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Yan S, Sun M, Gao L, Yao N, Feng T, Yang Y, Li X, Hu W, Cui W, Li B. Identification of Key LncRNAs and Pathways in Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus for Hypertriglyceridemia Patients Based on Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 12:800123. [PMID: 35140684 PMCID: PMC8818867 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.800123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Prevalence of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM) are increasing worldwide. Key lncRNAs were detected to provide a reference for searching potential biomarkers of prediabetes and T2DM in hypertriglyceridemia patients. Methods The study included 18 hypertriglyceridemia patients: 6 newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients, 6 samples with prediabetes and 6 samples with normal blood glucose. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was conducted to construct co-expression network and obtain modules related to blood glucose, thus detecting key lncRNAs. Results The green, yellow and yellow module was significantly related to blood glucose in T2DM versus normal controls, T2DM versus prediabetes, prediabetes versus normal controls, respectively. ENST00000503273, ENST00000462720, ENST00000480633 and ENST00000485392 were detected as key lncRNAs for the above three groups, respectively. Conclusions For hypertriglyceridemia patients with different blood glucose levels, ENST00000503273, ENST00000462720 and ENST00000480633 could be potential biomarkers of T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoumeng Yan
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Mengzi Sun
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lichao Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Nan Yao
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Tianyu Feng
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yixue Yang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaotong Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wenyu Hu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Weiwei Cui
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Peña A, McNeish D, Ayers SL, Olson ML, Vander Wyst KB, Williams AN, Shaibi GQ. Response heterogeneity to lifestyle intervention among Latino adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes 2020; 21:1430-1436. [PMID: 32939893 PMCID: PMC8274397 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize the heterogeneity in response to lifestyle intervention among Latino adolescents with obesity. METHODS We conducted secondary data analysis of 90 Latino adolescents (age 15.4 ± 0.9 y, female 56.7%) with obesity (BMI% 98.1 ± 1.5%) that were enrolled in a 3 month lifestyle intervention and were followed for a year. Covariance pattern mixture models identified response phenotypes defined by changes in insulin sensitivity as measured using a 2 hour oral glucose tolerance test. Baseline characteristics were compared across response phenotypes using one-way ANOVA and chi-square test. RESULTS Three distinct response phenotypes (PH1, PH2, PH3) were identified. PH1 exhibited the most robust response defined by the greatest increase in insulin sensitivity over time (β ± SE, linear 0.52 ± 0.17, P < .001; quadratic -0.03 ± 0.01, P = .001). PH2 showed non-significant changes, while PH3 demonstrated modest short-term increases in insulin sensitivity which were not sustained over time (linear 0.08 ± 0.03, P = .002; quadratic -0.01 ± 0.002, P = .003). At baseline, PH3 (1.1 ± 0.4) was the most insulin resistant phenotype and exhibited the highest BMI% (98.5 ± 1.1%), 2 hours glucose concentrations (144.0 ± 27.5 mg/dL), and lowest beta-cell function as estimated by the oral disposition index (4.5 ± 2.8). CONCLUSION Response to lifestyle intervention varies among Latino youth with obesity and suggests that precision approaches are warranted to meet the prevention needs of high risk youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Peña
- Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Daniel McNeish
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Stephanie L. Ayers
- Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Micah L. Olson
- Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Kiley B. Vander Wyst
- Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Allison N. Williams
- Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Gabriel Q. Shaibi
- Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ,Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Phoenix Children’s Hospital, Phoenix, AZ
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Atawia RT, Bunch KL, Toque HA, Caldwell RB, Caldwell RW. Mechanisms of obesity-induced metabolic and vascular dysfunctions. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2019; 24:890-934. [PMID: 30844720 PMCID: PMC6689231 DOI: 10.2741/4758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Obesity has reached epidemic proportions and its prevalence is climbing. Obesity is characterized by hypertrophied adipocytes with a dysregulated adipokine secretion profile, increased recruitment of inflammatory cells, and impaired metabolic homeostasis that eventually results in the development of systemic insulin resistance, a phenotype of type 2 diabetes. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an enzyme that converts L-arginine to nitric oxide (NO), which functions to maintain vascular and adipocyte homeostasis. Arginase is a ureohydrolase enzyme that competes with NOS for L-arginine. Arginase activity/expression is upregulated in obesity, which results in diminished bioavailability of NO, impairing both adipocyte and vascular endothelial cell function. Given the emerging role of NO in the regulation of adipocyte physiology and metabolic capacity, this review explores the interplay between arginase and NO, and their effect on the development of metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and mitochondrial dysfunction in obesity. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in the development of obesity-induced metabolic and vascular dysfunction is necessary for the identification of more effective and tailored therapeutic avenues for their prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem T Atawia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University. Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Katharine L Bunch
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University. Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Haroldo A Toque
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology,and Vascular Biology Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University. Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Ruth B Caldwell
- Vascular Biology Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University. Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Robert W Caldwell
- Vascular Biology Center, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University. Augusta, GA 30904,USA,
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4
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Marti A, Morell-Azanza L, Rendo-Urteaga T, García-Calzón S, Ojeda-Rodríguez A, Martín-Calvo N, Moreno-Aliaga MJ, Martínez JA, Azcona-San Julián MC. Serum and gene expression levels of CT-1, IL-6, and TNF-α after a lifestyle intervention in obese children. Pediatr Diabetes 2018; 19:217-222. [PMID: 28749076 DOI: 10.1111/pedi.12561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation related molecules such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1) are highly expressed in obese individuals and could partly explain some comorbidities associated to obesity. In obese children, lifestyle interventions are able to lower inflammation and reduce cardiovascular risk factors associated with obesity. The aim of the present work was to study changes in inflammation-related molecules serum and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) transcript levels after a 10-week lifestyle intervention in obese children and asses their potential association with glucose metabolism. METHODS Twenty-three obese children (mean age 11.5 years; 48% males) underwent a 10-week lifestyle not controlled intervention trial. Anthropometric and biochemical measurements were analyzed. Transcript analysis for CT-1, IL-6, and TNF-α in PBMC were performed by RT-PCR. Serum cytokine levels were also measured at baseline and after 10-weeks. RESULTS Participants achieved a significant reduction in body adiposity (0.34 decrease in body mass index-standard deviation), total cholesterol, and glucose levels after 10-weeks. A Significant decrease in serum TNF-α and C reactive protein (CRP) were observed. CT-1 transcript levels were significantly reduced (P = .005) after lifestyle intervention, and these changes were significantly correlated with changes in serum CT-1 levels (r = 0.451; P = .031). In multiple regression analysis baseline CT-1 transcript levels were positively associated with final insulin (R2 = 0.506; P = .035) and HOMA-IR values (R2 = 0.473; P = .034). CONCLUSIONS We reported that serum CRP, TNF-α, as well as PBMC CT-1 transcript levels were reduced after lifestyle intervention in obese children. More studies are needed to clarify the role of inflammation-related molecules in glucose metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Marti
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Center of Biomedical Research in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - L Morell-Azanza
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain
| | - T Rendo-Urteaga
- Youth/Child and cAdiovascular Risk and Environmental (YCARE) Research Group, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - S García-Calzón
- IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Epigenetics and Diabetes Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University Diabetes Centre, CRC, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - A Ojeda-Rodríguez
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain
| | - N Martín-Calvo
- IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Center of Biomedical Research in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Preventive Medicine & Public Health, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - M J Moreno-Aliaga
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Center of Biomedical Research in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Center for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - J A Martínez
- Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Center of Biomedical Research in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Center for Nutrition Research, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Madrid Institute of Advanced Science (IMDEA Food), Madrid, Spain
| | - M C Azcona-San Julián
- IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), Pamplona, Spain.,Paediatric Endocrinology Unit, Department of Paediatrics, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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Corbi SCT, Bastos AS, Nepomuceno R, Cirelli T, dos Santos RA, Takahashi CS, Rocha CS, Orrico SRP, Maurer-Morelli CV, Scarel-Caminaga RM. Expression Profile of Genes Potentially Associated with Adequate Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. J Diabetes Res 2017; 2017:2180819. [PMID: 28812028 PMCID: PMC5547755 DOI: 10.1155/2017/2180819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2017] [Revised: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite increasing research in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), there are few studies showing the impact of the poor glycemic control on biological processes occurring in T2D. In order to identify potential genes related to poorly/well-controlled patients with T2D, our strategy of investigation included a primary screen by microarray (Human Genome U133) in a small group of individuals followed by an independent validation in a greater group using RT-qPCR. Ninety patients were divided as follows: poorly controlled T2D (G1), well-controlled T2D (G2), and normoglycemic individuals (G3). After using affy package in R, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were prospected as candidate genes potentially relevant for the glycemic control in T2D patients. After validation by RT-qPCR, the obtained DEGs were as follows-G1 + G2 versus G3: HLA-DQA1, SOS1, and BRCA2; G2 versus G1: ENO2, VAMP2, CCND3, CEBPD, LGALS12, AGBL5, MAP2K5, and PPAP2B; G2 versus G3: HLA-DQB1, MCM4, and SEC13; and G1 versus G3: PPIC. This demonstrated a systemic exacerbation of the gene expression related to immune response in T2D patients. Moreover, genes related to lipid metabolisms and DNA replication/repair were influenced by the glycemic control. In conclusion, this study pointed out candidate genes potentially associated with adequate glycemic control in T2D patients, contributing to the knowledge of how the glycemic control could systemically influence gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sâmia Cruz Tfaile Corbi
- Department of Diagnosis and Surgery, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Alliny Souza Bastos
- Department of Diagnosis and Surgery, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Rafael Nepomuceno
- Department of Diagnosis and Surgery, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - Thamiris Cirelli
- Department of Diagnosis and Surgery, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Catarina Satie Takahashi
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto and Department of Biology, FFCLRP, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Cristiane S. Rocha
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Silvana Regina Perez Orrico
- Department of Diagnosis and Surgery, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Raquel Mantuaneli Scarel-Caminaga
- Department of Morphology, School of Dentistry, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara, SP, Brazil
- *Raquel Mantuaneli Scarel-Caminaga:
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6
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Moreno JP, Johnston CA, Hernandez DC, LeNoble J, Papaioannou MA, Foreyt JP. Impact of parental weight status on a school-based weight management programme designed for Mexican-American children. Pediatr Obes 2016; 11:354-60. [PMID: 26437922 DOI: 10.1111/ijpo.12066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While overweight and obese children are more likely to have overweight or obese parents, less is known about the effect of parental weight status on children's success in weight management programmes. OBJECTIVES This study was a secondary data analysis of a randomized controlled trial and investigated the impact of having zero, one or two obese parents on children's success in a school-based weight management programme. METHODS Sixty-one Mexican-American children participated in a 24-week school-based weight management intervention which took place in 2005-2006. Children's heights and weights were measured at baseline, 3, 6 and 12 months. Parental weight status was assessed at baseline. Repeated measures anova and ancova were conducted to compare changes in children's weight within and between groups, respectively. RESULTS Within-group comparisons revealed that the intervention led to significant decreases in standardized body mass index (zBMI) for children with zero (F = 23.16, P < .001) or one obese (F = 4.99, P < .05) parent. Between-group comparisons indicated that children with zero and one obese parents demonstrated greater decreases in zBMI compared to children with two obese parents at every time point. CONCLUSIONS The school-based weight management programme appears to be most efficacious for children with one or no obese parents compared to children with two obese parents. These results demonstrate the need to consider parental weight status when engaging in childhood weight management efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Moreno
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics-Nutrition, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.
| | - C A Johnston
- Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - D C Hernandez
- Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - J LeNoble
- Department of Psychiatry, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - M A Papaioannou
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics-Nutrition, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - J P Foreyt
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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Böhm A, Weigert C, Staiger H, Häring HU. Exercise and diabetes: relevance and causes for response variability. Endocrine 2016; 51:390-401. [PMID: 26643313 PMCID: PMC4762932 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-015-0792-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Exercise as a key prevention strategy for diabetes and obesity is commonly accepted and recommended throughout the world. Unfortunately, not all individuals profit to the same extent, some exhibit exercise resistance. This phenomenon of non-response to exercise is found for several endpoints, including glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. Since these non-responders are of notable quantity, there is the need to understand the underlying mechanisms and to identify predictors of response. This displays the basis to develop personalized training intervention regimes. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on response variability, with focus on human studies and improvement of glucose homeostasis as outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Böhm
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Cora Weigert
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Harald Staiger
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Häring
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Angiology, Nephrology, and Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
- Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 85764, München-Neuherberg, Germany.
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Shaibi GQ, Ryder JR, Kim JY, Barraza E. Exercise for obese youth: refocusing attention from weight loss to health gains. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2015; 43:41-7. [PMID: 25390295 DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite evidence to the contrary, exercise interventions for obese youth target weight loss as a means of improving health. Using Exercise is Medicine® as a framework, we present a conceptual model for the beneficial effects of exercise independent of weight loss in obese youth and highlight novel biomarkers of cardiometabolic health that could prove useful as interventional targets for this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Q Shaibi
- 1College of Nursing and Health Innovation, 2School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, and 3Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center, Arizona State University; and 4Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ
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