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Abstract
Obesity is a common complex trait that elevates the risk for various diseases, including type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. A combination of environmental and genetic factors influences the pathogenesis of obesity. Advances in genomic technologies have driven the identification of multiple genetic loci associated with this disease, ranging from studying severe onset cases to investigating common multifactorial polygenic forms. Additionally, findings from epigenetic analyses of modifications to the genome that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence have emerged as key signatures in the development of obesity. Such modifications can mediate the effects of environmental factors, including diet and lifestyle, on gene expression and clinical presentation. This review outlines what is known about the genetic and epigenetic contributors to obesity susceptibility, along with the albeit limited therapeutic options currently available. Furthermore, we delineate the potential mechanisms of actions through which epigenetic changes can mediate environmental influences and the related opportunities they present for future interventions in the management of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanh Trang
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Struan F.A. Grant
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
- Division of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
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Yuan XC, Tao YX. Ligands for Melanocortin Receptors: Beyond Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones and Adrenocorticotropin. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12101407. [PMID: 36291616 PMCID: PMC9599618 DOI: 10.3390/biom12101407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of melanocortins in 1916 has resulted in more than 100 years of research focused on these peptides. Extensive studies have elucidated well-established functions of melanocortins mediated by cell surface receptors, including MSHR (melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor) and ACTHR (adrenocorticotropin receptor). Subsequently, three additional melanocortin receptors (MCRs) were identified. Among these five MCRs, MC3R and MC4R are expressed primarily in the central nervous system, and are therefore referred to as the neural MCRs. Since the central melanocortin system plays important roles in regulating energy homeostasis, targeting neural MCRs is emerging as a therapeutic approach for treating metabolic conditions such as obesity and cachexia. Early efforts modifying endogenous ligands resulted in the development of many potent and selective ligands. This review focuses on the ligands for neural MCRs, including classical ligands (MSH and agouti-related peptide), nonclassical ligands (lipocalin 2, β-defensin, small molecules, and pharmacoperones), and clinically approved ligands (ACTH, setmelanotide, bremelanotide, and several repurposed drugs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Chen Yuan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230061, China
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Correspondence:
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3
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Skowronski AA, LeDuc CA, Foo KS, Goffer Y, Burnett LC, Egli D, Leibel RL. Physiological consequences of transient hyperleptinemia during discrete developmental periods on body weight in mice. Sci Transl Med 2021; 12:12/524/eaax6629. [PMID: 31894105 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aax6629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Leptin plays a role in central nervous system developmental programs and intercurrent physiological processes related to body fat regulation. The timing and neuromolecular mechanisms for these effects are relevant to the prevention and treatment of obesity. Factors implicated in a body weight "set point" including dietary fat, circulating leptin, and other adipokines tend to covary with adiposity and are difficult to disarticulate experimentally. To dissociate leptin effects from adiposity and diet, we created a transgenic mouse in which leptin expression is regulated by doxycycline exposure. Using this system, we investigated the physiological consequences of developmentally-timed transient hyperleptinemia on subsequent adiposity. We evaluated physiological effects of leptin elevation during adulthood (9 to 29 weeks old), "adolescence" (3 to 8 weeks old), and the immediate postnatal period [postnatal days 0 to 22 (P0 to P22)] on long-term adiposity and susceptibility to gain weight on high-fat diet (HFD) fed ad libitum. We found that inducing chronic hyperleptinemia in adult or "adolescent" mice did not alter body weight when excess leptin was discontinued, and upon later exposure to HFD, weight gain did not differ from controls. However, transient elevation of circulating leptin from P0 to P22 increased weight and fat gain in response to HFD, indicating greater susceptibility to obesity as adults. Thus, transient plasma leptin elevations-mimicking one aspect of transient adiposity-increased later susceptibility to diet-induced obesity, although these effects were restricted to a critical developmental (P0 to P22) time window. These findings may have clinical implications for weight management in infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja A Skowronski
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Charles A LeDuc
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.,Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Kylie S Foo
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Yossef Goffer
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Lisa C Burnett
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Dieter Egli
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.,Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Rudolph L Leibel
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA. .,Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Serrano J, Casanova-Martí À, Blay MT, Terra X, Pinent M, Ardévol A. Strategy for limiting food intake using food components aimed at multiple targets in the gastrointestinal tract. Trends Food Sci Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Weight Perturbation Alters Leptin Signal Transduction in a Region-Specific Manner throughout the Brain. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0168226. [PMID: 28107353 PMCID: PMC5249166 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Diet-induced obesity (DIO) resulting from consumption of a high fat diet (HFD) attenuates normal neuronal responses to leptin and may contribute to the metabolic defense of an acquired higher body weight in humans; the molecular bases for the persistence of this defense are unknown. We measured the responses of 23 brain regions to exogenous leptin in 4 different groups of weight- and/or diet-perturbed mice. Responses to leptin were assessed by quantifying pSTAT3 levels in brain nuclei 30 minutes following 3 mg/kg intraperitoneal leptin. HFD attenuated leptin sensing throughout the brain, but weight loss did not restore central leptin signaling to control levels in several brain regions important in energy homeostasis, including the arcuate and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei. Effects of diet on leptin signaling varied by brain region, with results dependent on the method of weight loss (restriction of calories of HFD, ad lib intake of standard mouse chow). High fat diet attenuates leptin signaling throughout the brain, but some brain regions maintain their ability to sense leptin. Weight loss restores leptin sensing to some degree in most (but not all) brain regions, while other brain regions display hypersensitivity to leptin following weight loss. Normal leptin sensing was restored in several brain regions, with the pattern of restoration dependent on the method of weight loss.
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6
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Abstract
Obesity is a complex, heritable trait influenced by the interplay of genetics, epigenetics, metagenomics and the environment. With the increasing access to high precision diagnostic tools for genetic investigations, numerous genes influencing the phenotype have been identified, especially in early onset severe obesity. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the known genetic causes of obesity and the available therapeutic options. Furthermore, we discuss the role and potential mechanism of epigenetic changes that may be involved as mediators of the environmental influences and that may provide future opportunities for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidhu V Thaker
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
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Thaker VV. GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CAUSES OF OBESITY. ADOLESCENT MEDICINE: STATE OF THE ART REVIEWS 2017; 28:379-405. [PMID: 30416642 PMCID: PMC6226269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Obesity is a complex, heritable trait influenced by the interplay of genetics, epigenetics, metagenomics and the environment. With the increasing access to high precision diagnostic tools for genetic investigations, numerous genes influencing the phenotype have been identified, especially in early onset severe obesity. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the known genetic causes of obesity and the available therapeutic options. Furthermore, we discuss the role and potential mechanism of epigenetic changes that may be involved as mediators of the environmental influences and that may provide future opportunities for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidhu V Thaker
- Division of Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Division of Endocrinology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
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Brain signaling systems in the Type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome: promising target to treat and prevent these diseases. Future Sci OA 2015; 1:FSO25. [PMID: 28031898 PMCID: PMC5137856 DOI: 10.4155/fso.15.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The changes in the brain signaling systems play an important role in etiology and pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome (MS), being a possible cause of these diseases. Therefore, their restoration at the early stages of T2DM and MS can be regarded as a promising way to treat and prevent these diseases and their complications. The data on the functional state of the brain signaling systems regulated by insulin, IGF-1, leptin, dopamine, serotonin, melanocortins and glucagon-like peptide-1, in T2DM and MS, are analyzed. The pharmacological approaches to restoration of these systems and improvement of insulin sensitivity, energy expenditure, lipid metabolism, and to prevent diabetic complications are discussed.
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Leibel RL, Seeley RJ, Darsow T, Berg EG, Smith SR, Ratner R. Biologic Responses to Weight Loss and Weight Regain: Report From an American Diabetes Association Research Symposium. Diabetes 2015; 64:2299-309. [PMID: 26106187 DOI: 10.2337/db15-0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudolph L Leibel
- Division of Molecular Genetics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Randy J Seeley
- Department of Surgery, North Campus Research Complex, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Tamara Darsow
- Division of Science and Medicine, American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, VA
| | - Erika Gebel Berg
- Division of Science and Medicine, American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, VA
| | - Steven R Smith
- Translational Research Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes, Sanford-Burnham Institute, Florida Hospital, Winter Park, FL
| | - Robert Ratner
- Division of Science and Medicine, American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, VA
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Anderson D, Cordell HJ, Fakiola M, Francis RW, Syn G, Scaman ESH, Davis E, Miles SJ, McLeay T, Jamieson SE, Blackwell JM. First genome-wide association study in an Australian aboriginal population provides insights into genetic risk factors for body mass index and type 2 diabetes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119333. [PMID: 25760438 PMCID: PMC4356593 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A body mass index (BMI) >22kg/m2 is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes (T2D) in Aboriginal Australians. To identify loci associated with BMI and T2D we undertook a genome-wide association study using 1,075,436 quality-controlled single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped (Illumina 2.5M Duo Beadchip) in 402 individuals in extended pedigrees from a Western Australian Aboriginal community. Imputation using the thousand genomes (1000G) reference panel extended the analysis to 6,724,284 post quality-control autosomal SNPs. No associations achieved genome-wide significance, commonly accepted as P<5x10-8. Nevertheless, genes/pathways in common with other ethnicities were identified despite the arrival of Aboriginal people in Australia >45,000 years ago. The top hit (rs10868204 Pgenotyped = 1.50x10-6; rs11140653 Pimputed_1000G = 2.90x10-7) for BMI lies 5’ of NTRK2, the type 2 neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) that regulates energy balance downstream of melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R). PIK3C2G (rs12816270 Pgenotyped = 8.06x10-6; rs10841048 Pimputed_1000G = 6.28x10-7) was associated with BMI, but not with T2D as reported elsewhere. BMI also associated with CNTNAP2 (rs6960319 Pgenotyped = 4.65x10-5; rs13225016 Pimputed_1000G = 6.57x10-5), previously identified as the strongest gene-by-environment interaction for BMI in African-Americans. The top hit (rs11240074 Pgenotyped = 5.59x10-6, Pimputed_1000G = 5.73x10-6) for T2D lies 5’ of BCL9 that, along with TCF7L2, promotes beta-catenin’s transcriptional activity in the WNT signaling pathway. Additional hits occurred in genes affecting pancreatic (KCNJ6, KCNA1) and/or GABA (GABRR1, KCNA1) functions. Notable associations observed for genes previously identified at genome-wide significance in other populations included MC4R (Pgenotyped = 4.49x10-4) for BMI and IGF2BP2 Pimputed_1000G = 2.55x10-6) for T2D. Our results may provide novel functional leads in understanding disease pathogenesis in this Australian Aboriginal population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Anderson
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Heather J. Cordell
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 3BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Michaela Fakiola
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Department of Medicine, and Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Richard W. Francis
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Genevieve Syn
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Elizabeth S. H. Scaman
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Davis
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
- Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Simon J. Miles
- Ngangganawili Aboriginal Health Service, Wiluna, Western Australia, 6646, Australia
| | - Toby McLeay
- Ngangganawili Aboriginal Health Service, Wiluna, Western Australia, 6646, Australia
| | - Sarra E. Jamieson
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Jenefer M. Blackwell
- Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Department of Medicine, and Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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MacLean PS, Wing RR, Davidson T, Epstein L, Goodpaster B, Hall KD, Levin BE, Perri MG, Rolls BJ, Rosenbaum M, Rothman AJ, Ryan D. NIH working group report: Innovative research to improve maintenance of weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2015; 23:7-15. [PMID: 25469998 PMCID: PMC5841916 DOI: 10.1002/oby.20967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 381] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The National Institutes of Health, led by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, organized a working group of experts to discuss the problem of weight regain after weight loss. A number of experts in integrative physiology and behavioral psychology were convened with the goal of merging their perspectives regarding the barriers to scientific progress and the development of novel ways to improve long-term outcomes in obesity therapeutics. The specific objectives of this working group were to: (1) identify the challenges that make maintaining a reduced weight so difficult; (2) review strategies that have been used to improve success in previous studies; and (3) recommend novel solutions that could be examined in future studies of long-term weight control. RESULTS Specific barriers to successful weight loss maintenance include poor adherence to behavioral regimens and physiological adaptations that promote weight regain. A better understanding of how these behavioral and physiological barriers are related, how they vary between individuals, and how they can be overcome will lead to the development of novel strategies with improved outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Greater collaboration and cross-talk between physiological and behavioral researchers is needed to advance the science and develop better strategies for weight loss maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S. MacLean
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Rena R. Wing
- Department of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Terry Davidson
- Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Leonard Epstein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Bret Goodpaster
- Florida Hospital Translational Institute for Metabolism and Diabetes and Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | - Kevin D. Hall
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, Integrative Physiology Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Barry E. Levin
- Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Neurology Service, East Orange VA Medical Center, East Orange, New Jersey, USA
| | - Michael G. Perri
- College of Public Health and Health Professions, Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Barbara J. Rolls
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael Rosenbaum
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Donna Ryan
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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12
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Abstract
The hyperphagia, low sympathetic nervous system tone, and decreased circulating concentrations of bioactive thyroid hormones that are common to states of congenital leptin deficiency and hypoleptinemia following and during weight loss suggest that the major physiological function of leptin is to signal states of negative energy balance and decreased energy stores. In weight-reduced humans, these phenotypes together with pronounced hypometabolism and increased parasympathetic nervous system tone create the optimal circumstance for weight regain. Based on the weight loss induced by leptin administration in states of leptin deficiency (obese) and observed similarity of phenotypes in states of congenital and dietary-induced states of hypoleptinemia (reduced obese), it has been suggested that exogenous leptin could potentially be useful in initiating, promoting, and sustaining weight reduction. However, the responses of human beings to exogenous leptin administration are dependent not only on extant energy stores but also on energy balance. Leptin administration to humans at usual weight has little, if any, effect on body weight while leptin administration during weight loss mitigates hunger, especially if given in supraphysiological doses during severe caloric restriction. Leptin repletion is most effective following weight loss by dietary restriction. In this state of weight stability but reduced energy stores, leptin at least partially reverses many of the metabolic, autonomic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral adaptations that favor weight regain. The major physiological function of leptin is to signal states of negative energy balance and decreased energy stores. Leptin, and pharmacotherapies affecting leptin signaling pathways, is likely to be most useful in sustaining weight loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Rosenbaum
- Division of Molecular GeneticsDepartments of Pediatrics and Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, Russ Berrie Medical Science Pavilion, 6th Floor, 1150 St Nicholas Avenue, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Rudolph L Leibel
- Division of Molecular GeneticsDepartments of Pediatrics and Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, Russ Berrie Medical Science Pavilion, 6th Floor, 1150 St Nicholas Avenue, New York, New York 10032, USA
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Merlino DJ, Blomain ES, Aing AS, Waldman SA. Gut-Brain Endocrine Axes in Weight Regulation and Obesity Pharmacotherapy. J Clin Med 2014; 3:763-94. [PMID: 26237477 PMCID: PMC4449653 DOI: 10.3390/jcm3030763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the obesity epidemic has developed into a major health crisis both in the United States as well as throughout the developed world. With current treatments limited to expensive, high-risk surgery and minimally efficacious pharmacotherapy, new therapeutic options are urgently needed to combat this alarming trend. This review focuses on the endogenous gut-brain signaling axes that regulate appetite under physiological conditions, and discusses their clinical relevance by summarizing the clinical and preclinical studies that have investigated manipulation of these pathways to treat obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dante J Merlino
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, JAH 368, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
| | - Erik S Blomain
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, JAH 368, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
| | - Amanda S Aing
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, JAH 368, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
| | - Scott A Waldman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, JAH 368, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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