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Thunberg C, Wiker T, Bundt C, Huster RJ. On the (un)reliability of common behavioral and electrophysiological measures from the stop signal task: Measures of inhibition lack stability over time. Cortex 2024; 175:81-105. [PMID: 38508968 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2024.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Response inhibition, the intentional stopping of planned or initiated actions, is often considered a key facet of control, impulsivity, and self-regulation. The stop signal task is argued to be the purest inhibition task we have, and it is thus central to much work investigating the role of inhibition in areas like development and psychopathology. Most of this work quantifies stopping behavior by calculating the stop signal reaction time as a measure of individual stopping latency. Individual difference studies aiming to investigate why and how stopping latencies differ between people often do this under the assumption that the stop signal reaction time indexes a stable, dispositional trait. However, empirical support for this assumption is lacking, as common measures of inhibition and control tend to show low test-retest reliability and thus appear unstable over time. The reasons for this could be methodological, where low stability is driven by measurement noise, or substantive, where low stability is driven by a larger influence of state-like and situational factors. To investigate this, we characterized the split-half and test-retest reliability of a range of common behavioral and electrophysiological measures derived from the stop signal task. Across three independent studies, different measurement modalities, and a systematic review of the literature, we found a pattern of low temporal stability for inhibition measures and higher stability for measures of manifest behavior and non-inhibitory processing. This pattern could not be explained by measurement noise and low internal consistency. Consequently, response inhibition appears to have mostly state-like and situational determinants, and there is little support for the validity of conceptualizing common inhibition measures as reflecting stable traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Thunberg
- Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Thea Wiker
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Research Center for Developmental Processes and Gradients in Mental Health, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Carsten Bundt
- Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - René J Huster
- Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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2
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Unsworth N, Miller AL, Strayer DL. Individual differences in attention control: A meta-analysis and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02516-1. [PMID: 38769271 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02516-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
A meta-analysis and re-analysis of prior latent variable studies was conducted in order to assess whether there is evidence for individual differences in broad attention control abilities. Data from 90 independent samples and over 23,000 participants suggested that most (84.4%) prior studies find evidence for a coherent attention control factor with average factor loadings of .51. This latent attention control factor was related to other cognitive ability factors including working memory, shifting, fluid intelligence, long-term memory, reading comprehension, and processing speed, as well as to self-reports of task-unrelated thoughts and task specific motivation. Further re-analyses and meta-analyses suggest that the results remained largely unchanged when considering various possible measurement issues. Examining the factor structure of attention control suggested evidence for sub-components of attention control (restraining, constraining and sustaining attention) which could be accounted for a by a higher-order factor. Additional re-analyses suggested that attention control represents a broad ability within models of cognitive abilities. Overall, these results provide evidence for attention control abilities as an important individual differences construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nash Unsworth
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403, USA.
| | - Ashley L Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Deanna L Strayer
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403, USA
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3
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Javelle F, Schlagheck ML, Broos HC, Timpano KR, Joormann J, Zimmer P, Johnson SL. On the impulsivity path: Examining the unique and conjoint relations between emotion- and non-emotion-related impulsivity, internalizing symptoms, alcohol use, and physical health parameters. J Clin Psychol 2024; 80:339-354. [PMID: 37883120 PMCID: PMC11170548 DOI: 10.1002/jclp.23608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Researchers have increasingly differentiated trait-like tendencies toward impulsivity occurring during emotional states (emotion-related impulsivity [ERI]) from impulsivity not tied to emotion (non-ERI). Relative to non-ERI, ERI has shown robust correlations with psychopathology and mild to moderate associations with physical health parameters (e.g., physical activity, poor sleep quality, body mass index [BMI]). Therefore, we first aimed to investigate the unique contributions of ERI and non-ERI to psychopathology symptoms while controlling for neuroticism. Second, we sought to explore the combined associations of physical health parameters with several impulsivity forms. METHODS German-speaking adults (N = 350, 35.9 ± 14.6 years, 69.1% female, BMI: 24.0 ± 4.8 kg/m2 , mostly students or employees) completed measures of impulsivity, psychopathology symptoms, neuroticism, and physical health. We gathered measures of two ERI forms: Feelings Trigger Action and Pervasive Influence of Feelings. As a control comparison, we gathered a measure of non-ERI, the Lack of Follow-Through scale. We conducted separate path models for Aims 1 and 2. RESULTS For Aim 1, Pervasive Influence of Feelings showed strong links with internalizing symptoms. Feelings Trigger Action and Lack of Follow-Through showed small links with alcohol use. For Aim 2, poor sleep quality was related to all three impulsivity factors, while physical activity was only related to Pervasive Influence of Feelings and Lack of Follow-Through. BMI showed a curvilinear association with impulsivity. CONCLUSIONS ERI is more directly relevant than non-ERI for psychopathology symptoms, emphasizing the need to differentiate between the two ERI types. The association of ERI and non-ERI with physical activity and poor sleep quality may serve as potential treatment targets for impulsivity-related problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Javelle
- NeuroPsychoImmunology Research Unit, Department for Molecular and Cellular Sports Medicine, Institute for Cardiovascular Research and Sports Medicine, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Marit L. Schlagheck
- Division of Performance and Health, Institute for Sport and Sport Science, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Hannah C. Broos
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Kiara R. Timpano
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Jutta Joormann
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Philipp Zimmer
- Division of Performance and Health, Institute for Sport and Sport Science, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sheri L. Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
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4
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Sambol S, Suleyman E, Scarfo J, Ball M. A true reflection of executive functioning or a representation of task-specific variance? Re-evaluating the unity/diversity framework. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 236:103934. [PMID: 37156119 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The unity/diversity framework, originally published by Miyake et al. (2000) has become the most cited model of executive functioning. Consequently, when researchers operationalise executive function (EF) they often exclusively assess the three "core" EFs: updating, shifting, and inhibition. However, rather than core EFs representing domain general cognitive abilities, these three EFs may instead represent specific procedural skills from the overlapping methodologies of the tasks selected. In this study, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) which showed both the traditional three-factor and nested-factor model from the unity/diversity framework failed to reach satisfactory levels of fit. Subsequently, an exploratory factor analysis supported a three-factor model reflecting: an expanded working memory factor, a combined shifting/inhibition factor representing cognitive flexibility, and a factor comprised solely of the Stroop task. These results demonstrate that working memory remains the most robustly operationalised EF construct, whereas shifting and inhibition may represent task-specific mechanisms of a broader domain-general cognitive flexibility factor. Ultimately, there is little evidence to suggest that updating, shifting, and inhibition encapsulates all core EFs. Further research is needed to develop an ecologically valid model of executive functioning that captures the cognitive abilities associated with real world goal-directed behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stjepan Sambol
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Emra Suleyman
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jessica Scarfo
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michelle Ball
- Institute for Health and Sport (IHES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Göbel K, Hensel L, Schultheiss OC, Niessen C. Meta‐Analytic
Evidence Shows no Relationship Between
Task‐Based
and
Self‐Report
Measures of Thought Control. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyra Göbel
- Institute of Psychology Friedrich‐Alexander University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg Nägelsbachstr. 49c 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | - Lisa Hensel
- Institute of Psychology Friedrich‐Alexander University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg Nägelsbachstr. 49c 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | - Oliver C. Schultheiss
- Institute of Psychology Friedrich‐Alexander University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg Nägelsbachstr. 49c 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | - Cornelia Niessen
- Institute of Psychology Friedrich‐Alexander University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg Nägelsbachstr. 49c 91052 Erlangen Germany
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Self-Injury in Adolescence Is Associated with Greater Behavioral Risk Avoidance, Not Risk-Taking. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11051288. [PMID: 35268378 PMCID: PMC8911447 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11051288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Strategies to link impulsivity and self-injurious behaviors (SIBs) show highly variable results, and may differ depending on the impulsivity measure used. To better understand this lack of consistency, we investigated correlations between self-report and behavioral impulsivity, inhibitory control, SIBs, and rumination. We included participants aged 13-17 years with either current or remitted psychopathology who have (n = 31) and who do not have (n = 14) a history of SIBs. Participants completed self-report measures of impulsivity, the Rumination Responsiveness Scale (RRS), and two behavioral measures of impulsivity: the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) and Parametric Go/No-Go (PGNG). Lifetime SIBs were positively associated with self-reported impulsivity, specifically positive and negative urgency. However, individuals with greater lifetime SIBs demonstrated greater risk aversion (lower impulsivity) as measured by the BART, whereas there was no relation between lifetime SIBs and PGNG performance. There was no relation between rumination and behavioral impulsivity, although greater rumination was associated with higher negative urgency. Future research examining the role of SIBs in the context of active versus remitted psychopathology is warranted. Because most adolescents were remitted from major depressive disorder at the time of study, follow-up studies can determine if lower risk-taking may aid individuals with more prior SIBs to achieve and maintain a remitted state.
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Leong V, Raheel K, Sim JY, Kacker K, Karlaftis VM, Vassiliu C, Kalaivanan K, Chen SHA, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ, Kourtzi Z. A New Remote Guided Method for Supervised Web-Based Cognitive Testing to Ensure High-Quality Data: Development and Usability Study. J Med Internet Res 2022; 24:e28368. [PMID: 34989691 PMCID: PMC8778570 DOI: 10.2196/28368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The global COVID-19 pandemic has triggered a fundamental reexamination of how human psychological research can be conducted safely and robustly in a new era of digital working and physical distancing. Online web-based testing has risen to the forefront as a promising solution for the rapid mass collection of cognitive data without requiring human contact. However, a long-standing debate exists over the data quality and validity of web-based studies. This study examines the opportunities and challenges afforded by the societal shift toward web-based testing and highlights an urgent need to establish a standard data quality assurance framework for online studies. Objective This study aims to develop and validate a new supervised online testing methodology, remote guided testing (RGT). Methods A total of 85 healthy young adults were tested on 10 cognitive tasks assessing executive functioning (flexibility, memory, and inhibition) and learning. Tasks were administered either face-to-face in the laboratory (n=41) or online using remote guided testing (n=44) and delivered using identical web-based platforms (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, Inquisit, and i-ABC). Data quality was assessed using detailed trial-level measures (missed trials, outlying and excluded responses, and response times) and overall task performance measures. Results The results indicated that, across all data quality and performance measures, RGT data was statistically-equivalent to in-person data collected in the lab (P>.40 for all comparisons). Moreover, RGT participants out-performed the lab group on measured verbal intelligence (P<.001), which could reflect test environment differences, including possible effects of mask-wearing on communication. Conclusions These data suggest that the RGT methodology could help ameliorate concerns regarding online data quality—particularly for studies involving high-risk or rare cohorts—and offer an alternative for collecting high-quality human cognitive data without requiring in-person physical attendance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Leong
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Centre for Research and Development in Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kausar Raheel
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jia Yi Sim
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kriti Kacker
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Vasilis M Karlaftis
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Chrysoula Vassiliu
- Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages and Linguistics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Kastoori Kalaivanan
- Centre for Research and Development in Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - S H Annabel Chen
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Centre for Research and Development in Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara J Sahakian
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Zoe Kourtzi
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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8
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Cissne MN, Kester LE, Gunn AJM, Bodner KE, Miles JH, Christ SE. Brief Report: A Preliminary Study of the Relationship between Repetitive Behaviors and Concurrent Executive Function Demands in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2021; 52:1896-1902. [PMID: 34009548 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05071-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the hypothesis that the strength of the relationship between executive function (EF) and repetitive behaviors and restricted interests (RBRI) symptomatology is moderated by the degree to which concurrent demands are placed on multiple aspects of EF. An eye movement task was used to evaluate inhibition and task switching ability (both together and in isolation) in a sample of 22 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) was used to assess the severity of RBRI symptoms. Results provide preliminary support for the aforementioned hypothesis. RBS-R scores were significantly correlated with task performance when simultaneous demands were placed on switching and inhibition; however, no such relationship was found for inhibition-only or switching-only task conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie N Cissne
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Lindsay E Kester
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Amanda J Moffitt Gunn
- Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Department of Special Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Kimberly E Bodner
- Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
- MetroHealth System, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Judith H Miles
- Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Department of Child Health, Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Shawn E Christ
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO, USA.
- Thompson Center for Autism & Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
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9
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Trait Self-Control, Inhibition, and Executive Functions: Rethinking some Traditional Assumptions. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-021-09457-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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10
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Richmond-Rakerd LS, Caspi A, Ambler A, d'Arbeloff T, de Bruine M, Elliott M, Harrington H, Hogan S, Houts RM, Ireland D, Keenan R, Knodt AR, Melzer TR, Park S, Poulton R, Ramrakha S, Rasmussen LJH, Sack E, Schmidt AT, Sison ML, Wertz J, Hariri AR, Moffitt TE. Childhood self-control forecasts the pace of midlife aging and preparedness for old age. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2010211118. [PMID: 33397808 PMCID: PMC7826388 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2010211118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to control one's own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in early life predicts a range of positive outcomes in later life, including longevity. Does it also predict how well people age? We studied the association between self-control and midlife aging in a population-representative cohort of children followed from birth to age 45 y, the Dunedin Study. We measured children's self-control across their first decade of life using a multi-occasion/multi-informant strategy. We measured their pace of aging and aging preparedness in midlife using measures derived from biological and physiological assessments, structural brain-imaging scans, observer ratings, self-reports, informant reports, and administrative records. As adults, children with better self-control aged more slowly in their bodies and showed fewer signs of aging in their brains. By midlife, these children were also better equipped to manage a range of later-life health, financial, and social demands. Associations with children's self-control could be separated from their social class origins and intelligence, indicating that self-control might be an active ingredient in healthy aging. Children also shifted naturally in their level of self-control across adult life, suggesting the possibility that self-control may be a malleable target for intervention. Furthermore, individuals' self-control in adulthood was associated with their aging outcomes after accounting for their self-control in childhood, indicating that midlife might offer another window of opportunity to promote healthy aging.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Avshalom Caspi
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
- Promenta Center, University of Oslo, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Antony Ambler
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Tracy d'Arbeloff
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Marieke de Bruine
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, 5037 AB Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Maxwell Elliott
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - HonaLee Harrington
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Sean Hogan
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Renate M Houts
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - David Ireland
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Ross Keenan
- New Zealand Brain Research Institute, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
- Christchurch Radiology Group, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Annchen R Knodt
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Tracy R Melzer
- New Zealand Brain Research Institute, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
- Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Sena Park
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Richie Poulton
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Sandhya Ramrakha
- Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Line Jee Hartmann Rasmussen
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Clinical Research Centre, Copenhagen University Hospital Amager and Hvidovre, 2650 Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Elizabeth Sack
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Adam T Schmidt
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79410
| | - Maria L Sison
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Jasmin Wertz
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Ahmad R Hariri
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Terrie E Moffitt
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710
- Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
- Promenta Center, University of Oslo, 0315 Oslo, Norway
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