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Beitchman JA, Krishna G, Bromberg CE, Thomas TC. Effects of isoflurane and urethane anesthetics on glutamate neurotransmission in rat brain using in vivo amperometry. BMC Neurosci 2023; 24:52. [PMID: 37817064 PMCID: PMC10563344 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-023-00822-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aspects of glutamate neurotransmission implicated in normal and pathological conditions are predominantly evaluated using in vivo recording paradigms in rats anesthetized with isoflurane or urethane. Urethane and isoflurane anesthesia influence glutamate neurotransmission through different mechanisms; however, real-time outcome measures of potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics have not been compared within and between regions of the brain. In order to maintain rigor and reproducibility within the literature between the two most common methods of anesthetized in vivo recording of glutamate, we compared glutamate signaling as a function of anesthesia and brain region in the rat strain most used in neuroscience. METHODS In the following experiments, in vivo amperometric recordings of KCl-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics (uptake rate and T80) in the cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus were performed using glutamate-selective microelectrode arrays (MEAs) in young adult male, Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with either isoflurane or urethane. RESULTS Potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow was similar under urethane and isoflurane anesthesia in all brain regions studied. Analysis of glutamate clearance determined that the uptake rate was significantly faster (53.2%, p < 0.05) within the thalamus under urethane compared to isoflurane, but no differences were measured in the cortex or hippocampus. Under urethane, glutamate clearance parameters were region-dependent, with significantly faster glutamate clearance in the thalamus compared to the cortex but not the hippocampus (p < 0.05). No region-dependent differences were measured for glutamate overflow using isoflurane. CONCLUSIONS These data support that amperometric recordings of KCl-evoked glutamate under isoflurane and urethane anesthesia result in similar and comparable data. However, certain parameters of glutamate clearance can vary based on choice of anesthesia and brain region. In these circumstances, special considerations are needed when comparing previous literature and planning future experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Beitchman
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 425 N. 5th St. | 322 ABC-1 Building, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-2127, USA
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Gokul Krishna
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 425 N. 5th St. | 322 ABC-1 Building, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-2127, USA
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Caitlin E Bromberg
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 425 N. 5th St. | 322 ABC-1 Building, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-2127, USA
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Theresa Currier Thomas
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, 425 N. 5th St. | 322 ABC-1 Building, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-2127, USA.
- Barrow Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
- Phoenix VA Healthcare System, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
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Beitchman JA, Krishna G, Bromberg CE, Thomas TC. Effects of isoflurane and urethane anesthetics on glutamate neurotransmission in rat brain using in vivo amperometry. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.16.528856. [PMID: 36824899 PMCID: PMC9949081 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.16.528856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Aspects of glutamate neurotransmission implicated in normal and pathological conditions are often evaluated using in vivo recording paradigms in rats anesthetized with isoflurane or urethane. Urethane and isoflurane anesthesia influence glutamate neurotransmission through different mechanisms; however real-time outcome measures of potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics have not been compared within and between regions of the brain. In the following experiments, in vivo amperometric recordings of KCl-evoked glutamate overflow and glutamate clearance kinetics (uptake rate and T80) in the cortex, hippocampus and thalamus were performed using glutamate-selective microelectrode arrays (MEAs) in young adult male, Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with isoflurane or urethane. Potassium chloride (KCl)-evoked glutamate overflow was similar under urethane and isoflurane anesthesia in all brain regions studied. Analysis of glutamate clearance determined that the uptake rate was significantly faster (53.2%, p<0.05) within the thalamus under urethane compared to isoflurane, but no differences were measured in the cortex or hippocampus. Under urethane, glutamate clearance parameters were region dependent, with significantly faster glutamate clearance in the thalamus compared to the cortex but not the hippocampus (p<0.05). No region dependent differences were measured for glutamate overflow using isoflurane. These data support that amperometric recordings of glutamate under isoflurane and urethane anesthesia result in mostly similar and comparable data. However, certain parameters of glutamate uptake vary based on choice of anesthesia and brain region. Special considerations must be given to these areas when considering comparison to previous literature and when planning future experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A. Beitchman
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Gokul Krishna
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Caitlin E. Bromberg
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Theresa Currier Thomas
- BARROW Neurological Institute at Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Phoenix VA Healthcare System, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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Wu L, Canna A, Narvaez O, Ma J, Sang S, Lehto LJ, Sierra A, Tanila H, Zhang Y, Gröhn O, Low WC, Filip P, Mangia S, Michaeli S. Orientation selective DBS of entorhinal cortex and medial septal nucleus modulates activity of rat brain areas involved in memory and cognition. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8565. [PMID: 35595790 PMCID: PMC9122972 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12383-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The recently introduced orientation selective deep brain stimulation (OS-DBS) technique freely controls the direction of the electric field's spatial gradient by using multiple contacts with independent current sources within a multielectrode array. The goal of OS-DBS is to align the electrical field along the axonal track of interest passing through the stimulation site. Here we utilized OS-DBS with a planar 3-channel electrode for stimulating the rat entorhinal cortex (EC) and medial septal nucleus (MSN), two promising areas for DBS treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The brain responses to OS-DBS were monitored by whole brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 9.4 T with Multi-Band Sweep Imaging with Fourier Transformation (MB-SWIFT). Varying the in-plane OS-DBS stimulation angle in the EC resulted in activity modulation of multiple downstream brain areas involved in memory and cognition. Contrary to that, no angle dependence of brain activations was observed when stimulating the MSN, consistent with predictions based on the electrode configuration and on the main axonal directions of the targets derived from diffusion MRI tractography and histology. We conclude that tuning the OS-DBS stimulation angle modulates the activation of brain areas relevant to Alzheimer's disease, thus holding great promise in the DBS treatment of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wu
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Antonietta Canna
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Omar Narvaez
- A. I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jun Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
| | - Sheng Sang
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Lauri J Lehto
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Alejandra Sierra
- A. I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Heikki Tanila
- A. I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Division of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Olli Gröhn
- A. I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Walter C Low
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
| | - Pavel Filip
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Department of Neurology, First Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Silvia Mangia
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Shalom Michaeli
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
- Radiology Department, Center for MR Research, University of Minnesota, 2021 6th St. SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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Effects of urethane and isoflurane on the sensory evoked response and local blood flow in the early postnatal rat somatosensory cortex. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9567. [PMID: 33953244 PMCID: PMC8099888 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88461-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional studies in the central nervous system are often conducted using anesthesia. While the dose-dependent effects of anesthesia on neuronal activity have been extensively characterized in adults, little is known about the effects of anesthesia on cortical activity and cerebral blood flow in the immature central nervous system. Substitution of electrophysiological recordings with the less-invasive technique of optical intrinsic signal imaging (OIS) in vivo allowed simultaneous recordings of sensory-evoked functional response and local blood flow changes in the neonatal rat barrel cortex. Using OIS we characterize the effects of two widely used anesthetics—urethane and isoflurane. We found that both anesthetics suppressed the sensory-evoked optical intrinsic signal in a dose-dependent manner. Dependence of the cortical response suppression matched the exponential decay model. At experimental levels of anesthesia, urethane affected the evoked cortical response less than isoflurane, which is in agreement with the results of electrophysiological recordings demonstrated by other authors. Changes in oxygenation and local blood flow also showed negative correlation with both anesthetics. The high similarity in immature patterns of activity recorded in different regions of the developing cortex suggested similar principles of development regardless of the cortical region. Therefore the indicated results should be taken into account during functional explorations in the entire developing cortex. Our results also point to urethane as the anesthetic of choice in non-survival experimental recordings in the developing brain as it produces less prominent impairment of cortical neuronal activity in neonatal animals.
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Steiner AR, Rousseau-Blass F, Schroeter A, Hartnack S, Bettschart-Wolfensberger R. Systematic Review: Anesthetic Protocols and Management as Confounders in Rodent Blood Oxygen Level Dependent Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (BOLD fMRI)-Part B: Effects of Anesthetic Agents, Doses and Timing. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11010199. [PMID: 33467584 PMCID: PMC7830239 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary To understand brain function in rats and mice functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain is used. With this type of “brain scan” regional changes in blood flow and oxygen consumption are measured as an indirect surrogate for activity of brain regions. Animals are often anesthetized for the experiments to prevent stress and blurred images due to movement. However, anesthesia may alter the measurements, as blood flow within the brain is differently affected by different anesthetics, and anesthetics also directly affect brain function. Consequently, results obtained under one anesthetic protocol may not be comparable with those obtained under another, and/or not representative for awake animals and humans. We have systematically searched the existing literature for studies analyzing the effects of different anesthesia methods or studies that compared anesthetized and awake animals. Most studies reported that anesthetic agents, doses and timing had an effect on functional magnetic resonance imaging results. To obtain results which promote our understanding of brain function, it is therefore essential that a standard for anesthetic protocols for functional magnetic resonance is defined and their impact is well characterized. Abstract In rodent models the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) under anesthesia is common. The anesthetic protocol might influence fMRI readouts either directly or via changes in physiological parameters. As long as those factors cannot be objectively quantified, the scientific validity of fMRI in rodents is impaired. In the present systematic review, literature analyzing in rats and mice the influence of anesthesia regimes and concurrent physiological functions on blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fMRI results was investigated. Studies from four databases that were searched were selected following pre-defined criteria. Two separate articles publish the results; the herewith presented article includes the analyses of 83 studies. Most studies found differences in BOLD fMRI readouts with different anesthesia drugs and dose rates, time points of imaging or when awake status was compared to anesthetized animals. To obtain scientifically valid, reproducible results from rodent fMRI studies, stable levels of anesthesia with agents suitable for the model under investigation as well as known and objectively quantifiable effects on readouts are, thus, mandatory. Further studies should establish dose ranges for standardized anesthetic protocols and determine time windows for imaging during which influence of anesthesia on readout is objectively quantifiable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline R. Steiner
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical and Diagnostic Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Frédérik Rousseau-Blass
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC J2S 2M2, Canada;
| | - Aileen Schroeter
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University and ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Sonja Hartnack
- Section of Epidemiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Regula Bettschart-Wolfensberger
- Section of Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical and Diagnostic Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
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Abstract
Renal diseases remain devastating illnesses with unacceptably high rates of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Animal models are essential tools to better understand the pathomechanism of kidney-related illnesses and to develop new, successful therapeutic strategies. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been actively explored in the last decades for assessing renal function, perfusion, tissue oxygenation as well as the degree of fibrosis and inflammation. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the preparation and monitoring of small animals before, during, and after surgical interventions or MR imaging. Standardization of experimental settings such as body temperature or hydration of animals and minimizing pain and distress are essential for diminishing nonexperimental variables as well as for conducting ethical research.This publication is based upon work from the COST Action PARENCHIMA, a community-driven network funded by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) program of the European Union, which aims to improve the reproducibility and standardization of renal MRI biomarkers.
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Becq GJPC, Habet T, Collomb N, Faucher M, Delon-Martin C, Coizet V, Achard S, Barbier EL. Functional connectivity is preserved but reorganized across several anesthetic regimes. Neuroimage 2020; 219:116945. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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Vianney-Rodrigues P, Auerbach BD, Salvi R. Aberrant thalamocortical coherence in an animal model of tinnitus. J Neurophysiol 2019; 121:893-907. [PMID: 30625004 PMCID: PMC6520628 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00053.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophysiological and imaging studies from humans suggest that the phantom sound of tinnitus is associated with abnormal thalamocortical neural oscillations (dysrhythmia) and enhanced gamma band activity in the auditory cortex. However, these models have seldom been tested in animal models where it is possible to simultaneously assess the neural oscillatory activity within and between the thalamus and auditory cortex. To explore this issue, we used multichannel electrodes to examine the oscillatory behavior of local field potentials recorded in the rat medial geniculate body (MBG) and primary auditory cortex (A1) before and after administering a dose of sodium salicylate (SS) that reliably induces tinnitus. In the MGB, SS reduced theta, alpha, and beta oscillations and decreased coherence (synchrony) between electrode pairs in theta, alpha, and beta bands but increased coherence in the gamma band. Within A1, SS significantly increased gamma oscillations, decreased theta power, and decreased coherence between electrode pairs in theta and alpha bands but increased coherence in the gamma band. When coherence was measured between one electrode in the MGB and another in A1, SS decreased coherence in beta, alpha, and theta bands but increased coherence in the gamma band. SS also increased cross-frequency coupling between the phase of theta oscillations in the MGB and amplitude of gamma oscillations in A1. Altogether, our results suggest that SS treatment fundamentally alters the manner in which thalamocortical circuits communicate, leading to excessive cortical gamma power and synchronization, neurophysiological changes implicated in tinnitus. Our data provide support for elements of both the thalamocortical dysrhythmia (TD) and synchronization by loss of inhibition (SLIM) models of tinnitus, demonstrating that increased cortical gamma band activity is associated with both enhanced theta-gamma coupling as well as decreases alpha power/coherence between the MGB and A1. NEW & NOTEWORTHY There are no effective drugs to alleviate the phantom sound of tinnitus because the physiological mechanisms leading to its generation are poorly understood. Neural models of tinnitus suggest that it arises from abnormal thalamocortical oscillations, but these models have not been extensively tested. This article identifies abnormal thalamocortical oscillations in a drug-induced tinnitus model. Our findings open up new avenues of research to investigate whether cellular mechanisms underlying thalamocortical oscillations are causally linked to tinnitus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard Salvi
- Center for Hearing and Deafness, University at Buffalo , Buffalo, New York
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Abstract
The mechanisms regulating the control of consciousness in both spontaneous sleep–wake behaviour and general anaesthesia remain poorly understood and are a fundamental question in neuroscience. The last 30 years have identified numerous molecular substrates and more recently important monoaminergic neuronal substrates. Future work now needs to concentrate on elucidating the convergence of these neuronal circuits to build a unifying mechanism of consciousness control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Gent
- Inselspital Universitatsspital Bern, Inselspital University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Antoine Adamantidis
- Inselspital Universitatsspital Bern, Inselspital University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Shim WH, Suh JY, Kim JK, Jeong J, Kim YR. Enhanced Thalamic Functional Connectivity with No fMRI Responses to Affected Forelimb Stimulation in Stroke-Recovered Rats. Front Neural Circuits 2017; 10:113. [PMID: 28119575 PMCID: PMC5222821 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2016.00113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurological recovery after stroke has been extensively investigated to provide better understanding of neurobiological mechanism, therapy, and patient management. Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques, particularly functional MRI (fMRI), have widely contributed to unravel the relationship between the altered neural function and stroke-affected brain areas. As results of previous investigations, the plastic reorganization and/or gradual restoration of the hemodynamic fMRI responses to neural stimuli have been suggested as relevant mechanisms underlying the stroke recovery process. However, divergent study results and modality-dependent outcomes have clouded the proper interpretation of variable fMRI signals. Here, we performed both evoked and resting state fMRI (rs-fMRI) to clarify the link between the fMRI phenotypes and post-stroke functional recovery. The experiments were designed to examine the altered neural activity within the contra-lesional hemisphere and other undamaged brain regions using rat models with large unilateral stroke, which despite the severe injury, exhibited nearly full recovery at ∼6 months after stroke. Surprisingly, both blood oxygenation level-dependent and blood volume-weighted (CBVw) fMRI activities elicited by electrical stimulation of the stroke-affected forelimb were completely absent, failing to reveal the neural origin of the behavioral recovery. In contrast, the functional connectivity maps showed highly robust rs-fMRI activity concentrated in the contra-lesional ventromedial nucleus of thalamus (VM). The negative finding in the stimuli-induced fMRI study using the popular rat middle cerebral artery model denotes weak association between the fMRI hemodynamic responses and neurological improvement. The results strongly caution the indiscreet interpretation of stroke-affected fMRI signals and demonstrate rs-fMRI as a complementary tool for efficiently characterizing stroke recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo H Shim
- Department of Radiology, ASAN Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of MedicineUlsan, South Korea; ASAN Institute for Life Sciences, ASAN Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of MedicineUlsan, South Korea; Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and TechnologyDaejeon, South Korea; Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, BostonMA, USA
| | - Ji-Yeon Suh
- Department of Radiology, ASAN Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of MedicineUlsan, South Korea; Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, BostonMA, USA
| | - Jeong K Kim
- Department of Radiology, ASAN Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine Ulsan, South Korea
| | - Jaeseung Jeong
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Young R Kim
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston MA, USA
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Keilholz SD, Pan WJ, Billings J, Nezafati M, Shakil S. Noise and non-neuronal contributions to the BOLD signal: applications to and insights from animal studies. Neuroimage 2016; 154:267-281. [PMID: 28017922 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The BOLD signal reflects hemodynamic events within the brain, which in turn are driven by metabolic changes and neural activity. However, the link between BOLD changes and neural activity is indirect and can be influenced by a number of non-neuronal processes. Motion and physiological cycles have long been known to affect the BOLD signal and are present in both humans and animal models. Differences in physiological baseline can also contribute to intra- and inter-subject variability. The use of anesthesia, common in animal studies, alters neural activity, vascular tone, and neurovascular coupling. Most intriguing, perhaps, are the contributions from other processes that do not appear to be neural in origin but which may provide information about other aspects of neurophysiology. This review discusses different types of noise and non-neuronal contributors to the BOLD signal, sources of variability for animal studies, and insights to be gained from animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shella D Keilholz
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University/Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States; Neuroscience Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.
| | - Wen-Ju Pan
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University/Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jacob Billings
- Neuroscience Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Maysam Nezafati
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University/Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Sadia Shakil
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Intraperitoneal co-administration of low dose urethane with xylazine and ketamine for extended duration of surgical anesthesia in rats. Lab Anim Res 2015; 31:174-9. [PMID: 26755920 PMCID: PMC4707145 DOI: 10.5625/lar.2015.31.4.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Procedures involving complex surgical techniques in rats, such as placement of abdominal aortic graft require extended duration of surgical anesthesia, which often can be achieved by repeated administrations of xylazine-ketamine combination. However such repeated anesthetic administration, in addition to being technically challenging, may be associated with potential adverse events due to cumulative effects of anesthesia. We report here the feasibility of using urethane at low dose (~1/10 the recommended anesthetic dose) in combination with a xylazine-ketamine mix to achieve an extended duration of surgical anesthesia in rats. The anesthesia induction phase was quick and smooth with an optimal phase of surgical anesthesia achieved for up to 90 minutes, which was significantly higher compared to that achieved with use of only xylazine-ketamine combination. The rectal temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate were within the physiological range with an uneventful recovery phase. Post surgery the rats were followed up to 3 months without any evidence of tumor or any other adverse effects related to the use of the urethane anesthetic combination. We conclude that low dose urethane can be effectively used in combination with xylazine and ketamine to achieve extended duration of surgical anesthesia up to 90 minutes in rats.
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Haensel JX, Spain A, Martin C. A systematic review of physiological methods in rodent pharmacological MRI studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:489-99. [PMID: 25585682 PMCID: PMC4302233 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3855-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging (phMRI) provides an approach to study effects of drug challenges on brain processes. Elucidating mechanisms of drug action helps us to better understand the workings of neurotransmitter systems, map brain function or facilitate drug development. phMRI is increasingly used in preclinical research employing rodent models; however, data interpretation and integration are complicated by the use of different experimental approaches between laboratories. In particular, the effects of different anaesthetic regimes upon neuronal and haemodynamic processes and baseline physiology could be problematic. OBJECTIVES This paper investigates how differences in phMRI research methodologies are manifested and considers associated implications, placing particular emphasis on choice of anaesthetic regimes. METHODS A systematic review of rodent phMRI studies was conducted. Factors such as those describing anaesthetic regimes (e.g. agent, dosage) and parameters relating to physiological maintenance (e.g. ventilatory gases) and MRI method were recorded. RESULTS We identified 126 eligible studies and found that the volatile agents isoflurane (43.7 %) and halothane (33.3 %) were most commonly used for anaesthesia, but dosage and mixture of ventilatory gases varied substantially between laboratories. Relevant physiological parameters were usually recorded, although 32 % of studies did not provide cardiovascular measures. CONCLUSIONS Anaesthesia and animal preparation can influence phMRI data profoundly. The variation of anaesthetic type, dosage regime and ventilatory gases makes consolidation of research findings (e.g. within a specific neurotransmitter system) difficult. Standardisation of a small(er) number of preclinical phMRI research methodologies and/or increased consideration of approaches that do not require anaesthesia is necessary to address these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer X. Haensel
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP UK
| | - Aisling Spain
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP UK
| | - Chris Martin
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP UK
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Altabella L, Sbriccoli M, Zoratto F, Poleggi A, Vinci R, Lacivita E, Leopoldo M, Laviola G, Cardone F, Canese R, Adriani W. Differential responses to acute administration of a new 5-HT7-R agonist as a function of adolescent pre-treatment: phMRI and immuno-histochemical study. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:427. [PMID: 25565998 PMCID: PMC4267273 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
LP-211 is a new, selective agonist of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptor 7 (5-HT7-R), which is part of a neuro-transmission system with a proposed role in neural plasticity and in mood, cognitive and sleep regulation. Adolescent subchronic LP-211 treatment produces some persisting changes in rats' forebrain structural and functional parameters. Here, using pharmacological MRI (phMRI), we investigated the effect of acute administration with LP-211 (10 mg/kg i.p.), or vehicle, to adult rats previously exposed to the same drug (0.25 mg/kg/day for 5 days), or vehicle, during adolescence (44–48 post-natal days); histology and immuno-histochemistry were performed ex vivo to evaluate neuro-anatomical and physiological long-term adaptation to pharmacological pre-treatment. The phMRI signal reveals forebrain areas (i.e., hippocampus, orbital prefrontal cortex), activated in response to LP-211 challenge independently of adolescent pre-treatment. In septum and nucleus accumbens, sensitized activation was found in adolescent pre-treated rats but not in vehicle-exposed controls. Immuno-histochemical analyses showed marked differences in septum as long-term consequence of the adolescent pre-treatment: increased level of 5-HT7-R, increased number of 5-HT7-R positive cells, and enhanced astrocyte activation. For nucleus accumbens, immuno-histochemical analyses did not reveal any difference between adolescent pre-treated rats and vehicle-exposed controls. In conclusion, subchronic LP-211 administration during adolescence is able to induce persistent physiological changes in the septal 5-HT7-R expression and astrocyte response that can still be observed in adulthood. Data shed new insights into roles of 5-HT7-R for normal and pathologic behavioral regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Altabella
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Sbriccoli
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Zoratto
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy ; Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital IRCCS Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Poleggi
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Ramona Vinci
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy ; Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital IRCCS Rome, Italy
| | - Enza Lacivita
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro" Bari, Italy
| | - Marcello Leopoldo
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro" Bari, Italy
| | - Giovanni Laviola
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Franco Cardone
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Canese
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Walter Adriani
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
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15
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Martin CJ, Kennerley AJ, Berwick J, Port M, Mayhew JEW. Functional MRI in conscious rats using a chronically implanted surface coil. J Magn Reson Imaging 2013; 38:739-44. [PMID: 23677870 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.23914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To establish procedures for functional MRI (fMRI) in rats without the need for anesthetic agents. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats were trained to habituate to restraint in a harness and scanner noise. Under anesthesia, rats were then prepared with a cranial implant that permitted stabilization of the head during subsequent imaging experiments. The cranial implant included an radiofrequency (RF) coil that was used to transmit and receive radiofrequency signals during imaging. Further training was then conducted to habituate the animals to head fixation whilst in the MR scanner. RESULTS Using this method, we were able to successfully and repeatedly record BOLD fMRI responses to hypercapnia and whisker stimulation in awake rats. Electrical stimulation of the whisker pad produced a ∼7% increase in BOLD signal in the corresponding barrel cortex as well as adjacent negative BOLD responses, whilst hypercapnia produced larger increases in BOLD signal amplitude. CONCLUSION This methodology leaves the face and limbs free from obstruction, making possible a range of behavioral or sensory stimulation protocols. Further development of this animal model could enable traditional behavioral neuroscience techniques to be combined with modern functional neuroimaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris J Martin
- Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
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16
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Martin C, Zheng Y, Sibson NR, Mayhew JEW, Berwick J. Complex spatiotemporal haemodynamic response following sensory stimulation in the awake rat. Neuroimage 2012; 66:1-8. [PMID: 23063446 PMCID: PMC3556776 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Detailed understanding of the haemodynamic changes that underlie non-invasive neuroimaging techniques such as blood oxygen level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging is essential if we are to continue to extend the use of these methods for understanding brain function and dysfunction. The use of animal and in particular rodent research models has been central to these endeavours as they allow in-vivo experimental techniques that provide measurements of the haemodynamic response function at high temporal and spatial resolution. A limitation of most of this research is the use of anaesthetic agents which may disrupt or mask important features of neurovascular coupling or the haemodynamic response function. In this study we therefore measured spatiotemporal cortical haemodynamic responses to somatosensory stimulation in awake rats using optical imaging spectroscopy. Trained, restrained animals received non-noxious stimulation of the whisker pad via chronically implanted stimulating microwires whilst optical recordings were made from the contralateral somatosensory cortex through a thin cranial window. The responses we measure from un-anaesthetised animals are substantially different from those reported in previous studies which have used anaesthetised animals. These differences include biphasic response regions (initial increases in blood volume and oxygenation followed by subsequent decreases) as well as oscillations in the response time series of awake animals. These haemodynamic response features do not reflect concomitant changes in the underlying neuronal activity and therefore reflect neurovascular or cerebrovascular processes. These hitherto unreported hyperemic response dynamics may have important implications for the use of anaesthetised animal models for research into the haemodynamic response function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Martin
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP, UK.
| | - Ying Zheng
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP, UK
| | - Nicola R Sibson
- Radiobiology Research Institute, Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7LJ, UK
| | - John E W Mayhew
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP, UK
| | - Jason Berwick
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TP, UK
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