC8469949 DOI: 10.3390/biology10090913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Actin cytoskeleton is a dynamic subcellular component critical for maintaining cell shape and for elaborating response to any stimulus converging on the cell. Cytoskeleton constantly interfaces with diverse cellular components and affects a wide range of processes important in homeostasis and disease. What has been clearly demonstrated to date is that pathogens modify and use host cytoskeleton to their advantage. What is now emerging is that in sterile conditions, when a chronic inflammation occurs as in cancer, the subversion of tissue homeostasis induces an alarm status which mimics infection. This activates cellular players similar to those that solve an infection, but their persistence may pave the way for tumor progression. Understanding molecular mechanisms engaged by cytoskeleton to induce this viral mimicry could improve our knowledge of processes governing tumor progression and resistance to therapy. Abstract Chronic viral infection and cancer are closely inter-related and are both characterized by profound alteration of tissue homeostasis. The actin cytoskeleton dynamics highly participate in tissue homeostasis and act as a sensor leading to an immune-mediated anti-cancer and anti-viral response. Herein we highlight the crucial role of actin cytoskeleton dynamics in participating in a viral mimicry activation with profound effect in anti-tumor immune response. This still poorly explored field understands the cytoskeleton dynamics as a platform of complex signaling pathways which may regulate Type I IFN response in cancer. This emerging network needs to be elucidated to identify more effective anti-cancer strategies and to further advance the immuno-oncology field which has revolutionized the cancer treatment. For a progress to occur in this exciting arena we have to shed light on actin cytoskeleton related pathways and immune response. Herein we summarize the major findings, considering the double sword of the immune response and in particular the role of Type I IFN pathways in resistance to anti-cancer treatment.
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Novel immunomodulatory properties of low dose cytarabine entrapped in a mannosylated cationic liposome. Int J Pharm 2021; 606:120849. [PMID: 34216770 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer treatment remains unsatisfactory with high rates of recurrence and metastasis. Immunomodulatory agents capable of promoting cellular antitumor immunity while inhibiting the local immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment could greatly improve cancer treatment. We have developed a multi-targeted mannosylated cationic liposome delivery system containing muramyl dipeptide (DS) and low doses of the chemotherapeutic agent cytarabine (Ara-C). Immunomodulation of primary immune cells and immortalized cancer cell lines by Ara-C/DS was assessed by measuring cytokine levels and surface marker expression. As a proof of concept, the generation of targeted cellular immunity was investigated in the context of responses to viral antigens. This report is the first demonstrating that Ara-C combined with DS can modulate immune responses and revert immunosuppression as evidenced by increased IFN-γ and IL-12p40 without changes in IL-10 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and increased CD80 and decreased CD163 on immunosuppressive macrophages. Furthermore, Ara-C/DS increased MHC class I expression on cancer cells while increasing the production of antigen-specific IFN-γ+ CD8+ T cells in viral peptide-challenged lymphocytes from both humans and vaccinated mice. Taken together, these results are the first to document immunomodulatory properties of Ara-C linked with recognition of antigens and potentially the generation of antitumor immune memory.
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Pauletto E, Eickhoff N, Padrão NA, Blattner C, Zwart W. TRIMming Down Hormone-Driven Cancers: The Biological Impact of TRIM Proteins on Tumor Development, Progression and Prognostication. Cells 2021; 10:1517. [PMID: 34208621 PMCID: PMC8234875 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The tripartite motif (TRIM) protein family is attracting increasing interest in oncology. As a protein family based on structure rather than function, a plethora of biological activities are described for TRIM proteins, which are implicated in multiple diseases including cancer. With hormone-driven cancers being among the leading causes of cancer-related death, TRIM proteins have been described to portrait tumor suppressive or oncogenic activities in these tumor types. This review describes the biological impact of TRIM proteins in relation to hormone receptor biology, as well as hormone-independent mechanisms that contribute to tumor cell biology in prostate, breast, ovarian and endometrial cancer. Furthermore, we point out common functions of TRIM proteins throughout the group of hormone-driven cancers. An improved understanding of the biological impact of TRIM proteins in cancer may pave the way for improved prognostication and novel therapeutics, ultimately improving cancer care for patients with hormone-driven cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Pauletto
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems-Biological Information Processing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, PO-Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany;
| | - Nils Eickhoff
- Division of Oncogenomics, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (N.A.P.)
| | - Nuno A. Padrão
- Division of Oncogenomics, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (N.A.P.)
| | - Christine Blattner
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems-Biological Information Processing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, PO-Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany;
| | - Wilbert Zwart
- Division of Oncogenomics, Oncode Institute, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (N.E.); (N.A.P.)
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20
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Guzelj S, Nabergoj S, Gobec M, Pajk S, Klančič V, Slütter B, Frkanec R, Štimac A, Šket P, Plavec J, Mlinarič-Raščan I, Jakopin Ž. Structural Fine-Tuning of Desmuramylpeptide NOD2 Agonists Defines Their In Vivo Adjuvant Activity. J Med Chem 2021; 64:7809-7838. [PMID: 34043358 PMCID: PMC8279416 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
We
report on the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of
a series of nucleotide-binding oligomerization-domain-containing protein
2 (NOD2) desmuramylpeptide agonists with improved in vitro and in vivo adjuvant properties. We identified
two promising compounds: 68, a potent nanomolar in vitro NOD2 agonist, and the more lipophilic 75, which shows superior adjuvant activity in vivo. Both compounds had immunostimulatory effects on peripheral blood
mononuclear cells at the protein and transcriptional levels, and augmented
dendritic-cell-mediated activation of T cells, while 75 additionally enhanced the cytotoxic activity of peripheral blood
mononuclear cells against malignant cells. The C18 lipophilic
tail of 75 is identified as a pivotal structural element
that confers in vivo adjuvant activity in conjunction
with a liposomal delivery system. Accordingly, liposome-encapsulated 75 showed promising adjuvant activity in mice, surpassing
that of muramyl dipeptide, while achieving a more balanced Th1/Th2
immune response, thus highlighting its potential as a vaccine adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samo Guzelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sanja Nabergoj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Martina Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stane Pajk
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Veronika Klančič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bram Slütter
- Div. BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ruža Frkanec
- Centre for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Adela Štimac
- Centre for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Primož Šket
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janez Plavec
- Slovenian NMR Centre, National Institute of Chemistry, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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21
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Schijns V, Majhen D, van der Ley P, Thakur A, Summerfield A, Berisio R, Nativi C, Fernández-Tejada A, Alvarez-Dominguez C, Gizurarson S, Zamyatina A, Molinaro A, Rosano C, Jakopin Ž, Gursel I, McClean S. Rational Vaccine Design in Times of Emerging Diseases: The Critical Choices of Immunological Correlates of Protection, Vaccine Antigen and Immunomodulation. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:501. [PMID: 33917629 PMCID: PMC8067490 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13040501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are the most effective medical intervention due to their continual success in preventing infections and improving mortality worldwide. Early vaccines were developed empirically however, rational design of vaccines can allow us to optimise their efficacy, by tailoring the immune response. Establishing the immune correlates of protection greatly informs the rational design of vaccines. This facilitates the selection of the best vaccine antigens and the most appropriate vaccine adjuvant to generate optimal memory immune T cell and B cell responses. This review outlines the range of vaccine types that are currently authorised and those under development. We outline the optimal immunological correlates of protection that can be targeted. Finally we review approaches to rational antigen selection and rational vaccine adjuvant design. Harnessing current knowledge on protective immune responses in combination with critical vaccine components is imperative to the prevention of future life-threatening diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virgil Schijns
- Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Utrecht Science Park, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands;
- Epitopoietic Research Corporation (ERC), 5374 RE Schaijk, The Netherlands
| | - Dragomira Majhen
- Laboratory for Cell Biology and Signalling, Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Instiute, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Peter van der Ley
- Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Utrecht Science Park, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Aneesh Thakur
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, 3147 Mittelhausern, Switzerland;
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Rita Berisio
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, National Research Council, I-80134 Naples, Italy;
| | - Cristina Nativi
- Department of Chemistry “Ugo Schiff”, University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy;
| | - Alberto Fernández-Tejada
- Chemical Immunology Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Biscay Science and Technology Park, 48160 Derio-Bilbao, Spain;
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Carmen Alvarez-Dominguez
- Facultativo en plantilla (Research Faculty), Instituto de Investigación Marqués de Valdecilla (IDIVAL), 39011 Santander, Spain;
| | - Sveinbjörn Gizurarson
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Iceland, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland;
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Malawi, Blantyre 3, Malawi
| | - Alla Zamyatina
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Antonio Molinaro
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Santangelo, I-80126 Napoli, Italy;
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Osaka University Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Camillo Rosano
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Unit, IRCCS Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genova-1, Italy;
| | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubiljana, Slovenia;
| | - Ihsan Gursel
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Department, Science Faculty, Bilkent University, Bilkent, 06800 Ankara, Turkey;
| | - Siobhán McClean
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
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22
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Xia Y, Yu M, Zhao Y, Xia L, Huang Y, Sun N, Song M, Guo H, Zhang Y, Zhu D, Xie Q, Wang Y. Discovery of tetrahydroquinolines and benzomorpholines as novel potent RORγt agonists. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 211:113013. [PMID: 33272782 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.113013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor γt (RORγt) is an important nuclear receptor that regulates the differentiation of Th17 cells and production of interleukin 17(IL-17). RORγt agonists increase basal activity of RORγt and could provide a potential approach to cancer immunotherapy. Herein, hit compound 1 was identified as a weak RORγt agonist during in-house library screening. Changes in LHS core of 1 led to the identification of tetrahydroquinoline compound 6 as a partial RORγt agonist (max. act. = 39.3%). Detailed structure-activity relationship on substituent of the LHS core, amide linker and RHS arylsulfonyl moiety was explored and a novel series of tetrahydroquinolines and benzomorpholines was discovered as potent RORγt agonists. Tetrahydroquinoline compound 8g (EC50 = 8.9 ± 0.4 nM, max. act. = 104.5%) and benzomorpholine compound 9g (EC50 = 7.5 ± 0.6 nM, max. act. = 105.8%) were representative compounds with high RORγt agonistic activity in dual FRET assay, and they showed good activity in cell-based Gal4 reporter gene assay and Th17 cell differentiation assay (104.5% activation at 300 nM of 8g; 59.4% activation at 300 nM of 9g). The binding modes of 8g and 9g as well as the two RORγt inverse agonists accidentally discovered were also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuehan Xia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Mingcheng Yu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yunpeng Zhao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Li Xia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yafei Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Nannan Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China; Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine, The Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Meiqi Song
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Huimin Guo
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yunyi Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Di Zhu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Qiong Xie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China; Fudan Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Yonghui Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 826 ZhanghengRoad, Pudong, Shanghai, 201203, China.
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Synthesis of Conformationally Constrained d-Glu- meso-DAP Analogs as Innate Immune Agonists. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25225228. [PMID: 33182604 PMCID: PMC7698283 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25225228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The dipeptide d-Glu-meso-DAP (iE-DAP) is the minimal structural fragment capable of activating the innate immune receptor nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain protein (NOD1). The meso-diaminopimelic acid (meso-DAP) moiety is known to be very stringent in terms of the allowed structural modifications which still retain the NOD1 activity. The aim of our study was to further explore the chemical space around the meso-DAP portion and provide a deeper understanding of the structural features required for NOD1 agonism. In order to achieve the rigidization of the terminal amine functionality of meso-DAP, isoxazoline and pyridine heterocycles were introduced into its side-chain. Further, we incorporated the obtained meso-DAP mimetics into the structure of iE-DAP. Collectively, nine innovative iE-DAP derivatives additionally equipped with lauroyl or didodecyl moieties at the α-amino group of d-Glu have been prepared and examined for their NOD1 activating capacity. Overall, the results obtained indicate that constraining the terminal amino group of meso-DAP abrogates the compounds’ ability to activate NOD1, since only compound 6b retained noteworthy NOD1 agonistic activity, and underpin the stringent nature of this amino acid with regard to the allowed structural modifications.
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24
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Wang W, Gao Z, Wang L, Li J, Yu J, Han S, Meng X. Application and Prospects of Molecular Imaging in Immunotherapy. Cancer Manag Res 2020; 12:9389-9403. [PMID: 33061627 PMCID: PMC7533904 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s269773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, immunotherapies that target the interactions of programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) with its major ligands, programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and programmed death ligand 2 (PD-L2), have achieved significant success. To date, several immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway have been developed to treat melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, head and neck cancer, renal cell carcinoma, and urothelial carcinoma. Despite promising outcomes with immunotherapy, there are many limitations to several current immune biomarkers for predicting immune benefits and to traditional imaging for evaluating the efficacy and prognosis of immunotherapy and monitoring adverse reactions. In this review, we recommend a novel imaging method, molecular imaging. This paper reviews the application and prospects of molecular imaging in the context of current immunotherapies in regard to the following aspects: 1) detecting the expression of PD-1/PD-L1; 2) evaluating the efficacy of immunotherapy; 3) assessing patient prognosis with immunotherapy; 4) monitoring the toxicity of immunotherapy; and 5) other targets imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqing Wang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 261053, People's Republic of China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenhua Gao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianing Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinming Yu
- School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 261053, People's Republic of China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Shumei Han
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue Meng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan 250117, Shandong, People's Republic of China
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25
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Ma Y, Yang J, Wei X, Pei Y, Ye J, Li X, Si G, Tian J, Dong Y, Liu G. Nonpeptidic quinazolinone derivatives as dual nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor 1/2 antagonists for adjuvant cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 207:112723. [PMID: 32920426 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 and 2 (NOD1/2) receptors are potential immune checkpoints. In this article, a quinazolinone derivative (36b) as a NOD1/2 dual antagonist was identified that significantly sensitizes B16 tumor-bearing mice to paclitaxel treatment by inhibiting both nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase inflammatory signaling that mediated by NOD1/2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Ma
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, 2A Nanwei Rd, Xicheng Dist, Beijing, 100050, PR China
| | - Jingshu Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Xiduan Wei
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Yameng Pei
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Jingjia Ye
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Xueyuan Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Guangxu Si
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Jingyuan Tian
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China
| | - Yi Dong
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, 2A Nanwei Rd, Xicheng Dist, Beijing, 100050, PR China.
| | - Gang Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Haidian Dist, Beijing, 100084, PR China.
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26
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Identification of benzofused five-membered sultams, potent dual NOD1/NOD2 antagonists in vitro and in vivo. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 204:112575. [PMID: 32731185 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing proteins 1 and 2 play important roles in immune system activation. Recently, a shift has occurred due to the emerging knowledge that preventing nucleotide-binding oligomerization domains (NODs) signaling could facilitate the treatment of some cancers, which warrants the search for dual antagonists of NOD1 and NOD2. Herein, we undertook the synthesis and identification of a new class of derivatives of dual NOD1/NOD2 antagonists with novel benzofused five-membered sultams. Compound 14k was finally demonstrated to be the most potent molecule that inhibits both NOD1-and NOD2-stimulated NF-κB and MAPK signaling in vitro and in vivo.
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27
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NOD2 inhibits tumorigenesis and increases chemosensitivity of hepatocellular carcinoma by targeting AMPK pathway. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:174. [PMID: 32144252 PMCID: PMC7060316 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2368-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) is a recognized innate immune sensor which can initiate potent immune response against pathogens. Many innate immune sensors have been reported to be of great importance in carcinogenesis. However, the role of NOD2 in cancer is not well understood. Here we investigated the role of NOD2 in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We demonstrated that NOD2 deficiency promoted hepatocarcinogenesis in N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN)/carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced HCC mice model and xenograft tumor model. In vitro investigation showed that NOD2 acted as a tumor suppressor and inhibited proliferation, colony formation and invasion of HCC cells. Clinical investigation showed that NOD2 expression was completely lost or significantly downregulated in clinical HCC tissues, and loss of NOD2 expression was significantly correlated with advanced disease stages. Further investigation showed that NOD2 exerted its anti-tumor effect through activating adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) -activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway, and NOD2 significantly enhanced the sensitivity of HCC cells to sorafenib, lenvatinib and 5-FU treatment through activating AMPK pathway induced apoptosis. Moreover, we demonstrated that NOD2 activated AMPK pathway by directly binding with AMPKα-LKB1 complex, which led to autophagy-mediated apoptosis of HCC cells. Altogether, this study showed that NOD2 acted as a tumor suppressor as well as a chemotherapeutic regulator in HCC cells by directly activating AMPK pathway, which indicated a potential therapeutic strategy for HCC treatment by upregulating NOD2-AMPK signaling axis.
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28
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Guzelj S, Gobec M, Urbančič D, Mlinarič-Raščan I, Corsini E, Jakopin Ž. Structural features and functional activities of benzimidazoles as NOD2 antagonists. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 190:112089. [PMID: 32014680 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
NOD1 and NOD2 are pattern recognition receptors that have important roles in innate immune responses. Although their overactivation has been linked to a number of diseases, NOD2 in particular remains a virtually unexploited target in this respect, with only one structural class of antagonist reported. To gain insight into the structure-activity relationships of NOD2 antagonists, a series of novel analogs was designed and synthesized, and then screened for antagonist activity versus NOD2, and counter-screened versus NOD1. Compounds 32 and 38 were identified as potent and moderately selective NOD2 antagonists, and 33 and 42 as dual NOD1/NOD2 antagonists, with balanced activities against both targets in the low micromolar range. These data enable in-depth exploration of their structure-activity relationships and provide deeper understanding of the structural features required for NOD2 antagonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samo Guzelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Martina Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Dunja Urbančič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Irena Mlinarič-Raščan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Emanuela Corsini
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Žiga Jakopin
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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29
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Nabergoj S, Mlinarič-Raščan I, Jakopin Ž. Harnessing the untapped potential of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain ligands for cancer immunotherapy. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:1447-1484. [PMID: 30548868 PMCID: PMC6767550 DOI: 10.1002/med.21557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, cancer immunotherapy has emerged as an effective alternative to traditional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation. In contrast to the latter, cancer immunotherapy has the potential to distinguish between cancer and healthy cells, and thus to avoid severe and intolerable side‐effects, since the cancer cells are effectively eliminated by stimulated immune cells. The cytosolic nucleotide‐binding oligomerization domains 1 and 2 receptors (NOD1 and NOD2) are important components of the innate immune system and constitute interesting targets in terms of strengthening the immune response against cancer cells. Many NOD ligands have been synthesized, in particular NOD2 agonists that exhibit favorable immunostimulatory and anticancer activity. Among them, mifamurtide has already been approved in Europe by the European Medicine Agency for treating patients with osteosarcoma in combination with chemotherapy after complete surgical removal of the primary tumor. This review is focused on NOD receptors as promising targets in cancer immunotherapy as well as summarizing current knowledge of the various NOD ligands exhibiting antitumor and even antimetastatic activity in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanja Nabergoj
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Žiga Jakopin
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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