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Ahlgren K, Havemeister F, Andersson J, Esbjörner EK, Swenson J. The inhibition of fibril formation of lysozyme by sucrose and trehalose. RSC Adv 2024; 14:11921-11931. [PMID: 38623289 PMCID: PMC11017192 DOI: 10.1039/d4ra01171f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The two disaccharides, trehalose and sucrose, have been compared in many studies due to their structural similarity. Both possess the ability to stabilise and reduce aggregation of proteins. Trehalose has also been shown to inhibit the formation of highly structured protein aggregates called amyloid fibrils. This study aims to compare how the thermal stability of the protein lysozyme at low pH (2.0 and 3.5) is affected by the presence of the two disaccharides. We also address the anti-aggregating properties of the disaccharides and their inhibitory effects on fibril formation. Differential scanning calorimetry confirms that the thermal stability of lysozyme is increased by the presence of trehalose or sucrose. The effect is slightly larger for sucrose. The inhibiting effects on protein aggregation are investigated using small-angle X-ray scattering which shows that the two-component system consisting of lysozyme and water (Lys/H2O) at pH 2.0 contains larger aggregates than the corresponding system at pH 3.5 as well as the sugar containing systems. In addition, the results show that the particle-to-particle distance in the sugar containing systems (Lys/Tre/H2O and Lys/Suc/H2O) at pH 2.0 is longer than at pH 3.5, suggesting larger protein aggregates in the former. Finally, the characteristic distance separating β-strands in amyloid fibrils is observed for the Lys/H2O system at pH 2.0, using wide-angle X-ray scattering, while it is not clearly observed for the sugar containing systems. This study further shows that the two disaccharides stabilise the native fold of lysozyme by increasing the denaturation temperature. However, other factors, such as a weakening of hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding between proteins, might also play a role in their inhibitory effect on amyloid fibril formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajsa Ahlgren
- Division of Nano-Biophysics, Department of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg SE-412 96 Sweden
| | - Fritjof Havemeister
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg SE-412 96 Sweden
| | - Julia Andersson
- Division of Nano-Biophysics, Department of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg SE-412 96 Sweden
| | - Elin K Esbjörner
- Division of Chemical Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg SE-412 96 Sweden
| | - Jan Swenson
- Division of Nano-Biophysics, Department of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg SE-412 96 Sweden
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2
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Arte KS, Tower CW, Mutukuri TT, Chen Y, Patel SM, Munson EJ, Tony Zhou Q. Understanding the impact of mannitol on physical stability and aerosolization of spray-dried protein powders for inhalation. Int J Pharm 2024; 650:123698. [PMID: 38081559 PMCID: PMC10907098 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary delivery of protein-based therapeutics, including antibodies, is a promising option for treating respiratory diseases. Spray drying is a widely used method for producing dry powder formulations with mannitol being a commonly used excipient for these inhalation formulations. There is limited research available concerning the utilization of mannitol as an excipient in the spray drying of proteins and its impact on aerosol performance. This study highlights the importance to understand mannitol's potential role and impact in this context. To investigate the impact of mannitol on physical stability and aerosolization of spray-dried protein formulations, bovine serum albumin (BSA) was employed as a model protein and formulated with different concentrations of mannitol via spray drying. The spray-dried solids were characterized for their particle size using Malvern mastersizer and aerodynamic particle size using next generation impactor (NGI). Additionally, the solids were characterized with solid-state Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ssFTIR), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (ssNMR) to analyze the change in their secondary structure, crystallinity, particle morphology, and protein-excipient interaction, respectively. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) was used to investigate changes in monomer content resulting from storage under stressed condition of 40 °C. Protein formulations containing more than 33 % mannitol by weight showed crystallization tendencies, causing an increase in monomer loss over time. ssNMR data also showed mixing heterogeneity of BSA and mannitol in the formulations with high mannitol contents. Futhermore, fine particle fraction (FPF) was found to decrease over time for the formulations containing BSA: Mannitol in the ratios of 2:1, 1:2, and 1:5, due to particle agglomeration induced by crystallization of mannitol. This study underscores the significant influence of excipients such as mannitol on the aerosol performance and storage stability of spray-dried protein formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinnari S Arte
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Cole W Tower
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Tarun T Mutukuri
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Injectable Drug Product Development, Alexion - AstraZeneca Rare Disease Unit, New Haven, CT 06510, USA(1)
| | - Yuan Chen
- Dosage Form Design & Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA; Global Product Quality, Global Quality Operations, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD 20787, USA(1)
| | - Sajal M Patel
- Dosage Form Design & Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - Eric J Munson
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Qi Tony Zhou
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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3
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Ueda T. [Modulation of Aggregation and Immunogenicity of a Protein: Based on the Study of Hen Lysozyme]. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2024; 144:299-310. [PMID: 38432940 DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.23-00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
This study focuses on the modulation of protein aggregation and immunogenicity. As a starting point for investigating long-range interactions within a non-native protein, the effects of perturbing denatured protein states on their aggregation, including the formation of amyloid fibrils, were evaluated. The effects of adducts, sugar modifications, and stabilization on protein aggregation were then examined. We also investigated how protein immunogenicity was affected by enhancing protein conformational stability and other factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Ueda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University
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4
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Shan L, Huang Y, Zhang J, Su Y, Guo Y. Inhibiting Protein Aggregation Using Cellulose Nanocrystal in MALDI-TOF MS Analysis: Improving the Sensitivity and Repeatability of Intact Protein in Pueraria. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:20146-20154. [PMID: 38060840 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Protein aggregation can induce low sensitivity and poor repeatability of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-fight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis for intact protein. Herein, we introduced a strategy to decrease protein aggregation in the sample solution by using cellulose nanocrystal (CNC). The results indicated that protein granule size was effectively reduced by adding CNC to the sample solution. Through MALDI-TOF MS analysis, the signal-to-noise ratio of [M + H]+ peak increased 2-fold, and the detection of limit was <10 μg/mL for intact protein. The CNC also contributed to excellent point-to-point repeatability for MALDI-TOF MS analysis with the coefficient of variation (CV) of 10.0% with CNC vs 48.9% without CNC in Hb solution. Also, the repeatability of Pueraria protein ion signals was improved by using CNC, and the CV with and without CNC was 16.1% and 39.6%, respectively. Moreover, protein ion intensity exhibited great linear relationship (y = 53.04x - 3.474, R2 = 0.9936) with the concentrations (ranging from 0.1 to 10 mg/mL) when using CNC. Further investigation revealed that m/z 19,000 and m/z 21,000 peaks of Pueraria could be used for the adulteration analysis and post-translational modification research, demonstrating our method has the potential for broad applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Shan
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, PR China
- National Center for Organic Mass Spectrometry in Shanghai, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Yiman Huang
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, PR China
- National Center for Organic Mass Spectrometry in Shanghai, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Jing Zhang
- National Center for Organic Mass Spectrometry in Shanghai, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, PR China
| | - Yue Su
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Yinlong Guo
- National Center for Organic Mass Spectrometry in Shanghai, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, PR China
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5
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Maruf A, Milewska M, Varga M, Wandzik I. Trehalose-Bearing Carriers to Target Impaired Autophagy and Protein Aggregation Diseases. J Med Chem 2023; 66:15613-15628. [PMID: 38031413 PMCID: PMC10726369 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, trehalose, a natural disaccharide, has attracted growing attention because of the discovery of its potential to induce autophagy. Trehalose has also been demonstrated to preserve the protein's structural integrity and to limit the aggregation of pathologically misfolded proteins. Both of these properties have made trehalose a promising therapeutic candidate to target autophagy-related disorders and protein aggregation diseases. Unfortunately, trehalose has poor bioavailability due to its hydrophilic nature and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation. Recently, trehalose-bearing carriers, in which trehalose is incorporated either by chemical conjugation or physical entrapment, have emerged as an alternative option to free trehalose to improve its efficacy, particularly for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, atherosclerosis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and cancers. In the current Perspective, we discuss all existing literature in this emerging field and try to identify key challenges for researchers intending to develop trehalose-bearing carriers to stimulate autophagy or inhibit protein aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Maruf
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty
of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology
Center, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Drug
Research Progam, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Helsinki, Viikinkaari
5E, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Małgorzata Milewska
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty
of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology
Center, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Máté Varga
- Department
of Genetics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd
University, Pázmány
P. stny. 1/C, Budapest H-1117, Hungary
| | - Ilona Wandzik
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty
of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology
Center, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
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6
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Khan S, Siraj S, Shahid M, Haque MM, Islam A. Osmolytes: Wonder molecules to combat protein misfolding against stress conditions. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 234:123662. [PMID: 36796566 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
The proper functioning of any protein depends on its three dimensional conformation which is achieved by the accurate folding mechanism. Keeping away from the exposed stress conditions leads to cooperative unfolding and sometimes partial folding, forming the structures like protofibrils, fibrils, aggregates, oligomers, etc. leading to several neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, Cystic fibrosis, Huntington, Marfan syndrome, and also cancers in some cases, too. Hydration of proteins is necessary, which may be achieved by the presence of organic solutes called osmolytes within the cell. Osmolytes belong to different classes in different organisms and play their role by preferential exclusion of osmolytes and preferential hydration of water molecules and achieves the osmotic balance in the cell otherwise it may cause problems like cellular infection, cell shrinkage leading to apoptosis and cell swelling which is also the major injury to the cell. Osmolyte interacts with protein, nucleic acids, intrinsically disordered proteins by non-covalent forces. Stabilizing osmolytes increases the Gibbs free energy of the unfolded protein and decreases that of folded protein and vice versa with denaturants (urea and guanidinium hydrochloride). The efficacy of each osmolyte with the protein is determined by the calculation of m value which reflects its efficiency with protein. Hence osmolytes can be therapeutically considered and used in drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sobia Khan
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Seerat Siraj
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India; Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Mohammad Shahid
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box: 173, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Asimul Islam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India.
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7
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Sedov I, Khaibrakhmanova D. Molecular Mechanisms of Inhibition of Protein Amyloid Fibril Formation: Evidence and Perspectives Based on Kinetic Models. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232113428. [PMID: 36362217 PMCID: PMC9657184 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of fibril formation is considered a possible treatment strategy for amyloid-related diseases. Understanding the molecular nature of inhibitor action is crucial for the design of drug candidates. In the present review, we describe the common kinetic models of fibril formation and classify known inhibitors by the mechanism of their interactions with the aggregating protein and its oligomers. This mechanism determines the step or steps of the aggregation process that become inhibited and the observed changes in kinetics and equilibrium of fibril formation. The results of numerous studies indicate that possible approaches to antiamyloid inhibitor discovery include the search for the strong binders of protein monomers, cappers blocking the ends of the growing fibril, or the species absorbing on the surface of oligomers preventing nucleation. Strongly binding inhibitors stabilizing the native state can be promising for the structured proteins while designing the drug candidates targeting disordered proteins is challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Sedov
- Chemical Institute, Kazan Federal University, Kremlevskaya 18, 420008 Kazan, Russia
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, 420111 Kazan, Russia
- Sirius University of Science and Technology, 1 Olympic Ave, 354340 Sochi, Russia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-9600503916
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8
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Ahmad A, Mishra R. Polyol and sugar osmolytes stabilize the molten globule state of α-lactalbumin and inhibit amyloid fibril formation. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2022; 1870:140853. [PMID: 36096464 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2022.140853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Protein misfolding and aggregation are associated with several human diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, prion related disorders, type-II diabetes, etc. Different strategies using molecular chaperones, synthetic and naturally occurring small molecules, osmolytes, etc. have been used to prevent protein aggregation and amyloid fibril formation. In this study, we have used bovine α-lactalbumin at pH 1.6, 37 °C, and shaking conditions to promote amyloid fibril formation. Polyol and sugar osmolytes like glycerol, sorbitol, and trehalose have been used to inhibit the fibrillation of a number of proteins. In the present work, amyloid fibril formation of α-lactalbumin has been shown by ThT assay and AFM, while changes in the secondary structure during fibrillation has been followed by circular dichroism spectroscopy. Our results show that glycerol, sorbitol, and trehalose affect amyloid fibril formation of α-lactalbumin in a concentration-dependent manner. There is a delay in the lag phase of amyloid fibril formation in sorbitol and trehalose and complete inhibition in 6 M glycerol. Our results indicate that delay in the lag phase and inhibition of amyloid fibril formation are due to the stabilization of molten globule state by these osmolytes. At pH 1.6, the molten globule as well as the amyloid fibrils bind to ANS. However, when pH was shifted from 1.6 to 7, only the oligomeric and the fibrillar species bind to ANS due to refolding of molten globule state. The outcome of this study might be useful in designing small molecules which may stabilize the intermediate states, thus preventing amyloid fibril formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aziz Ahmad
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Rajesh Mishra
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
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9
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Li D, Chen P, Dong Q, Liu B, Zhang W, Wei DQ, Guo B. Investigating the stabilisation of IFN-α2a by replica exchange molecular dynamics simulation. J Mol Model 2022; 28:232. [PMID: 35882698 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-022-05212-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Current biopharmaceutical drugs are mainly a class of peptides or proteins that play an essential role in the treatment of many diseases. Such peptides/proteins are usually thermally unstable and may lose their bioactivity when exposed to ambient conditions. Therefore, they are not suitable for long-term storage. Lyophilisation is the most common method to prolong shelf life of solid peptide/protein drugs; however, the freeze-drying process can lead to irreversible damage. In the present study, human interferon-alpha 2a (IFN-α2a) was selected as a model protein drug; four disaccharides (β-lactose, β-maltose, sucrose, and trehalose) were selected as bioactive protectants. We investigated the effects of different protectants on IFN-α2a under various ambient conditions (vacuum, dry state, and aqueous solution) using replica exchange molecular dynamics simulation. The protective effect of β-maltose on IFN-α2a was the highest in aqueous solution and dry state, β-lactose showed a poor protective effect in all three conditions, the performance of sucrose was good in all conditions, and trehalose showed a better protective effect under vacuum conditions and in aqueous solution. Disaccharides form H-bonds with water, thereby preventing water from the tertiary structure of proteins. Trehalose forms strong H-bonds with water which explains its extraordinary stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daixi Li
- Institute of Biothermal Science and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 20093, China.
| | - Peiqin Chen
- Institute of Biothermal Science and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 20093, China
| | - Qingli Dong
- Institute of Biothermal Science and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 20093, China
| | - Baolin Liu
- Institute of Biothermal Science and Technology, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 20093, China
| | - Wujie Zhang
- Physics and Chemistry Department, Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI, 53202, USA
| | - Dong-Qing Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai-Islamabad-Belgrade Joint Innovation Center On Antibacterial Resistances, Joint Laboratory of International Cooperation in Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, Ministry of Education and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Peng Cheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Baisong Guo
- Injection Laboratory, Shanghai Tofflon Science and Technology Co, Ltd, Shanghai, 201108, China
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10
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Gorensek-Benitez AH, Kirk B, Myers JK. Protein Fibrillation under Crowded Conditions. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12070950. [PMID: 35883507 PMCID: PMC9312947 DOI: 10.3390/biom12070950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein amyloid fibrils have widespread implications for human health. Over the last twenty years, fibrillation has been studied using a variety of crowding agents to mimic the packed interior of cells or to probe the mechanisms and pathways of the process. We tabulate and review these results by considering three classes of crowding agent: synthetic polymers, osmolytes and other small molecules, and globular proteins. While some patterns are observable for certain crowding agents, the results are highly variable and often depend on the specific pairing of crowder and fibrillating protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelise H. Gorensek-Benitez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO 80903, USA
- Correspondence: (A.H.G.-B.); (J.K.M.)
| | - Bryan Kirk
- Department of Biology, Davidson College, Davidson, NC 28035, USA;
| | - Jeffrey K. Myers
- Department of Chemistry, Davidson College, Davidson, NC 28035, USA
- Correspondence: (A.H.G.-B.); (J.K.M.)
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11
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Takahashi D, Matsunaga E, Yamashita T, Caaveiro JM, Abe Y, Ueda T. Compound screening identified gossypetin and isoquercitrin as novel inhibitors for amyloid fibril formations of Vλ6 proteins associated with AL amyloidosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 596:22-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.01.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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12
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Milewska M, Milewski A, Wandzik I, Stenzel MH. Structurally analogous trehalose and sucrose glycopolymers – comparative characterization and evaluation of their effects on insulin fibrillation. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1py01517f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Comprehensive comparative characterization of highly structurally similar, RAFT-prepared trehalose and sucrose glycopolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Milewska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology Center, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Andrzej Milewski
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 6, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Ilona Wandzik
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Bioorganic Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 4, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology Center, Silesian University of Technology, Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Martina H. Stenzel
- Centre for Advanced Macromolecular Design, School of Chemistry, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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13
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Pathak BK, Dey S, Mozumder S, Sengupta J. The role of membranes in function and dysfunction of intrinsically disordered amyloidogenic proteins. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 128:397-434. [PMID: 35034725 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Membrane-protein interactions play a major role in human physiology as well as in diseases pathology. Interaction of a protein with the membrane was previously thought to be dependent on well-defined three-dimensional structure of the protein. In recent decades, however, it has become evident that a large fraction of the proteome, particularly in eukaryotes, stays disordered in solution and these proteins are termed as intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs). Also, a vast majority of human proteomes have been reported to contain substantially long disordered regions, called intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs), in addition to the structurally ordered regions. IDPs exist in an ensemble of conformations and the conformational flexibility enables IDPs to achieve functional diversity. IDPs (and IDRs) are found to be important players in cell signaling, where biological membranes act as anchors for signaling cascades. Therefore, IDPs modulate the membrane architectures, at the same time membrane composition also affects the binding of IDPs. Because of intrinsic disorders, misfolding of IDPs often leads to formation of oligomers, protofibrils and mature fibrils through progressive self-association. Accumulation of amyloid-like aggregates of some of the IDPs is a known causative agent for numerous diseases. In this chapter we highlight recent advances in understanding membrane interactions of some of the intrinsically disordered proteins involved in the pathogenesis of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bani Kumar Pathak
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
| | - Sandip Dey
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
| | - Sukanya Mozumder
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Jayati Sengupta
- Structural Biology and Bioinformatics Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Jadavpur, Kolkata, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India.
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14
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Abe Y, Shibata H, Oyama K, Ueda T. Effect of O-glycosylation on amyloid fibril formation of the variable domain in the Vλ6 light chain mutant Wil. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 166:342-351. [PMID: 33127550 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Glycosylation is one of the major post-translational modifications in eukaryotic cells and has been reported to affect the amyloid fibril formation in several amyloidogenic proteins and peptides. In this study, we expressed a Vλ6 light chain mutant, Wil, which is an amyloidogenic mutant in AL amyloidosis, by the yeast Pichia pastoris. After separation by cation exchange chromatography, we obtained the O-glycosylated and non-glycosylated Wil mutants in high yield. The structures of these Wil mutants were identical except with respect to glycosylation, and the stabilities were also identical. On the other hand, the O-glycosylation retarded the amyloid fibril formation in a sugar size-dependent manner. From these results, we discussed the role of covalently attached glycan in the retardation of amyloid fibril formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshito Abe
- Laboratory of Protein Structure, Function and Design, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Fukuoka, International University of Health and Welfare, Okawa, Japan
| | - Hinako Shibata
- Laboratory of Protein Structure, Function and Design, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kousuke Oyama
- Laboratory of Protein Structure, Function and Design, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tadashi Ueda
- Laboratory of Protein Structure, Function and Design, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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15
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Investigating the effect of sugar-terminated nanoparticles on amyloid fibrillogenesis of β-lactoglobulin. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:291-307. [PMID: 32961178 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In vivo tissue deposition of fibrillar protein aggregates is the cause of several degenerative diseases. Evidence suggests that interfering with the pathology-associated amyloid fibrillogenesis by inhibitory molecules is envisaged as the primary therapeutic strategy. Amyloid fibril formation of proteins has been demonstrated to be influenced by nanoparticles/nanomaterials. As compared with their molecular form counterpart, this work examined the effect of sucrose-terminated nanoparticles on the in vitro amyloid fibrillogenesis and structural properties of β-lactoglobulin at pH 2.0 and 80 °C. ThT binding and electron microscopy results demonstrated that sucrose-terminated nanoparticles were able to suppress β-lactoglobulin fibrillogenesis in a concentration-dependent fashion. Importantly, sucrose-terminated nanoparticles showed better β-lactoglobulin fibril-inhibiting ability than sucrose molecules. ANS fluorescence and right-angle light scattering results showed reduced solvent exposure and decreased aggregation, respectively, in the β-lactoglobulin samples upon treatment with sucrose-terminated nanoparticles. Moreover, fluorescence quenching analyses revealed that the static quenching mechanism and formation of a non-fluorescent fluorophore-nanoparticle complex are involved in the nanoparticle-β-lactoglobulin interaction. We believe that the results from this study may suggest that the nanoparticle form of biocompatible sugar-related osmolytes may serve as effective inhibiting/suppressing agents toward protein fibrillogenesis.
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16
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Iwaya N, Goda N, Matsuzaki M, Narita A, Shigemitsu Y, Tenno T, Abe Y, Hoshi M, Hiroaki H. Principal component analysis of data from NMR titration experiment of uniformly 15N labeled amyloid beta (1-42) peptide with osmolytes and phenolic compounds. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 690:108446. [PMID: 32593678 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A simple NMR method to analyze the data obtained by NMR titration experiment of amyloid formation inhibitors against uniformly 15N-labeled amyloid-β 1-42 peptide (Aβ(1-42)) was described. By using solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, the simplest method for monitoring the effects of Aβ fibrilization inhibitors is the NMR chemical shift perturbation (CSP) experiment using 15N-labeled Aβ(1-42). However, the flexible and dynamic nature of Aβ(1-42) monomer may hamper the interpretation of CSP data. Here we introduced principal component analysis (PCA) for visualizing and analyzing NMR data of Aβ(1-42) in the presence of amyloid inhibitors including high concentration osmolytes. We measured 1H-15N 2D spectra of Aβ(1-42) at various temperatures as well as of Aβ(1-42) with several inhibitors, and subjected all the data to PCA (PCA-HSQC). The PCA diagram succeeded in differentiating the various amyloid inhibitors, including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg), rosmarinic acid (RA) and curcumin (CUR) from high concentration osmolytes. We hypothesized that the CSPs reflected the conformational equilibrium of intrinsically disordered Aβ(1-42) induced by weak inhibitor binding rather than the specific molecular interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Iwaya
- Research Fellowship for Young Scientists, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan; Laboratory of Structural Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Natsuko Goda
- Laboratory of Structural Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Mizuki Matsuzaki
- Structural Biology Research Center and Division of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Akihiro Narita
- Structural Biology Research Center and Division of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Yoshiki Shigemitsu
- Laboratory of Structural Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan; School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuda, 4259, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8503, Japan.
| | - Takeshi Tenno
- Laboratory of Structural Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan; Structural Biology Research Center and Division of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Yoshito Abe
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
| | - Minako Hoshi
- Institute of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan.
| | - Hidekazu Hiroaki
- Laboratory of Structural Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan; Structural Biology Research Center and Division of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furocho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601, Japan.
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17
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Disentangling the role of solvent polarity and protein solvation in folding and self-assembly of α-lactalbumin. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 561:749-761. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.11.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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18
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Correia C, Tavares E, Lopes C, Silva JG, Duarte A, Geraldes V, Rodrigues MA, Melo EP. Stability of Protein Formulations at Subzero Temperatures by Isochoric Cooling. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:316-322. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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19
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Dias C, Matos AM, Blásquez-Sanchez MT, Calado P, Martins A, Dätwyler P, Ernst B, Macedo MP, Colabufo N, Rauter AP. 2-Deoxyglycosylation towards more effective and bioavailable neuroprotective molecules inspired by nature. PURE APPL CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2019-0303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The neuroprotective role of natural polyphenols is well established but phenolics poor water solubility affects their bioavailability and bioactivity. Aiming to overcome this issue, we were encouraged to investigate the 2-deoxyglycosylation of natural or nature inspired neuroprotective molecules, using glycals as easily accessed glycosyl donors. This robust methodology allowed the generation of a set of new resveratrol and caffeic acid ester glycosides, envisioning more effective and bioavailable compounds. Resveratrol 2-deoxyglycosides were more effective at protecting the neuronal cells from peroxide-induced cytotoxicity than resveratrol itself, while the caffeic acid ester glycoside also showed extraordinary neuroprotection activity. Coefficient partition measurements demonstrated the moderate lipophilicity of resveratrol glycosides, which Log D values are typical of a central nervous system (CNS) drug and ideal for blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration. Passive permeation assessed by the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) revealed that 2,6-dideoxy-l-arabino-hexopyranosides were more effective than 2-deoxy-d-arabino-hexopyranosides. The lack of toxicity of the neuroprotective glycosides and their promising physicochemical properties revealed the usefulness of sugar coupling towards the modulation of natural product properties and bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Dias
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Ana M. Matos
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Estudos de Doenҫas Crónicas (CEDOC), Chronic Disease Research Center, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Maria T. Blásquez-Sanchez
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Patrícia Calado
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Alice Martins
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Philipp Dätwyler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmacenter , University of Basel , Klingelbergstrasse 50 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Beat Ernst
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmacenter , University of Basel , Klingelbergstrasse 50 , CH-4056 Basel , Switzerland
| | - M. Paula Macedo
- Centro de Estudos de Doenҫas Crónicas (CEDOC), Chronic Disease Research Center, NOVA Medical School/Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade Nova de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
- Department of Medical Sciences, Institute of Biomedicine , University of Aveiro , Aveiro , Portugal
| | - Nicola Colabufo
- Università degli Studi di Bari, Biofordrug , Via Edoardo Orabona, 4 , 70125 Bari , Italy
| | - Amélia P. Rauter
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências , Universidade de Lisboa, Ed. C8, Campo Grande , 1749-016 Lisboa , Portugal
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20
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Mohan V, Sengupta B, Das N, Banerjee I, Sen P. Domain-Specific Stabilization of Structural and Dynamic Responses of Human Serum Albumin by Sucrose. Protein Pept Lett 2019; 26:287-300. [DOI: 10.2174/0929866526666190122115702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:Human Serum Albumin (HSA) is the most abundant protein present in human blood plasma. It is a large multi-domain protein with 585 amino acid residues. Due to its importance in human body, studies on the interaction of HSA with different external agent is of vital interest. The denaturation and renaturation of HSA in presence of external agents are of particular interest as they affect the biological activity of the protein.Objective:The objective of this work is to study the domain-specific and overall structural and dynamical changes occurring to HSA in the presence of a denaturing agent, urea and a renaturing agent, sucrose.Methods:In order to carry out the domain-specific studies, HSA has been tagged using N-(7- dimethylamino-4-methylcoumarin-3-yl) iodoacetamide (DACIA) at Cys-34 of domain-I and pnitrophenyl coumarin ester (NPCE) at Tyr-411 site in domain-III, separately. Steady-state absorption, emission and solvation dynamic measurements have been carried out in order to monitor the domain-specific alteration of HSA caused by the external agents. The overall structural change of HSA have been monitored using circular dichroism spectroscopy.Results:The α-helicity of HSA was found to decrease from 65% to 11% in presence of urea and was found to further increase to 25% when sucrose is added, manifesting the denaturing and renaturing effects of urea and sucrose, respectively. The steady state studies show that domain-III is more labile towards denaturation as compared to domain-I. The presence of an intermediate state is observed during the denaturation process. The stabilization of this intermediate state in presence of sucrose is attributed as the reason for the stabilization of HSA by sucrose. From solvation dynamics studies, it could be seen that the solvation time of DACIA inside domain-I of HSA decreases and increases regularly with increasing concentrations of urea and sucrose, respectively, while in the case of NPCE-tagged domain-III, the effect of sucrose on solvation time is evident only at high concentrations of urea.Conclusion:The denaturing and renaturing effects of urea and sucrose could be clearly seen from the steady state studies and circular dichroism spectroscopy measurements. A regular change in solvation time could only be observed in the case of domain-I and not in domain-III. The results indicate that the renaturing effect of sucrose on domain-III is not very evident when protein is in its native state, but is evident in when the protein is denatured.</P>
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaisakh Mohan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur - 208 016, UP, India
| | - Bhaswati Sengupta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur - 208 016, UP, India
| | - Nilimesh Das
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur - 208 016, UP, India
| | - Indrani Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur - 208 016, UP, India
| | - Pratik Sen
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur - 208 016, UP, India
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21
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AJITO S, HIRAI M. Recovery Effects of Trehalose on Acid Denaturation/Aggregation of Proteins. BUNSEKI KAGAKU 2019. [DOI: 10.2116/bunsekikagaku.68.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi AJITO
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Gunma University
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22
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Inhibition of amyloid fibril formation in the variable domain of λ6 light chain mutant Wil caused by the interaction between its unfolded state and epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2570-2578. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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23
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Wang W, Roberts CJ. Protein aggregation – Mechanisms, detection, and control. Int J Pharm 2018; 550:251-268. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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24
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Esmaili I, Mohammad Sadeghi HM, Akbari V. Effect of buffer additives on solubilization and refolding of reteplase inclusion bodies. Res Pharm Sci 2018; 13:413-421. [PMID: 30271443 PMCID: PMC6082031 DOI: 10.4103/1735-5362.236834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Reteplase is a non-glycosylated and recombinant form of tissue type plasminogen activator, which is produced in Escherichia coli. However, its overexpression usually leads to formation of inactive aggregates or inclusion bodies. In the present study, we report on the development of optimized processes for isolation, solubilization, and refolding of reteplase inclusion bodies to recover active protein. After protein overexpression in E. coli BL21 (DE3) inclusion bodies were isolated by cell disruption and repeated wash of pellet with buffer containing Triton X-100. To solubilize the inclusion bodies, different types, concentrations, pHs, and additives of denaturing agents were used. Rapid micro dilution method was applied for refolding of solubilized reteplase. Different chemical additives including sugars, alcohols, polymers, detergents, amino acids, kosmotropic, and chaotropic salts, reducing agents, and buffering agents were used in the refolding buffer. To evaluate the biological activity of refolded reteplase, an indirect chromogenic assay was performed. The best solubilizing agent for dissolving reteplase inclusion bodies was 6 M urea at pH 12. The optimized buffer for refolding of solubilized reteplase was found to be 1.15 M glucose, 9.16 mM imidazole, and 0.16 M sorbitol which resulted in high yield of biologically active protein. Our results indicate type, concentration, and pH of solvent and type, concentration, and combination of chemical additives can significantly influence the yield of inclusion bodies solubilization and refolding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Esmaili
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Hamid Mir Mohammad Sadeghi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Vajihe Akbari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Isfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
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25
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Omar SH. Biophenols pharmacology against the amyloidogenic activity in Alzheimer’s disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 89:396-413. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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26
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Andrich K, Hegenbart U, Kimmich C, Kedia N, Bergen HR, Schönland S, Wanker E, Bieschke J. Aggregation of Full-length Immunoglobulin Light Chains from Systemic Light Chain Amyloidosis (AL) Patients Is Remodeled by Epigallocatechin-3-gallate. J Biol Chem 2016; 292:2328-2344. [PMID: 28031465 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.750323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Intervention into amyloid deposition with anti-amyloid agents like the polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is emerging as an experimental secondary treatment strategy in systemic light chain amyloidosis (AL). In both AL and multiple myeloma (MM), soluble immunoglobulin light chains (LC) are produced by clonal plasma cells, but only in AL do they form amyloid deposits in vivo We investigated the amyloid formation of patient-derived LC and their susceptibility to EGCG in vitro to probe commonalities and systematic differences in their assembly mechanisms. We isolated nine LC from the urine of AL and MM patients. We quantified their thermodynamic stabilities and monitored their aggregation under physiological conditions by thioflavin T fluorescence, light scattering, SDS stability, and atomic force microscopy. LC from all patients formed amyloid-like aggregates, albeit with individually different kinetics. LC existed as dimers, ∼50% of which were linked by disulfide bridges. Our results suggest that cleavage into LC monomers is required for efficient amyloid formation. The kinetics of AL LC displayed a transition point in concentration dependence, which MM LC lacked. The lack of concentration dependence of MM LC aggregation kinetics suggests that conformational change of the light chain is rate-limiting for these proteins. Aggregation kinetics displayed two distinct phases, which corresponded to the formation of oligomers and amyloid fibrils, respectively. EGCG specifically inhibited the second aggregation phase and induced the formation of SDS-stable, non-amyloid LC aggregates. Our data suggest that EGCG intervention does not depend on the individual LC sequence and is similar to the mechanism observed for amyloid-β and α-synuclein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Andrich
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899.,the Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ute Hegenbart
- the Department of Internal Medicine V (Hematology/Amyloidosis Center), University Hospital Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, and
| | - Christoph Kimmich
- the Department of Internal Medicine V (Hematology/Amyloidosis Center), University Hospital Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, and
| | - Niraja Kedia
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899
| | - H Robert Bergen
- the Translational PKD Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | - Stefan Schönland
- the Department of Internal Medicine V (Hematology/Amyloidosis Center), University Hospital Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, and
| | - Erich Wanker
- the Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Bieschke
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899,
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27
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Liu J, Dehle FC, Liu Y, Bahraminejad E, Ecroyd H, Thorn DC, Carver JA. The Effect of Milk Constituents and Crowding Agents on Amyloid Fibril Formation by κ-Casein. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:1335-1343. [PMID: 26807595 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
When not incorporated into the casein micelle, κ-casein, a major milk protein, rapidly forms amyloid fibrils at physiological pH and temperature. In this study, the effects of milk components (calcium, lactose, lipids, and heparan sulfate) and crowding agents on reduced and carboxymethylated (RCM) κ-casein fibril formation was investigated using far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy, thioflavin T binding assays, and transmission electron microscopy. Longer-chain phosphatidylcholine lipids, which form the lining of milk ducts and milk fat globules, enhanced RCM κ-casein fibril formation irrespective of whether the lipids were in a monomeric or micellar state, whereas shorter-chain phospholipids and triglycerides had little effect. Heparan sulfate, a component of the milk fat globule membrane and catalyst of amyloid deposition in extracellular tissue, had little effect on the kinetics of RCM κ-casein fibril formation. Major nutritional components such as calcium and lactose also had no significant effect. Macromolecular crowding enhances protein-protein interactions, but in contrast to other fibril-forming species, the extent of RCM κ-casein fibril formation was reduced by the presence of a variety of crowding agents. These data are consistent with a mechanism of κ-casein fibril formation in which the rate-determining step is dissociation from the oligomer to give the highly amyloidogenic monomer. We conclude that the interaction of κ-casein with membrane-associated phospholipids along its secretory pathway may contribute to the development of amyloid deposits in mammary tissue. However, the formation of spherical oligomers such as casein micelles is favored over amyloid fibrils in the crowded environment of milk, within which the occurrence of amyloid fibrils is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihua Liu
- Pharmacy College, Jilin University , Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, China
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Francis C Dehle
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Yanqin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide , Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Elmira Bahraminejad
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University , Acton, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Heath Ecroyd
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health & Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong , Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - David C Thorn
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University , Acton, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - John A Carver
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University , Acton, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
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28
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Estrela N, Franquelim HG, Lopes C, Tavares E, Macedo JA, Christiansen G, Otzen DE, Melo EP. Sucrose prevents protein fibrillation through compaction of the tertiary structure but hardly affects the secondary structure. Proteins 2015; 83:2039-51. [DOI: 10.1002/prot.24921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nídia Estrela
- Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR); University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas; Faro 8005-139 Portugal
| | - Henri G. Franquelim
- Instituto De Medicina Molecular; Faculdade De Medicina Da Universidade De Lisboa; Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, Edifício Egas Moniz Lisboa 1649-028 Portugal
| | - Carlos Lopes
- Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR); University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas; Faro 8005-139 Portugal
| | - Evandro Tavares
- Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR); University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas; Faro 8005-139 Portugal
| | - Joana A. Macedo
- Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR); University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas; Faro 8005-139 Portugal
| | | | - Daniel E. Otzen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics; Aarhus University, iNANO (Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Centre); Gustav Wieds Vej 14 Aarhus C 8000 Denmark
| | - Eduardo P. Melo
- Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR); University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas; Faro 8005-139 Portugal
- Instituto Superior Técnico, Centro De Química Estrutural; Av. Rovisco Pais Lisboa 1049-001 Portugal
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Dias C, Rauter AP. Carbohydrates and Glycomimetics in Alzheimer's Disease Therapeutics and Diagnosis. CARBOHYDRATES IN DRUG DESIGN AND DISCOVERY 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/9781849739993-00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most prevalent form of late-life dementia, affecting millions worldwide. The devastating nature of the disease, unsuccessful treatment options and high socio-economic impact has inspired scientists to develop new structures with neuroprotective properties. Although currently available drugs target cholinergic neurotransmission, investigation towards disease-modifying therapies has been growing and carbohydrates have been playing an active role in the latest discoveries. Sugars, as polyfunctional compounds particularly important in biology and widely involved in human health and disease, have great potential to generate bioactive and bioavailable interesting molecules. Herein we discuss the importance of carbohydrates and glycomimetic structures, addressing different aspects of neuroprotection under investigation, targeting amyloid, tau and cholinergic hypotheses. The potential of carbohydrates in diagnosis is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Dias
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande 1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
| | - Amélia P. Rauter
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande 1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
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30
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Abe Y, Ohkuri T, Yoshitomi S, Murakami S, Ueda T. Role of the osmolyte taurine on the folding of a model protein, hen egg white lysozyme, under a crowding condition. Amino Acids 2015; 47:909-15. [PMID: 25604803 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-015-1918-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Taurine is one of the osmolytes that maintain the structure of proteins in cells exposed to denaturing environmental stressors. Recently, cryoelectron tomographic analysis of eukaryotic cells has revealed that their cytoplasms are crowded with proteins. Such crowding conditions would be expected to hinder the efficient folding of nascent polypeptide chains. Therefore, we examined the role of taurine on the folding of denatured and reduced lysozyme, as a model protein, under a crowding condition. The results confirmed that taurine had a better effect on protein folding than did β-alanine, which has a similar chemical structure, when the protein to be folded was present at submillimolar concentration. NMR analyses further revealed that under the crowding condition, taurine had more interactions than did β-alanine with the lysozyme molecule in both the folded and denatured states. We concluded that taurine improves the folding of the reduced lysozyme at submillimolar concentration to allow it to interact more favorably with the lysozyme molecule. Thus, the role of taurine, as an osmolyte in vivo, may be to assist in the efficient folding of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshito Abe
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
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31
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Denatured mammalian protein mixtures exhibit unusually high solubility in nucleic acid-free pure water. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113295. [PMID: 25405999 PMCID: PMC4236158 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Preventing protein aggregation is a major goal of biotechnology. Since protein aggregates are mainly comprised of unfolded proteins, protecting against denaturation is likely to assist solubility in an aqueous medium. Contrary to this concept, we found denatured total cellular protein mixture from mammalian cell kept high solubility in pure water when the mixture was nucleic acids free. The lysates were prepared from total cellular protein pellet extracted by using guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform mixture of TRIzol, denatured and reduced total protein mixtures remained soluble after extensive dialysis against pure water. The total cell protein lysates contained fully disordered proteins that readily formed large aggregates upon contact with nucleic acids or salts. These findings suggested that the highly flexible mixtures of disordered proteins, which have fully ionized side chains, are protected against aggregation. Interestingly, this unusual solubility is characteristic of protein mixtures from higher eukaryotes, whereas most prokaryotic protein mixtures were aggregated under identical conditions. This unusual solubility of unfolded protein mixtures could have implications for the study of intrinsically disordered proteins in a variety of cells.
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32
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del Pozo-Yauner L, Wall JS, González Andrade M, Sánchez-López R, Rodríguez-Ambriz SL, Pérez Carreón JI, Ochoa-Leyva A, Fernández-Velasco DA. The N-terminal strand modulates immunoglobulin light chain fibrillogenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 443:495-9. [PMID: 24321098 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.11.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that the N-terminal strand of the light chain variable domain (V(L)) protects the molecule from aggregation by hindering spurious intermolecular contacts. We evaluated the impact of mutations in the N-terminal strand on the thermodynamic stability and kinetic of fibrillogenesis of the V(L) protein 6aJL2. Mutations in this strand destabilized the protein in a position-dependent manner, accelerating the fibrillogenesis by shortening the lag time; an effect that correlated with the extent of destabilization. In contrast, the effect on the kinetics of fibril elongation, as assessed in seeding experiments was of different nature, as it was not directly dependant on the degree of destabilization. This finding suggests different factors drive the nucleation-dependent and elongation phases of light chain fibrillogenesis. Finally, taking advantage of the dependence of the Trp fluorescence upon environment, four single Trp substitutions were made in the N-terminal strand, and changes in solvent exposure during aggregation were evaluated by acrylamide-quenching. The results suggest that the N-terminal strand is buried in the fibrillar state of 6aJL2 protein. This finding suggest a possible explanation for the modulating effect exerted by the mutations in this strand on the aggregation behavior of 6aJL2 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis del Pozo-Yauner
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Periférico Sur No. 4809, Col. Arenal Tepepan, Delegación Tlalpan, México, D.F. C.P. 14610, Mexico.
| | - Jonathan S Wall
- Departments of Radiology and Medicine, The University of Tennessee Medical Center, 1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Martín González Andrade
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Periférico Sur No. 4809, Col. Arenal Tepepan, Delegación Tlalpan, México, D.F. C.P. 14610, Mexico
| | - Rosana Sánchez-López
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad #2001, Col. Chamilpa Cuernavaca, Morelos C.P. 62210, Mexico
| | - Sandra L Rodríguez-Ambriz
- Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Calle CEPROBI No. 8, Col. San Isidro, Yautepec, Morelos C.P. 62731, Mexico
| | - Julio I Pérez Carreón
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Periférico Sur No. 4809, Col. Arenal Tepepan, Delegación Tlalpan, México, D.F. C.P. 14610, Mexico
| | - Adrián Ochoa-Leyva
- Unidad de Genómica de Poblaciones Aplicada a la Salud, Facultad de Química, UNAM-Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica (INMEGEN), Periférico Sur No. 4809, Col. Arenal Tepepan, Delegación Tlalpan México, D.F. C.P. 14610, Mexico
| | - D Alejandro Fernández-Velasco
- Laboratorio de Fisicoquímica e Ingeniería de Proteínas, Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Interior, Ciudad Universitaria, Av. Universidad 3000, México, D.F. C.P. 04510, Mexico
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33
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Pandey NK, Ghosh S, Dasgupta S. Fructose restrains fibrillogenesis in human serum albumin. Int J Biol Macromol 2013; 61:424-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2013] [Revised: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Yadav R, Sen P. Mechanistic investigation of domain specific unfolding of human serum albumin and the effect of sucrose. Protein Sci 2013; 22:1571-81. [PMID: 24038622 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Revised: 07/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This study is devoted to understand the unfolding mechanism of a multidomain protein, human serum albumin (HSA), in absence and presence of the sucrose by steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy with domain specific marker molecules and is further being substantiated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. In water, the domain III of HSA found to unfold first followed by domains I and II as the concentration of GnHCl is increased in the medium. The sequential unfolding behavior of different domains of HSA remains same in presence of sucrose; however, a higher GnHCl concentration is required for unfolding, suggesting stabilizing effect of sucrose on HSA. Domain I is found to be most stabilized by sucrose. The stabilization of domain II is somewhat similar to domain I, but the effect of sucrose on domain III is found to be very small. MD simulation also predicted a similar behavior of sucrose on HSA. The stabilizing effect of sucrose is explained in terms of the entrapment of water molecules in between HSA surface and sucrose layer as well as direct interaction between HSA and sucrose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, 208 016, Uttar Pradesh, India
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35
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Stefani M, Rigacci S. Protein folding and aggregation into amyloid: the interference by natural phenolic compounds. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:12411-57. [PMID: 23765219 PMCID: PMC3709793 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140612411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid aggregation is a hallmark of several degenerative diseases affecting the brain or peripheral tissues, whose intermediates (oligomers, protofibrils) and final mature fibrils display different toxicity. Consequently, compounds counteracting amyloid aggregation have been investigated for their ability (i) to stabilize toxic amyloid precursors; (ii) to prevent the growth of toxic oligomers or speed that of fibrils; (iii) to inhibit fibril growth and deposition; (iv) to disassemble preformed fibrils; and (v) to favor amyloid clearance. Natural phenols, a wide panel of plant molecules, are one of the most actively investigated categories of potential amyloid inhibitors. They are considered responsible for the beneficial effects of several traditional diets being present in green tea, extra virgin olive oil, red wine, spices, berries and aromatic herbs. Accordingly, it has been proposed that some natural phenols could be exploited to prevent and to treat amyloid diseases, and recent studies have provided significant information on their ability to inhibit peptide/protein aggregation in various ways and to stimulate cell defenses, leading to identify shared or specific mechanisms. In the first part of this review, we will overview the significance and mechanisms of amyloid aggregation and aggregate toxicity; then, we will summarize the recent achievements on protection against amyloid diseases by many natural phenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Stefani
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Viale Morgagni 50, Florence 50134, Italy; E-Mail:
- Research Centre on the Molecular Basis of Neurodegeneration, Viale Morgagni 50, Florence 50134, Italy
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +39-55-275-8307; Fax: +39-55-275-8905
| | - Stefania Rigacci
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Viale Morgagni 50, Florence 50134, Italy; E-Mail:
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