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Jimenez EC. Post-translationally modified conopeptides: Biological activities and pharmacological applications. Peptides 2021; 139:170525. [PMID: 33684482 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Conus venoms comprise a large variety of biologically active peptides (conopeptides or conotoxins) that are employed for prey capture and other biological functions. Throughout the course of evolution of the cone snails, they have developed an envenomation scheme that necessitates a potent mixture of peptides, most of which are highly post-translationally modified, that can cause rapid paralysis of their prey. The great diversity of these peptides defines the ecological interactions and evolutionary strategy of cone snails. Such scheme has led to some pharmacological applications for pain, epilepsy, and myocardial infarction, that could be further explored to ultimately find unique peptide-based therapies. This review focuses on ∼ 60 representative post-translationally modified conopeptides that were isolated from Conus venoms. Various conopeptides reveal post-translational modifications of specific amino acids, such as hydroxylation of proline and lysine, gamma-carboxylation of glutamate, formation of N-terminal pyroglutamate, isomerization of l- to d-amino acid, bromination of tryptophan, O-glycosylation of threonine or serine, sulfation of tyrosine, and cysteinylation of cysteine, other than the more common disulfide crosslinking and C-terminal amidation. Many of the post-translationally modified peptides paved the way for the characterization, by alternative analytical methods, of other pharmacologically important peptides that are classified under 27 conopeptide families denoting pharmacological classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsie C Jimenez
- Department of Physical Sciences, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio City, 2600, Philippines.
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Thompson A, Infield DT, Smith AR, Smith GT, Ahern CA, Zakon HH. Rapid evolution of a voltage-gated sodium channel gene in a lineage of electric fish leads to a persistent sodium current. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2004892. [PMID: 29584718 PMCID: PMC5870949 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2004892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Most weakly electric fish navigate and communicate by sensing electric signals generated by their muscle-derived electric organs. Adults of one lineage (Apteronotidae), which discharge their electric organs in excess of 1 kHz, instead have an electric organ derived from the axons of specialized spinal neurons (electromotorneurons [EMNs]). EMNs fire spontaneously and are the fastest-firing neurons known. This biophysically extreme phenotype depends upon a persistent sodium current, the molecular underpinnings of which remain unknown. We show that a skeletal muscle–specific sodium channel gene duplicated in this lineage and, within approximately 2 million years, began expressing in the spinal cord, a novel site of expression for this isoform. Concurrently, amino acid replacements that cause a persistent sodium current accumulated in the regions of the channel underlying inactivation. Therefore, a novel adaptation allowing extreme neuronal firing arose from the duplication, change in expression, and rapid sequence evolution of a muscle-expressing sodium channel gene. The electrical properties of excitable cells, such as those in muscle and nervous tissue, were enabled in large part by the evolution of voltage-gated ion channel genes. The regulated conduction of ions through these channels results in the propagation of electrical signals, facilitating communication between cells. Here, we investigated how voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels contributed to the evolution of a novel electric organ system in the Apteronotids—a lineage of weakly electric fish. This organ is developmentally derived from motor neurons and used for communication between individual fish, as well as for probing their nocturnal environment. We used transcriptomic data to show that the gene encoding a broadly conserved muscle-specific sodium channel was duplicated in an ancestral fish. One duplicated gene copy subsequently gained expression in the spinal cord, where the electric organ is located. Through evolutionary analysis and biophysical experiments, we demonstrate that sequence changes in this new sodium channel transformed its function to cause novel electrical properties that can facilitate spontaneous high-frequency action potentials. This study shows that duplicate genes can gain highly novel expression patterns and quickly adapt to contribute to the phenotypic evolution of novel organ systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammon Thompson
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Daniel T. Infield
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Iowa Neuroscience Institute, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Adam R. Smith
- Department of Biology and Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - G. Troy Smith
- Department of Biology and Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Ahern
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Iowa Neuroscience Institute, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Harold H. Zakon
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
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Nagel R, Kirschbaum F, Tiedemann R. Electric organ discharge diversification in mormyrid weakly electric fish is associated with differential expression of voltage-gated ion channel genes. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2017; 203:183-195. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-017-1151-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Salisbury JP, Sîrbulescu RF, Moran BM, Auclair JR, Zupanc GKH, Agar JN. The central nervous system transcriptome of the weakly electric brown ghost knifefish (Apteronotus leptorhynchus): de novo assembly, annotation, and proteomics validation. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:166. [PMID: 25879418 PMCID: PMC4424500 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1354-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The brown ghost knifefish (Apteronotus leptorhynchus) is a weakly electric teleost fish of particular interest as a versatile model system for a variety of research areas in neuroscience and biology. The comprehensive information available on the neurophysiology and neuroanatomy of this organism has enabled significant advances in such areas as the study of the neural basis of behavior, the development of adult-born neurons in the central nervous system and their involvement in the regeneration of nervous tissue, as well as brain aging and senescence. Despite substantial scientific interest in this species, no genomic resources are currently available. Results Here, we report the de novo assembly and annotation of the A. leptorhynchus transcriptome. After evaluating several trimming and transcript reconstruction strategies, de novo assembly using Trinity uncovered 42,459 unique contigs containing at least a partial protein-coding sequence based on alignment to a reference set of known Actinopterygii sequences. As many as 11,847 of these contigs contained full or near-full length protein sequences, providing broad coverage of the proteome. A variety of non-coding RNA sequences were also identified and annotated, including conserved long intergenic non-coding RNA and other long non-coding RNA observed previously to be expressed in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) brain, as well as a variety of miRNA, snRNA, and snoRNA. Shotgun proteomics confirmed translation of open reading frames from over 2,000 transcripts, including alternative splice variants. Assignment of tandem mass spectra was greatly improved by use of the assembly compared to databases of sequences from closely related organisms. The assembly and raw reads have been deposited at DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession number GBKR00000000. Tandem mass spectrometry data is available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD001285. Conclusions Presented here is the first release of an annotated de novo transcriptome assembly from Apteronotus leptorhynchus, providing a broad overview of RNA expressed in central nervous system tissue. The assembly, which includes substantial coverage of a wide variety of both protein coding and non-coding transcripts, will allow the development of better tools to understand the mechanisms underlying unique characteristics of the knifefish model system, such as their tremendous regenerative capacity and negligible brain senescence. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1354-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Salisbury
- Barnett Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412 TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Ruxandra F Sîrbulescu
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 134 Mugar Life Sciences, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Benjamin M Moran
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 134 Mugar Life Sciences, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Jared R Auclair
- Barnett Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412 TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Günther K H Zupanc
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 134 Mugar Life Sciences, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Jeffrey N Agar
- Barnett Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412 TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 412 TF, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Smith GT. Evolution and hormonal regulation of sex differences in the electrocommunication behavior of ghost knifefishes (Apteronotidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 216:2421-33. [PMID: 23761467 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.082933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ghost knifefishes (family Apteronotidae) are one of the most successful and diverse families of electric fish. Like other weakly electric fish, apteronotids produce electric organ discharges (EODs) that function in electrolocation and communication. This review highlights the diversity in the structure, function and sexual dimorphism of electrocommunication signals within and across apteronotid species. EOD frequency (EODf) and waveform vary as a function of species, sex and/or social rank. Sex differences in EODf are evolutionarily labile; apteronotid species express every pattern of sexual dimorphism in EODf (males>females; males<females; males=females). The direction and magnitude of sex differences in EODf are correlated across species and populations with the responsiveness of EODf to androgens and/or estrogens, which suggests that sex differences evolve through gains and/or losses of hormone sensitivity. During social interactions, apteronotids also modulate their EODs to produce motivational signals known as chirps. Chirp structure differs markedly across species, and many species produce two or more discrete chirp types with potentially different functions. The structure of chirps is sexually dimorphic in all apteronotid species, and chirping is influenced by gonadal steroids and by neuromodulators. Encoding of chirps by the electrosensory system depends on the social context created by the interactions of the EODs of signalers and receivers. Electrosensory systems may thus influence the evolution of signal structure and function, and neuromodulators may coordinately shape the production and reception of electrocommunication signals depending on social context.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Troy Smith
- Department of Biology, Program in Neuroscience, and Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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Walz H, Hupé GJ, Benda J, Lewis JE. The neuroethology of electrocommunication: how signal background influences sensory encoding and behaviour in Apteronotus leptorhynchus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 107:13-25. [PMID: 22981958 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Weakly-electric fish are a well-established model system for neuroethological studies on communication and aggression. Sensory encoding of their electric communication signals, as well as behavioural responses to these signals, have been investigated in great detail under laboratory conditions. In the wave-type brown ghost knifefish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus, transient increases in the frequency of the generated electric field, called chirps, are particularly well-studied, since they can be readily evoked by stimulating a fish with artificial signals mimicking conspecifics. When two fish interact, both their quasi-sinusoidal electric fields (called electric organ discharge, EOD) superimpose, resulting in a beat, an amplitude modulation at the frequency difference between the two EODs. Although chirps themselves are highly stereotyped signals, the shape of the amplitude modulation resulting from a chirp superimposed on a beat background depends on a number of parameters, such as the beat frequency, modulation depth, and beat phase at which the chirp is emitted. Here we review the influence of these beat parameters on chirp encoding in the three primary stages of the electrosensory pathway: electroreceptor afferents, the hindbrain electrosensory lateral line lobe, and midbrain torus semicircularis. We then examine the role of these parameters, which represent specific features of various social contexts, on the behavioural responses of A. leptorhynchus. Some aspects of the behaviour may be explained by the coding properties of early sensory neurons to chirp stimuli. However, the complexity and diversity of behavioural responses to chirps in the context of different background parameters cannot be explained solely on the basis of the sensory responses and thus suggest that critical roles are played by higher processing stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Walz
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Munich, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Ginette J Hupé
- Department of Biology and Centre for Neural Dynamics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5
| | - Jan Benda
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - John E Lewis
- Department of Biology and Centre for Neural Dynamics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5
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George AA, Macleod GT, Zakon HH. Calcium-dependent phosphorylation regulates neuronal stability and plasticity in a highly precise pacemaker nucleus. J Neurophysiol 2011; 106:319-31. [PMID: 21525377 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00741.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Specific types of neurons show stable, predictable excitability properties, while other neurons show transient adaptive plasticity of their excitability. However, little attention has been paid to how the cellular pathways underlying adaptive plasticity interact with those that maintain neuronal stability. We addressed this question in the pacemaker neurons from a weakly electric fish because these neurons show a highly stable spontaneous firing rate as well as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-dependent form of plasticity. We found that basal firing rates were regulated by a serial interaction of conventional and atypical PKC isoforms and that this interaction establishes individual differences within the species. We observed that NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity is achieved by further activation of these kinases. Importantly, the PKC pathway is maintained in an unsaturated baseline state to allow further Ca(2+)-dependent activation during plasticity. On the other hand, the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin does not regulate baseline firing but is recruited to control the duration of the NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity and return the pacemaker firing rate back to baseline. This work illustrates how neuronal plasticity can be realized by biasing ongoing mechanisms of stability (e.g., PKC) and terminated by recruiting alternative mechanisms (e.g., calcineurin) that constrain excitability. We propose this as a general model for regulating activity-dependent change in neuronal excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A George
- Section of Neurobiology and Institute for Neuroscience, Patterson Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin, Texas, USA.
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Jang I, La JH, Kim GT, Lee JS, Kim EJ, Lee ES, Kim SJ, Seo JM, Ahn SH, Park JY, Hong SG, Kang D, Han J. Single-Channel Recording of TASK-3-like K Channel and Up-Regulation of TASK-3 mRNA Expression after Spinal Cord Injury in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2008; 12:245-51. [PMID: 19967063 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2008.12.5.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Single-channel recordings of TASK-1 and TASK-3, members of two-pore domain K(+) channel family, have not yet been reported in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, even though their mRNA and activity in whole-cell currents have been detected in these neurons. Here, we report single-channel kinetics of the TASK-3-like K(+) channel in DRG neurons and up-regulation of TASK-3 mRNA expression in tissues isolated from animals with spinal cord injury (SCI). In DRG neurons, the single-channel conductance of TASK-3-like K(+) channel was 33.0+/-0.1 pS at -60 mV, and TASK-3 activity fell by 65+/-5% when the extracellular pH was changed from 7.3 to 6.3, indicating that the DRG K(+) channel is similar to cloned TASK-3 channel. TASK-3 mRNA and protein levels in brain, spinal cord, and DRG were significantly higher in injured animals than in sham-operated ones. These results indicate that TASK-3 channels are expressed and functional in DRG neurons and the expression level is up-regulated following SCI, and suggest that TASK-3 channel could act as a potential background K(+) channel under SCI-induced acidic condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inseok Jang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, College of Medicine and Institute of Health Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-751, Korea
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Turner CR, Derylo M, de Santana CD, Alves-Gomes JA, Smith GT. Phylogenetic comparative analysis of electric communication signals in ghost knifefishes (Gymnotiformes: Apteronotidae). J Exp Biol 2007; 210:4104-22. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.007930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Electrocommunication signals in electric fish are diverse, easily recorded and have well-characterized neural control. Two signal features, the frequency and waveform of the electric organ discharge (EOD), vary widely across species. Modulations of the EOD (i.e. chirps and gradual frequency rises) also function as active communication signals during social interactions, but they have been studied in relatively few species. We compared the electrocommunication signals of 13 species in the largest gymnotiform family,Apteronotidae. Playback stimuli were used to elicit chirps and rises. We analyzed EOD frequency and waveform and the production and structure of chirps and rises. Species diversity in these signals was characterized with discriminant function analyses, and correlations between signal parameters were tested with phylogenetic comparative methods. Signals varied markedly across species and even between congeners and populations of the same species. Chirps and EODs were particularly evolutionarily labile, whereas rises differed little across species. Although all chirp parameters contributed to species differences in these signals, chirp amplitude modulation, frequency modulation (FM) and duration were particularly diverse. Within this diversity,however, interspecific correlations between chirp parameters suggest that mechanistic trade-offs may shape some aspects of signal evolution. In particular, a consistent trade-off between FM and EOD amplitude during chirps is likely to have influenced the evolution of chirp structure. These patterns suggest that functional or mechanistic linkages between signal parameters(e.g. the inability of electromotor neurons increase their firing rates without a loss of synchrony or amplitude of action potentials) constrain the evolution of signal structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron R. Turner
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,USA
- Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior (CISAB), Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Maksymilian Derylo
- CISAB Research Experience for Undergraduates Program, Indiana University,Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Dominican University, River Forest, IL 60305, USA
| | - C. David de Santana
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Comportamental (LFC), Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Manaus, AM 69083-000, Brazil
- Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Division of Fishes, Washington, DC 20560, USA
| | - José A. Alves-Gomes
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Comportamental (LFC), Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Manaus, AM 69083-000, Brazil
| | - G. Troy Smith
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,USA
- Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior (CISAB), Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405,USA
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Smith GT, Unguez GA, Weber CM. Distribution of Kv1-like potassium channels in the electromotor and electrosensory systems of the weakly electric fishApteronotus leptorhynchus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 66:1011-31. [PMID: 16779822 DOI: 10.1002/neu.20283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The electromotor and electrosensory systems of the weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus are model systems for studying mechanisms of high-frequency motor pattern generation and sensory processing. Voltage-dependent ionic currents, including low-threshold potassium currents, influence excitability of neurons in these circuits and thereby regulate motor output and sensory filtering. Although Kv1-like potassium channels are likely to carry low-threshold potassium currents in electromotor and electrosensory neurons, the distribution of Kv1 alpha subunits in A. leptorhynchus is unknown. In this study, we used immunohistochemistry with six different antibodies raised against specific mammalian Kv1 alpha subunits (Kv1.1-Kv1.6) to characterize the distribution of Kv1-like channels in electromotor and electrosensory structures. Each Kv1 antibody labeled a distinct subset of neurons, fibers, and/or dendrites in electromotor and electrosensory nuclei. Kv1-like immunoreactivity in the electrosensory lateral line lobe (ELL) and pacemaker nucleus are particularly relevant in light of previous studies suggesting that potassium currents carried by Kv1 channels regulate neuronal excitability in these regions. Immunoreactivity of pyramidal cells in the ELL with several Kv1 antibodies is consistent with Kv1 channels carrying low-threshold outward currents that regulate spike waveform in these cells (Fernandez et al., J Neurosci 2005;25:363-371). Similarly, Kv1-like immunoreactivity in the pacemaker nucleus is consistent with a role of Kv1 channels in spontaneous high-frequency firing in pacemaker neurons. Robust Kv1-like immunoreactivity in several other structures, including the dorsal torus semicircularis, tuberous electroreceptors, and the electric organ, indicates that Kv1 channels are broadly expressed and are likely to contribute significantly to generating the electric organ discharge and processing electrosensory inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Troy Smith
- Department of Biology, Program in Neuroscience, and Center for the Integrative Study of Animal Behavior, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, USA.
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