Imaging of caffeine-inducible release of intracellular calcium in cultured embryonic mouse telencephalic neurons

A Review on Peripheral Tinnitus, Causes, and Treatments from the Perspective of Autophagy

Tinnitus is the perception of phantom noise without any external auditory sources. The degeneration of the function or activity of the peripheral or central auditory nervous systems is one of the causes of tinnitus. This damage has numerous causes, such as loud noise, aging, and ototoxicity. All these sources excite the cells of the auditory pathway, producing reactive oxygen species that leads to the death of sensory neural hair cells. This causes involuntary movement of the tectorial membrane, resulting in the buzzing noise characteristic of tinnitus. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic scavenging activity inside a cell that has evolved as a cell survival mechanism. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effect of autophagy against oxidative stress, which is one of the reasons for cell excitation. This review compiles several studies that highlight the role of autophagy in protecting sensory neural hair cells against oxidative stress-induced damage. This could facilitate the development of strategies to treat tinnitus by activating autophagy.

Epac2 contributes to PACAP-induced astrocytic differentiation through calcium ion influx in neural precursor cells

Astrocytes play a critical role in normal brain functions and maintaining the brain microenvironment, and defects in astrocytogenesis during neurodevelopment could give rise to severe mental illness and psychiatric disorders. During neuro-embryogenesis, astrocytogenesis involves astrocytic differentiation of neural precursor cells (NPCs) induced by signals from ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) or pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP). However, in contrast to the CNTF signaling pathway, the exact mechanism underlying astrocytic differentiation induced by PACAP is unknown. In the present study, we aimed to verify a signaling pathway specific to PACAP-induced astrocytogenesis, using exchange protein directly activated by cAMP2 (Epac2)-knockout mice. We found that PACAP could trigger astrocytic differentiation of NPCs via Epac2 activation and an increase in the intracellular calcium concentration via a calcium ion influx. Taken together, we concluded that astrocytogenesis stimulated by PACAP occurs through a novel signaling pathway independent from CNTF-JAK/STAT signaling, that is the well-known pathway of astrocytogenesis. [BMB Reports 2016; 49(2): 128-133]

Caffeine treatment disturbs the angiogenesis of zebrafish embryos

Caffeine is a widely consumed substance that occurs in numerous dietary sources, but teratogenic effects of caffeine intake during embryonic development are still not clear. In the present study, we used the zebrafish as a model to assess caffeine-induced toxicity on embryonic vascular development. A green fluorescent vascular endothelium transgenic line, Tg(fli1:egfp), was utilized for the sensitive detection of vascular development, including vasculo- and angiogenesis. Caffeine-treated embryos showed no defects in vasculogenesis, but revealed dose-dependent (250-350 ppm) developmental defects in intersegmental vessels, dorsal longitudinal anastomotic vessels, and subintestinal vein sprouting. Further, real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis of caffeine-treated embryos showed an upregulation of nrp1a along with a downregulation of sema3aa and sema3c. In conclusion, caffeine treatment induces defects of angiogenesis in zebrafish embryos.

Movement disorder and neuromuscular change in zebrafish embryos after exposure to caffeine

Though caffeine is broadly distributed in many plants and foods, little is known about the teratogenic effects of caffeine during early embryonic development. Here, we used zebrafish as a model to test toxicity and teratogenicity since they have transparent eggs, making the organogenesis of zebrafish embryos easier to observe. When the exposure doses of caffeine were less than 150 ppm (17.5, 35, 50, 100 and 150 ppm), the zebrafish embryos exhibited no significant differences in survival rates after comparison with vehicle-control (0 ppm) group. As the exposure dosages increased, the survival rates decreased. No embryos survived after treatment with 300 ppm caffeine or higher dosages. The most evident change in embryos treated with caffeine was a shorter body length (vehicle-control: 3.26+/-0.01 mm, n=49; vs 150 ppm of caffeine: 2.67+/-0.03 mm, n=50). In addition, caffeine-treated embryos exhibited significantly reduced tactile sensitivity frequencies of touch-induced movement (vehicle-control: 9.93+/-0.77 vs 17.5-150 ppm caffeine: 5.37+/-0.52-0.10+/-0.06). Subtle changes are easily observed by staining with specific monoclonal antibodies F59, Znp1 and Zn5 to detect morphological changes in muscle fibers, primary motor axons and secondary motor axon projections, respectively. Our data show that the treatment of caffeine leads to misalignment of muscle fibers and motor neuron defects, especially secondary motor neuron axonal growth defects.

Ion Channel Development, Spontaneous Activity, and Activity-Dependent Development in Nerve and Muscle Cells

At specific stages of development, nerve and muscle cells generate spontaneous electrical activity that is required for normal maturation of intrinsic excitability and synaptic connectivity. The patterns of this spontaneous activity are not simply immature versions of the mature activity, but rather are highly specialized to initiate and control many aspects of neuronal development. The configuration of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels that are expressed early in development regulate the timing and waveform of this activity. They also regulate Ca2+influx during spontaneous activity, which is the first step in triggering activity-dependent developmental programs. For these reasons, the properties of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels expressed by developing neurons and muscle cells often differ markedly from those of adult cells. When viewed from this perspective, the reasons for complex patterns of ion channel emergence and regression during development become much clearer.

Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Calcium Store in the Endoplasmic Reticulum of Neurons

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest single intracellular organelle, which is present in all types of nerve cells. The ER is an interconnected, internally continuous system of tubules and cisterns, which extends from the nuclear envelope to axons and presynaptic terminals, as well as to dendrites and dendritic spines. Ca2+release channels and Ca2+pumps residing in the ER membrane provide for its excitability. Regulated ER Ca2+release controls many neuronal functions, from plasmalemmal excitability to synaptic plasticity. Enzymatic cascades dependent on the Ca2+concentration in the ER lumen integrate rapid Ca2+signaling with long-lasting adaptive responses through modifications in protein synthesis and processing. Disruptions of ER Ca2+homeostasis are critically involved in various forms of neuropathology.

1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N'N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA-AM) inhibits caffeine-induced apoptosis in human neuroblastoma cells

In the present study, it was investigated whether 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N'N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA-AM), an intracellular Ca(2+) chelator, possesses protective effect against caffeine-induced apoptosis in the central nervous system. Through morphological and biochemical analyses, cells treated with caffeine exhibited several apoptotic features. On the other hand, cells treated with caffeine and BAPTA-AM, showed decreased occurrence of apoptotic features. In addition, it was shown that BAPTA-AM treatment inhibits caffeine-induced increase of caspase-3 enzyme activity. These results show that caffeine induces apoptotic death in human SK-N-MC neuroblastoma cells and BAPTA-AM prevents apoptosis by attenuating caffeine-induced caspase-3 activation.

Calcium release from intracellular stores in rodent astrocytes and neurons in situ

Endoplasmic reticular Ca(2+) stores, instrumental for intra- and intercellular calcium signalling, can be depleted by different receptor agonists. In the present study, the functional status of ER Ca(2+) stores was probed by cyclopiazonic acid (CPA, 10-30 microM, inhibitor of SERCA-dependent ER Ca(2+) uptake) and/or caffeine (20 mM, ryanodine receptor activator) in astrocytes and neurons of rat and mouse acute hippocampal brain slices (Stratum radiatum, Stratum moleculare), and in cultured astrocytes, using confocal microscopy and conventional Ca(2+) imaging. Astrocytes and neurons in situ, identified by their Ca(2+) response in K(+)-free saline (Dallwig and Deitmer [J. Neurosci. Methods 116 (2002) 77]), had a resting cytosolic Ca(2+) level of 105 and 157 nM, respectively (P<0.05). CPA evoked a Ca(2+) transient, which was faster and larger in neurons than in astrocytes, indicating larger Ca(2+) leak of neuronal Ca(2+) stores. Caffeine evoked a Ca(2+) rise in most neurons (>80%), but only in less than 40% of astrocytes. The glial Ca(2+) transients in the presence of caffeine had a large and variable delay (>50 s), as compared to those in neurons (< or =10 s), and appeared to be spontaneous and/or secondary to the neuronal Ca(2+) response, leading to release of neuronal transmitters. Astrocytes in culture responded to CPA, but never to caffeine with a Ca(2+) rise. Our results indicate that astrocytes, in contrast to neurons, lack caffeine-sensitive Ca(2+) stores, and have a relatively smaller leak from CPA-sensitive Ca(2+) stores than neurons.

Presence and functional significance of presynaptic ryanodine receptors

Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release (CICR) mediated by sarcoplasmic reticulum resident ryanodine receptors (RyRs) has been well described in cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle. In brain, RyRs are localised primarily to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and have been demonstrated in postsynaptic entities, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes where they regulate intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)), membrane potential and the activity of a variety of second messenger systems. Recently, the contribution of presynaptic RyRs and CICR to functions of central and peripheral presynaptic terminals, including neurotransmitter release, has received increased attention. However, there is no general agreement that RyRs are localised to presynaptic terminals, nor is it clear that RyRs regulate a large enough pool of intracellular Ca(2+) to be physiologically significant. Here, we review direct and indirect evidence that on balance favours the notion that ER and RyRs are found in presynaptic terminals and are physiologically significant. In so doing, it became obvious that some of the controversy originates from issues related to (i) the ability to demonstrate conclusively the physical presence of ER and RyRs, (ii) whether the biophysical properties of RyRs are such that they can contribute physiologically to regulation of presynaptic [Ca(2+)](i), (iii) how ER Ca(2+) load and feedback gain of CICR contributes to the ability to detect functionally relevant RyRs, (iv) the distance that Ca(2+) diffuses from plasma membranes to RyRs to trigger CICR and from RyRs to the Active Zone to enhance vesicle release, and (v) the experimental conditions used. The recognition that ER Ca(2+) stores are able to modulate local Ca(2+) levels and neurotransmitter release in presynaptic terminals will aid in the understanding of the cellular mechanisms controlling neuronal function.

The endoplasmic reticulum and neuronal calcium signalling

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a multifunctional signalling organelle regulating a wide range of neuronal functional responses. The ER is intimately involved in intracellular Ca(2+) signalling, producing local or global cytosolic calcium fluctuations via Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release (CICR) or inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca(2+) release (IICR). The CICR and IICR are controlled by two subsets of Ca(2+) release channels residing in the ER membrane, the Ca(2+)-gated Ca(2+) release channels, generally known as ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and InsP(3)-gated Ca(2+) release channels, referred to as InsP(3)-receptors (InsP(3)Rs). Both types of Ca(2+) release channels are expressed abundantly in nerve cells and their activation triggers cytoplasmic Ca(2+) signals important for synaptic transmission and plasticity. The RyRs and InsP(3)Rs show heterogeneous localisation in distinct cellular sub-compartments, conferring thus specificity in local Ca(2+) signals. At the same time, the ER Ca(2+) store emerges as a single interconnected pool fenced by the endomembrane. The continuity of the ER Ca(2+) store could play an important role in various aspects of neuronal signalling. For example, Ca(2+) ions may diffuse within the ER lumen with comparative ease, endowing this organelle with the capacity for "Ca(2+) tunnelling". Thus, continuous intra-ER Ca(2+) highways may be very important for the rapid replenishment of parts of the pool subjected to excessive stimulation (e.g. in small compartments within dendritic spines), the facilitated removal of localised Ca(2+) loads, and finally in conveying Ca(2+) signals from the site of entry towards the cell interior and nucleus.

Functional properties of ryanodine receptors in hippocampal neurons change during early differentiation in culture

6-((4,4-difluoro-5,7-dimethyl-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene-3-propionyl)amino)hexanoic acid ryanodine (BODIPY-ryanodine) binding and Ca(2+) imaging were used to study the properties of ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and cytoplasmic Ca(2+) (Ca) changes in neurons cultured from the embryonic rat hippocampus during the earliest stages of differentiation. Baseline Ca levels declined from 164 +/- 5 (SD) nM at early stages to 70 +/- 4 nM in differentiated neurons. Fluorescent BODIPY-ryanodine binding signals identified activated RyRs in somata, which were eliminated by removal of external Ca(2+) or by blockage of Ca(2+) entry through L-type but not N-type Ca(2+) channels. The GABA synthesis inhibitor 3-mercaptopropionic acid completely abolished ryanodine binding. Caffeine or K(+)-depolarization inhibited the activity of RyRs at very early stages of differentiation but had stimulatory effects at later stages after a network of processes had formed. BayK-8644 stimulated RyRs throughout all regions of all differentiating cells. The results suggest that in differentiating embryonic hippocampal neurons the activity of RyRs is maintained via Ca(2+) entering through L-type Ca(2+) channels. The mode of activation of L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels with either membrane depolarization or specific pharmacological agents affects the coupled activity of RyRs differently as neurons differentiate processes and networks.

Calcium influx into dendrites of the leech Retzius neuron evoked by 5-hydroxytryptamine

5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a ubiquitous neurotransmitter and neuromodulator that affects neural circuits and behaviours in vertebrates and invertebrates. In the present study, we have investigated 5-HT-induced Ca(2+) transients in subcellular compartments of Retzius neurons in the leech central nervous system using confocal laser scanning microscopy, and studied the effect of 5-HT on the electrical coupling between the Retzius neurons. Bath application of 5-HT (50mM) induced a Ca(2+) transient in axon, dendrites and cell body of the Retzius neuron. This Ca(2+) transient was significantly faster and larger in dendrites than in axon and cell body, and was half-maximal at a 5-HT concentration of 5-12mM. The Ca(2+) transient was suppressed in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) and by methysergide (100mM), a non-specific antagonist of metabotropic 5-HT receptors, and was strongly reduced by bath application of the Ca(2+) channel blocker Co(2+) (2mM). Injection of the non-hydrolysable GTP analogue GTPgammaS increased and prolonged the dendritic 5-HT-induced Ca(2+) transient. The non-selective protein kinase inhibitor H7 (100mM) and the adenylate cyclase inhibitor SQ22536 (500 mM) did not affect the Ca(2+) transient, and the membrane-permeable cAMP analogue dibutyryl-cAMP (500 mM) did not mimic the effect of 5-HT application. 5-HT reduced the apparent electrical coupling between the two Retzius neurons, whereas suppression of the Ca(2+) influx by removal of external Ca(2+) improved the transmission of action potentials at the electrical synapses which are located between the dendrites of the adjacent Retzius neurons. The results indicate that 5-HT induces a Ca(2+) influx through calcium channels located primarily in the dendrites, and presumably activated by a G protein-coupled 5-HT receptor. The dendritic Ca(2+) increase appears to modulate the excitability of, and the synchronization between, the two Retzius neurons.

Calcium waves and closure of potassium channels in response to GABA stimulation in Hermissenda type B photoreceptors

Classical conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis requires the paired presentation of a conditioned stimulus (light) and an unconditioned stimulus (turbulence). Light stimulation of photoreceptors leads to production of diacylglycerol, an activator of protein kinase C, and inositol triphosphate (IP(3)), which releases calcium from intracellular stores. Turbulence causes hair cells to release GABA onto the terminal branches of the type B photoreceptor. One prior study has shown that GABA stimulation produces a wave of calcium that propagates from the terminal branches to the soma and raises the possibility that two sources of calcium are required for memory storage. GABA stimulation also causes an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) followed by a late depolarization and increase in input resistance, whose cause has not been identified. A model was developed of the effect of GABA stimulation on the Hermissenda type B photoreceptor to evaluate the currents underlying the late depolarization and to evaluate whether a calcium wave could propagate from the terminal branches to the soma. The model included GABA(A), GABA(B), and calcium-sensitive potassium leak channels; calcium dynamics including release of calcium from intracellular stores; and the biochemical reactions leading from GABA(B) receptor activation to IP(3) production. Simulations show that it is possible for a wave of calcium to propagate from the terminal branches to the soma. The wave is initiated by IP(3)-induced calcium release but propagation requires release through the ryanodine receptor channel where IP(3) concentration is small. Wave speed is proportional to peak calcium concentration at the crest of the wave, with a minimum speed of 9 microM/s in the absence of IP(3). Propagation ceases when peak concentration drops below 1.2 microM; this occurs if the rate of calcium pumping into the endoplasmic reticulum is too large. Simulations also show that both a late depolarization and an increase in input resistance occur after GABA stimulation. The duration of the late depolarization corresponds to the duration of potassium leak channel closure. Neither the late depolarization nor the increase in input resistance are observed when a transient calcium current and a hyperpolarization-activated current are added to the model as replacement for closure of potassium leak channels. Thus the late depolarization and input resistance elevation can be explained by a closure of calcium-sensitive leak potassium currents but cannot be explained by a transient calcium current and a hyperpolarization-activated current.

Functional IP3- and ryanodine-sensitive calcium stores in presynaptic varicosities of NG108-15 (rodent neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid) cells

Presynaptic varicosities of the model neuronal cell line NG108-15, a cholinergic neuroblastoma cell x glioma cell hybrid capable of innervating striated myotubes, were examined for the presence of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-sensitive and Ca2+-activated (ryanodine-sensitive) Ca2+ stores using confocal microscopic imaging of Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dye loaded into the cells. Initial demonstration of the presence of IP3 receptors and ryanodine receptors in the NG108-15 varicosities was obtained using immunocytochemistry. Treatment of NG108-15 cells with bradykinin (0.1 microM), whose receptor is linked to IP3 generation, and separately, caffeine (10 mM), an activator of endoplasmic reticulum ryanodine receptors, resulted in substantial increases in [Ca2+]i in the varicosities. K+-evoked changes in [Ca2+]i in the varicosities were reduced (52 %) after emptying the ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ store using caffeine (10 mM), but were not affected by prior depletion of the IP3-sensitive Ca2+ store using thapsigargin (1 microM). Bradykinin-induced changes in [Ca2+]i were abolished following depletion of the IP3-sensitive Ca2+ store using thapsigargin (1 microM) and were reduced (72 %) by prior emptying of the ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ store with caffeine (10 mM). The same results were obtained when the varicosities of the NG108-15 cells had formed synaptic junctions with co-cultured rat hindlimb myotubes. Taken together, the results suggest that, in the varicosities, activation of the IP3 pathway evoked the release of Ca2+ from the IP3-sensitive store, which, in turn, secondarily induced the release of Ca2+ from the ryanodine-sensitive store via Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release, and that depolarization-induced Ca2+ entry evoked Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release only from the ryanodine-sensitive store. Thus, functional internal Ca2+ stores are inherent components of presynaptic varicosities in this neural cell line.

Calcium imaging in live rat optic nerve myelinated axons in vitro using confocal laser microscopy

Intracellular Ca(2+) plays a major role in the physiological responses of excitable cells, and excessive accumulation of internal Ca(2+) is a key determinant of cell injury and death. Many studies have been carried out on the internal Ca(2+) dynamics in neurons. In constrast, there is virtually no such information for mammalian central myelinated axons, due in large part to technical difficulty with dye loading and imaging such fine myelinated structures. We developed a technique to allow imaging of ionized Ca(2+) in live rat optic nerve axons with simultaneous electrophysiological recording in vitro at 37 degrees C using confocal microscopy. The K(+) salt of the Ca(2+)-sensitive indicator Oregon Green 488 BAPTA-2 and the Ca(2+)-insensitive reference dye Sulforhodamine 101 were loaded together into rat optic nerves using a low-Ca(2+)/low-Na(+) solution. Axonal profiles, confirmed immunohistochemically by double staining with neurofilament-160 antibodies, were clearly visualized by S101 fluorescence up to 800 microm from the cut ends. The Ca(2+) signal was very low at rest, just above the background fluorescence intensity, indicating healthy tissue, and increased significantly after caffeine (20 mM) exposure designed to release internal Ca(2+) stores. The health of imaged regions was further confirmed by a virtual absence of spectrin breakdown, which is induced by calpain activation in damaged CNS tissue. Red and green fluorescence decayed to no less than 70% of control after 60 min of recording at 37 degrees C, with the green:red fluorescence ratio increasing slightly by 21% after 60 min. Electrophysiological responses recorded simultaneously with confocal images remained largely stable as well.

Microheterogeneity of calcium signalling in dendrites

Transient changes in the intracellular concentration of free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) originating from voltage- or ligand-gated influx and by ligand- or Ca2+-gated release from intracellular stores, trigger or modulate many fundamental neuronal processes, including neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Of the intracellular compartments involved in Ca2+ clearance, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has received the most attention because it expresses Ca2+ pumps and Ca2+ channels, thus endowing it with the potential to act as both an intracellular calcium sink and store. We review here our ongoing work on the role of calcium sequestration into, and release from, ER cisterns and the role that this plays in the generation and termination of free [Ca2+]i transients in dendrites of pyramidal neurons in hippocampal slices during and after synaptic activity. These studies have been approached by combining parallel microfluorometric measurements of free cytosolic [Ca2+]i transients with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalytical measurements of total Ca content within specific dendritic compartments at the electron microscopy level. Our observations support the emerging realization that specific subsets of dendritic ER cisterns provide spatial and temporal microheterogeneity of Ca2+ signalling, acting not only as a major intracellular Ca sink involved in active clearance mechanisms after voltage- and ligand-gated Ca2+ influx, but also as an intracellular Ca2+ source that can be mobilized by a signal cascade originating at activated synapses.

Neuronal calcium stores

Neuronal calcium stores associated with specialized intracellular organelles, such as endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, dynamically participate in generation of cytoplasmic calcium signals which accompany neuronal activity. They fulfil a dual role in neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis being involved in both buffering the excess of Ca2+ entering the cytoplasm through plasmalemmal channels and providing an intracellular source for Ca2+. Increase of Ca2+ content within the stores regulates the availability and magnitude of intracellular calcium release, thereby providing a mechanism which couples the neuronal activity with functional state of intracellular Ca2+ stores. Apart of 'classical' calcium stores (endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria) other organelles (e.g. nuclear envelope and neurotransmitter vesicles) may potentially act as a functional Ca2+ storage compartments. Calcium ions released from internal stores participate in many neuronal functions, and might be primarily involved in regulation of various aspects of neuronal plasticity.

Caffeine-induced disturbances of early neurogenesis in whole mouse embryo cultures

In toto mouse embryos were cultivated at embryonic day 8.5 for 26 h with 105, 310 or 620 microM caffeine; 105-310 microM correspond to concentrations transferred by the placenta of heavy caffeine consumers. Failure of neural tube closure, excessive proliferation of neuroepithelial cells and premature evagination of telencephalic vesicles were present in 50% of treated embryos. When reaching the embryonic neural tube before neuronal migration, caffeine regionally modifies the schedule and/or rate of neural cell proliferation.

Calcium-induced calcium release in neurones

Neurones express several subtypes of intracellular Ca2+ channels, which are regulated by cytoplasmic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]c) and provide the pathway for Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release (CICR) from endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores. The initial studies of CICR which employed several pharmacological tools (and in particular caffeine and ryanodine) demonstrated that: (i) caffeine induces intracellular calcium release in various peripheral and central neurones; and (ii) inhibition of CICR affects the parameters of depolarization-triggered [Ca2+]c responses. Experiments with caffeine demonstrated also that Ca2+ release from internal pools was incremental, suggesting the coexistence of several subpopulations of Ca2+ release channels with different sensitivity to caffeine. The CICR availability in neurones is controlled by both the Ca2+ content of the internal stores and the basal [Ca2+]c. Direct comparison of transmembrane Ca2+ influx with plasmalemmal Ca2+ current and [Ca2+]c elevation performed on sympathetic, sensory and cerebellar Purkinje neurones revealed the gradual activation of CICR. The efficacy of CICR may be regulated by the newly discovered second messenger cADP ribose (cADPR), although the mechanism of signal transduction involving cADPR is still unknown. CICR in neurones may be important in creation of local [Ca2+]c signals and could be involved in a regulation of numerous neuronal functions.