In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory and Antidepressant-like Effects of Cannabis sativa L. Extracts

Cannabis sativa L. has been widely used by humans for centuries for various purposes, such as industrial, ceremonial, medicinal, and food. The bioactive components of Cannabis sativa L. can be classified into two main groups: cannabinoids and terpenes. These bioactive components of Cannabis sativa L. leaf and inflorescence extracts were analyzed. Mice were systemically administered 30 mg/kg of Cannabis sativa L. leaf extract 1 h before lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration, and behavioral tests were performed. We conducted an investigation into the oxygen saturation, oxygen tension, and degranulation of mast cells (MCs) in the deep cervical lymph nodes (DCLNs). To evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of Cannabis sativa L. extracts in BV2 microglial cells, we assessed nitrite production and the expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. The main bioactive components of the Cannabis sativa L. extracts were THCA (a cannabinoid) and β-caryophyllene (a terpene). Cannabis sativa L. leaf extract reduced the immobility time in the forced swimming test and increased sucrose preference in the LPS model, without affecting the total distance and time in the center in the open field test. Additionally, Cannabis sativa L. leaf extract improved oxygen levels and inhibited the degranulation of MCs in DCLNs. The Cannabis sativa L. extracts inhibited IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, nitrite, iNOS, and COX-2 expression in BV2 microglia cells. The efficacy of Cannabis sativa L. extracts was suggested to be due to the entourage effect of various bioactive phytochemicals. Our findings indicate that these extracts have the potential to be used as effective treatments for a variety of diseases associated with acute inflammatory responses.

Investigation of the efficacy and pharmacological mechanism of Danhong injections for treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A PRISMA-compliant meta-analysis and network pharmacology analysis

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence supported the clinical efficacy of Danhong injection (DHI) on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is urgent to summarize the effects of DHI on various outcomes in COPD patients and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of DHI in treating COPD.

METHODS

Eligible studies were retrieved from 6 databases including China national knowledge infrastructure, Wangfang, VIP, web of science, PubMed, and Embase. The heterogeneity across studies was tested using the I2 statistic and the quality of studies was assessed. The pooled evaluation of outcomes was calculated using a fix- or random-effect model according to the heterogeneity. The underlying mechanism of DHI in treating COPD was analyzed using network pharmacology.

RESULTS

A total of 34 eligible studies with a general medium quality were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled data showed that DHI intervention significantly increased clinical efficacy as compared to routine treatment. Meanwhile, our data also revealed that the addition of DHI markedly improved hemorheological indicators, lung function index, arterial blood gas index, and as well as blood coagulation functions. However, the current meta-analysis lacked sufficient data to support the significant effect of DHI on prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time. Network pharmacology found 59 candidate targets of DHI in treating COPD, and enrichment analysis found these targets were associated with lymphocyte proliferation and activation, glucocorticoid receptor signaling, TREM1 signaling, IL-12 signaling and production in macrophages, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling. Multiple core targets including AKT1, TNF, and IL1B, etc. Were identified and might play an important role in the action of DHI against COPD.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, this study suggested that DHI could ameliorate hemorheological indicators, lung function, arterial blood gas, and as well as coagulation functions of COPD patients and elucidate the underlying mechanism of DHI against COPD.

Protective effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A on MSCs against senescence induced by d-galactose

Objective

To examine the protective effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) against the senescence of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) induced by d-galactose (d-gal) in vitro, and investigate the potential mechanism involved.

Methods

Grouping experiment, Normal control (NC) group: conventional culture with complete medium; Senescence group: MSCs were cultured for 48 h with complete medium containing 10 g/L d-gal; HSYA group: on the basis of senescence induction, HSYA with the suitable concentration was used to protect MSCs. The key experimental indices associated with oxidative stress, inflammatory response, cell senescence, proliferation and apoptosis were measured through chemical colorimetry, β-galactosidase staining, EdU incorporation and flow cytometry, respectively. The relative quantity (RQ) of proteins related closely to cell proliferation, apoptosis, and NF-κB signaling were measured by Western blotting.

Results

As compared with Senescence group, treatment with HSYA (120 mg/L) effectively ameliorated the adverse situation of MSCs. Oxidation stress and inflammation along with d-Gal induction was dramatically alleviated in MSCs; The β-Gal-positive staining indicated that MSC senescence was significantly mitigated; The proliferative capability of MSCs was significantly increased by up-regulating PCNA and inhibiting p16 expression; The anti-apoptotic effect on MSCs was exerted by down-regulating the RQ of cleaved Caspase-3 and Bax; The activity of NF-κB signaling in MSCs was notably suppressed through inhibiting phosphorylation of IKKβ and p65.

Conclusion

HSYA (120 mg/L) significantly delayed the d-Gal-induced senescence process in MSCs through attenuating inflammatory reaction and oxidative stress, and suppressing the activity of NF-κB signaling.

Carthamus tinctorius L.: A natural neuroprotective source for anti-Alzheimer's disease drugs

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multicausal neurodegenerative disease clinically characterized by generalized dementia. The pathogenic process of AD not only is progressive and complex but also involves multiple factors and mechanisms, including β-amyloid (Aβ) aggregation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. As the first-line treatment for AD, cholinesterase inhibitors can, to a certain extent, relieve AD symptoms and delay AD progression. Nonetheless, the current treatment strategies for AD are far from meeting clinical expectations, and more options for AD treatment should be applied in clinical practice.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review was to investigate published reports of C. tinctorius L. and its active constituents in AD treatment through a literature review.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information was retrieved from scientific databases including Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar, Chemical Abstracts Services and books, PubMed, dissertations and technical reports. Keywords used for the search engines were "Honghua" or "Carthamus tinctorius L." or "safflower" in conjunction with "(native weeds OR alien invasive)"AND "Chinese herbal medicine".

RESULTS

A total of 47 literatures about C. tinctorius L. and its active constituents in AD treatment through signaling pathways, immune cells, and disease-related mediators and systematically elucidates potential mechanisms from the point of anti-Aβ aggregation, suppressing tau protein hyperphosphorylation, increasing cholinergic neurotransmitters levels, inhibiting oxidative stress, anti-neuroinflammation, ameliorating synaptic plasticity, and anti-apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is a treasure endowed by nature to mankind. Emerging studies have confirmed that CHM and its active constituents play a positive role in AD treatment. Carthamus tinctorius L., the most commonly used CHM, can be used with medicine and food, with the effect of activating blood circulation and eliminating blood stasis. In the paper, we have concluded that the existing therapeutic mechanisms of C. tinctorius L. and summarized the potential mechanisms of C. tinctorius L. and its active constituents in AD treatment through a literature review.

Natural therapeutics and nutraceuticals for lung diseases: Traditional significance, phytochemistry, and pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Lung diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), infections like influenza, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), asthma and pneumonia lung cancer (LC) are common causes of sickness and death worldwide due to their remoteness, cold and harsh climatic conditions, and inaccessible health care facilities.

PURPOSE

Many drugs have already been proposed for the treatment of lung diseases. Few of them are in clinical trials and have the potential to cure infectious diseases. Plant extracts or herbal products have been extensively used as Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Indian Ayurveda. Moreover, it has been involved in the inhibition of certain genes/protiens effects to promote regulation of signaling pathways. Natural remedies have been scientifically proven with remarkable bioactivities and are considered a cheap and safe source for lung disease.

METHODS

This comprehensive review highlighted the literature about traditional plants and their metabolites with their applications for the treatment of lung diseases through experimental models in humans. Natural drugs information and mode of mechanism have been studied through the literature retrieved by Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Scopus and Medline PubMed resources against lung diseases.

RESULTS

In vitro, in vivo and computational studies have been explained for natural metabolites derived from plants (like flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids) against different types of lung diseases. Probiotics have also been biologically active therapeutics against cancer, anti-inflammation, antiplatelet, antiviral, and antioxidants associated with lung diseases.

CONCLUSION

The results of the mentioned natural metabolites repurposed for different lung diseases especially for SARS-CoV-2 should be evaluated more by advance computational applications, experimental models in the biological system, also need to be validated by clinical trials so that we may be able to retrieve potential drugs for most challenging lung diseases especially SARS-CoV-2.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A improved retinopathy via Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in rats

The aim of the study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of hydroxysaff yellow A (HSYA) on diabetic retinopathy (DR). For this, a total of 27 rats were randomly divided into normal control, model, and HSYA groups. The body weight, blood glucose, and blood–retinal barrier damage of the rats were observed and compared. The pathological change of retinal tissue were measured using H&E staining. The apoptosis of retinal tissue ganglion cells was detected by TUNEL. The interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis fator (TNF)-α levels were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The level of malondialdehyde (MDA) was detected using thiobarbituric acid method. Superoxide dismutase levels were detected using xanthine oxidase method; Nrf2 and total HO-1 protein expressions were detected using western blot assay; Bcl-2 and P53 protein expression was measured using immunohistochemical staining. The body weight and retinal damage of the HYSA group were significantly improved (p < 0.01, respectively). The apoptosis index of the HYSA group was lower than the model group (p < 0.001). The IL-1β, TNF-α, and MDA levels of the HYSA group were significantly improved in comparison with those of the model group (p < 0.01, respectively). The Nrf-2, HO-1, Bcl-2, and P53 protein expression of HYSA group was significantly improved (p < 0.001, respectively). In conclusion, HYSA can effectively alleviate the apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in type 2 diabetic rats and improve the progression of DR.

Daphnoretin from Carthamus tinctorius as a Potential Inflammatory Inhibitor in COVID-19 by Binding to Toll-like Receptor-4: An in silico Molecular Docking Study

BACKGROUND: Cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients has contributed to many morbidities and mortalities in patients. Studies have found that toll-like receptors (TLRs) and some Fc receptors play essential roles in the hyperactivation of the immune system. Up to date, researchers are still in progress to discover effective and safe drugs to alleviate the hyperinflammatory state in COVID-19. The previous studies had shown that Carthamus tinctorius and its bioactive compounds might have anti-inflammatory activities in animal models. AIM: We aimed to investigate the possible interactions of several flavonoids from C. tinctorius with several immune system components using a biocomputational approach. METHODS: Molecular docking was done using the AutoDock program based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) COVID-19 pathway. The most suitable receptors found were studied to study the interactions with several flavonoids from C. tinctorius. RESULTS: TLR4, TLR8, and FcγRIIa were found to bind with SARS CoV2 inflammatory pathway and further selected as macromolecules for potential interactions study with 22 flavonoids from C. tinctorius. Of the 22 flavonoids studied, daphnoretin showed the best binding affinity with TLR4 and Rutin was shown to attach best with FcγRIIa. Unlike its excellent binding to TLR4, daphnoretin showed weak binding to TLR8. CONCLUSION: Daphnoretin showed an excellent affinity with TLR4 and might be a good candidate as an inhibitor in hyperinflammatory reactions in COVID-19 DTLR8.

Novel assays for quality evaluation of XueBiJing: Quality variability of a Chinese herbal injection for sepsis management

XueBiJing is an intravenous five-herb injection used to treat sepsis in China. The study aimed to develop a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)- or liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (LC-UV)-based assay for quality evaluation of XueBiJing. Assay development involved identifying marker constituents to make the assay therapeutically relevant and building a reliable one-point calibrator for monitoring the various analytes in parallel. Nine marker constituents from the five herbs were selected based on XueBiJing's chemical composition, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. A selectivity test (for “similarity of response”) was developed to identify and minimize interference by non-target constituents. Then, an intercept test was developed to fulfill “linearity through zero” for each analyte (absolute ratio of intercept to C response, <2%). Using the newly developed assays, we analyzed samples from 33 batches of XueBiJing, manufactured over three years, and found small batch-to-batch variability in contents of the marker constituents (4.1%–14.8%), except for senkyunolide I (26.5%).

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To make assays therapeutically relevant, criteria were proposed for defining herbal medicine efficacy & selecting analytes.

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Two tests were developed to build a one-point assay calibrator for the simultaneous monitoring of various analytes.

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Variability among 3-year batches of XueBiJing was evaluated for the first time using the therapeutically relevant assays.

Natural product derived phytochemicals in managing acute lung injury by multiple mechanisms

Acute lung injury (ALI) and its more severe form, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) as common life-threatening lung diseases with high mortality rates are mostly associated with acute and severe inflammation in lungs. With increasing in-depth studies of ALI/ARDS, significant breakthroughs have been made, however, there are still no effective pharmacological therapies for treatment of ALI/ARDS. Especially, the novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) is ravaging the globe, and causes severe respiratory distress syndrome. Therefore, developing new drugs for therapy of ALI/ARDS is in great demand, which might also be helpful for treatment of COVID-19. Natural compounds have always inspired drug development, and numerous natural products have shown potential therapeutic effects on ALI/ARDS. Therefore, this review focuses on the potential therapeutic effects of natural compounds on ALI and the underlying mechanisms. Overall, the review discusses 159 compounds and summarizes more than 400 references to present the protective effects of natural compounds against ALI and the underlying mechanism.

A Metabolic Perspective and Opportunities in Pharmacologically Important Safflower

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) has long been grown as a crop due to its commercial utility as oil, animal feed, and pharmacologically significant secondary metabolites. The integration of omics approaches, including genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics datasets, has provided more comprehensive knowledge of the chemical composition of crop plants for multiple applications. Knowledge of a metabolome of plant is crucial to optimize the evolution of crop traits, improve crop yields and quality, and ensure nutritional and health factors that provide the opportunity to produce functional food or feedstuffs. Safflower contains numerous chemical components that possess many pharmacological activities including central nervous, cardiac, vascular, anticoagulant, reproductive, gastrointestinal, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and metabolic activities, providing many other human health benefits. In addition to classical metabolite studies, this review focuses on several metabolite-based working techniques and updates to provide a summary of the current medical applications of safflower.

Protective impacts of circular RNA VMA21 on lipopolysaccharide-engendered WI-38 cells injury via mediating microRNA-142-3p

CircRNA derived from vacuolar ATPase assembly factor (circVMA21) is a newly-researched circRNA, which is reported to adjust the degeneration of intervertebral disc. But, function of circVMA21 in infantile pneumonia is yet to be explored. The research surveyed the role of circVMA21 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-caused WI-38 cell inflammatory injury. LPS (10 μg/ml, 12 hr) was exploited to arouse WI-38 cell inflammatory injury. Subsequently, the mediatory impacts of microRNA (miR)-142-3p and circVMA21 in LPS-evoked cell injury were detected after transfection with the inhibited or overexpressed vectors. In above processes, cell behaviors of cell viability, apoptosis, and pro-inflammatory factors were monitored. NF-κB and JNK pathways were elucidated to showcase the feasible molecular mechanisms. Results displayed that LPS engendered WI-38 cell inflammatory injury was alleviated as well as activated NF-κB and JNK pathways was interdicted by miR-142-3p suppression. Importantly, restrained miR-142-3p expression was discovered in WI-38 cells after overexpressing circVMA21. Moreover, overexpressed circVMA21 exerted the similar functions as miR-142-3p suppression in LPS-triggered WI-38 cell injury. But, the influence was clearly reversed by miR-142-3p overexpression. Hindered NF-κB and JNK pathways caused by overexpressed circVMA21 was also crippled by miR-142-3p overexpression. The research discolsed that circVMA21 protected WI-38 cells to resist LPS-triggered inflammatory injury via miR-142-3p-NF-κB/JNK axis.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) targets the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor and inhibits human bronchial smooth muscle activation induced by PAF

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main active ingredient of edible plant safflower. HSYA has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects. The inflammatory response is the key mechanism responsible for asthma, and the pro-inflammatory platelet-activating factor (PAF) is known to play a role in the pathology of bronchial asthma. In this study, we stimulated human bronchial smooth muscle cells (HBSMCs) with PAF and examined the effects of HSYA on the resulting asthma-related process. PAF stimulation induced HBSMC activation, induced proliferation, increased expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α, and activated asthma-related signaling pathways. All these effects were significantly inhibited by treatment with HSYA (9, 27, 81 μmol L^-1). The effects of HSYA were prevented by the addition of a PAF receptor (PAFR) antagonist or by PAFR gene silencing with small interfering RNA. These results suggest that HSYA may inhibit PAF-induced activation of HBSMCs by targeting the PAFR. Overall, these findings provide evidence that HSYA can be applied as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of bronchial asthma.

The Effects of Safflower Yellow on Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial

Objectives

To evaluate the efficacy of safflower yellow in the acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD).

Methods

In a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 127 patients who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled and were randomly divided into two groups. The control group included 64 patients treated according to the global strategy for diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (www.goldcopd.org, updated 2011). The intervention group included 63 patients who received intravenous infusions of safflower yellow (100 mg of safflower yellow dissolved in 250 ml 0.9% saline) once daily for 14 consecutive days in addition to standard diagnosis and treatment. The difference in the average length of the hospital stay between the two groups of patients was determined. The follow-up period was 28 days; the differences in symptoms, clinical indicators, and 28-day mortality in the two groups were compared. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 22.0 software to determine whether there were statistically significant differences (P <0.05) between groups.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences between the intervention group and the control group in changes in secondary indicators. There were no statistically significant differences in the 28-day mortality or in the survival curves of the two groups (P=0.496 and P=0.075, respectively). Safflower yellow treatment of AECOPD may relieve the patient's clinical symptoms, such as dyspnoea, shorten the average length of hospital stay (P=0.006, respectively), and decrease the duration of mechanical ventilation.

Conclusion

Safflower yellow in the treatment of AECOPD has a degree of clinical value. This trial is registered under the identifier ChiCTR-IPR-17014176.

Protective Effect of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A on Inflammatory Injury in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the attenuating effect of Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on inflammatory injury in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned to 7 groups according to body weight including normal control group, HSYA blank group (76.8 mg/kg), COPD group, COPD+HSYA (30, 48, 76.8 mg/kg) groups and COPD+dexamethasone (2 mg/kg), 10 in each group. Passive cigarette smoke and intratracheal instillation of lipopolysaccharides were used to establish a COPD model in rats. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of lung tissue sections was used, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to assay mRNA levels of some cytokines in lung tissues, the cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot analysis was used to determine phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) levels in lung tissues, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 protein levels in lung tissues were detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Lung alveolar septa destruction, alveolus fusion, inflammatory cell infiltration, and bronchiole exudation were observed. These pathological changes were alleviated in the COPD+HSYA group. The mRNA expression of inflammatory factors were significantly increased in lung tissues from COPD rats (all P<0.01) and were inhibited by HSYA. Levels of inflammatory cytokines in BALF of COPD rats were significantly increased (all P<0.01) which were inhibited by HSYA (all P<0.01, 48, 76.8 mg/kg). The levels of p38 MAPK phosphorylation and p65 in lung tissues of COPD rats were significantly increased (all P<0.01) and were suppressed by HSYA (all P<0.01, 48, 76.8 mg/kg).

CONCLUSIONS

HSYA could alleviate inflammatory cell infiltration and other pathological changes in the lungs of COPD rats. HSYA inhibited inflammatory cytokine expression, and increase phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and NF-κB p65 in the lungs of COPD rats. The protective mechanism of HSYA to inhibit COPD inflammation might be by attenuating NF-κB and p38MAPK signal transduction.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A: A Promising Therapeutic Agent for a Broad Spectrum of Diseases

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the major bioactive and water-soluble compounds isolated from Carthami Flos, the flower of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). As a natural pigment with favorable medical use, HSYA has gained extensive attention due to broad and effective pharmacological activities since first isolation in 1993. In clinic, the safflor yellow injection which mainly contains about 80% HSYA was approved by the China State Food and Drug Administration and used to treat cardiac diseases such as angina pectoris. In basic pharmacology, HSYA has been proved to exhibit a broad spectrum of biological effects that include, but not limited to, cardiovascular effect, neuroprotection, liver and lung protection, antitumor activity, metabolism regulation, and endothelium cell protection. Although a great number of studies have been carried out to prove the pharmacological effects and corresponding mechanisms of HYSA, a systemic review of HYSA has not yet been seen. Here, we provide a comprehensive summarization of the pharmacological effects of HYSA. Together with special attention to mechanisms of actions, this review can serve as the basis for further researches and developments of this medicinal compound.

The anti-anaphylactoid effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on the suppression of mast cell Ca2+ influx and degranulation

BACKGROUND

Anaphylaxis is a type of potentially fatal hypersensitivity reaction resulting from the activation of mast cell mediators, especially histamine and lipid mediators. Non-IgE-mediated anaphylaxis can occur because of the direct activation of mast cells. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main chemical component of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and has been reported to have pharmacological activities. However, the anti-anaphylactoid effect of HSYA has not yet been investigated.

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were to evaluate the anti-anaphylactoid activity of HSYA in vivo and to investigate the underlying mechanism in vitro.

METHODS

The anti-anaphylactoid activity of HSYA was evaluated in a mouse model of hindpaw extravasation. Calcium imaging was used to assess intracellular Ca²⁺ mobilization. The levels of cytokines and chemokines released by stimulated mast cells were measured using enzyme immunoassay kits. Western blotting was used to explore the related molecular signaling pathways.

RESULTS

HSYA markedly inhibited mast cell degranulation by suppressing the activation of intracellular Ca²⁺ mobilization and preventing the release of cytokines and chemokines from mast cells in a dose-dependent manner via the PKC-PLCγ-IP3R signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

In summary, HSYA has anti-anaphylactoid pharmacological activity, which makes it a potential candidate for the development of a novel agent to suppress drug-induced anaphylactoid reactions.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Suppresses Platelet Activating Factor-Induced Activation of Human Small Airway Epithelial Cells

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is a chemical component isolated from the Chinese medicine Carthamus tinctorius L. HSYA has numerous pharmacological effects, including protecting against and mitigating some respiratory diseases such as acute lung injury and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; however, its effect on asthma remains unclear. We previously found that HSYA attenuated ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma in guinea pigs. Platelet activating factor (PAF) is a phospholipid mediator of inflammation and an important factor in the pathological process of asthma. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of HSYA and its underlying mechanisms in PAF-induced human small airway epithelial cells (HSAECs). PAF-activated cells were pretreated with HSYA and/or the PAF receptor inhibitor, ginkgolide B, and we observed changes in the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha, monolayer permeability of HSAECs, and inflammatory signaling pathways. HSYA attenuated the PAF-induced increase in expression of inflammatory factors and destruction of cell-barrier function, and inhibited the expression of protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinases, activator protein-1, and nuclear factor-κB activation induced by PAF. These findings suggest that HSYA may represent a potential new drug for the treatment of asthma.

Alternative and Natural Therapies for Acute Lung Injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Introduction

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by acute inflammation, microvascular damage, and increased pulmonary vascular and epithelial permeability, frequently resulting in acute respiratory failure and death. Current best practice for ARDS involves “lung-protective ventilation,” which entails low tidal volumes and limiting the plateau pressures in mechanically ventilated patients. Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the pathogenesis of ARDS, little progress has been made in the development of specific therapies to combat injury and inflammation.

Areas Covered

In recent years, several natural products have been studied in experimental models and have been shown to inhibit multiple inflammatory pathways associated with acute lung injury and ARDS at a molecular level. Because of the pleiotropic effects of these agents, many of them also activate antioxidant pathways through nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2, thereby targeting multiple pathways. Several of these agents are prescribed for treatment of inflammatory conditions in the Asian subcontinent and have shown to be relatively safe.

Expert Commentary

Here we review natural remedies shown to attenuate lung injury and inflammation in experimental models. Translational human studies in patients with ARDS may facilitate treatment of this devastating disease.

A comprehensive in vitro and in vivo metabolism study of hydroxysafflor yellow A

As the most important marker component in Carthamus tinctorius L., hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) was widely used in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, due to its effect of improving blood supply, suppressing oxidative stress, and protecting against ischemia/reperfusion. In this paper, both an in vitro microsomal incubation and an in vivo animal experiment were conducted, along with an LC-Q-TOF/MS instrument and a 3-step protocol, to further explore the metabolism of HSYA. As a result, a total of 10 metabolites were searched and tentatively identified in plasma, urine, and feces after intravenous administration of HSYA to male rats, although no obvious biotransformation was found in the simulated rat liver microsomal system. The metabolites detected involving both phase I and phase II metabolism including dehydration, deglycosylation, methylation, and glucuronic acid conjugation. A few of the metabolites underwent more than one-step metabolic reactions, and some have not been reported before. The study would contribute to a further understanding of the metabolism of HSYA and provide scientific evidence for its pharmacodynamic mechanism research and clinical use.

Nuciferine Ameliorates Inflammatory Responses by Inhibiting the TLR4-Mediated Pathway in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a complex syndrome with sepsis occurring in critical patients, who usually lack effective therapy. Nuciferine is a primary bioactive component extracted from the lotus leaf, and it displays extensive pharmacological functions, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Nevertheless, the effects of nuciferine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated ALI in mice has not been investigated. ALI of mice stimulated by LPS was used to determine the anti-inflammatory function of nuciferine. The molecular mechanism of nuciferine was performed on RAW264.7 macrophage cells. The results of pathological section, myeloperoxidase activity and lung wet/dry ratio showed that nuciferine alleviated LPS-induced lung injury (p < 0.05). qRT-PCR and ELISA experiments suggested that nuciferine inhibited TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β secretion in tissues and RAW264.7 cells but increased IL-10 secretion (p < 0.05). Molecular studies showed that TLR4 expression and nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation were both inhibited by nuciferine treatment (p < 0.05). To further investigate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of nuciferine, TLR4 was knocked down. When TLR4 was silenced, LPS induced the production of IL-1β, and TNF-α was markedly decreased by TLR4-siRNA and nuciferine treatment in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells (p < 0.05). These results suggested that nuciferine had the ability to protect against LPS-stimulated ALI. Thus, nuciferine may be a potential drug for treating LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation.

Protective cerebrovascular effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on ischemic stroke

The purpose of the present work was designed to explore protective cerebrovascular effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), and provide preclinical efficacy and mechanism data for its possible application in patients with cerebral ischemia. The protective effect of HSYA on ischemic stroke was evaluated by infarct sizes and neurological scores in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Cerebrovascular permeability was detected by Evans blue dye leakage in MCAO rats. Cerebral blood flow, as well as blood pressure and heart rate were monitored using flow probes in Beagle dogs. Basilar artery tension isolated from Beagle dogs was evaluated with an MPA 2000 data-acquisition system. Coagulation-related function was also judged, including rabbit platelet aggregation by adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and platelet-aggregating factor (PAF), rabbit blood viscosity by a blood viscometer, and thrombus formation by rat arterial-venous shunts. Results showed that HSYA treatment significantly decreased the infarct sizes, neurological scores and cerebrovascular permeability in rats with MCAO. However, cerebral blood flow, blood pressure and heart rate were not affected by HSYA. In vitro, HSYA had a strong effect on cerebrovascular vasodilatation, and significantly decreased platelet aggregation, blood viscosity, and thrombogenesis. Besides well-known anti-coagulation effects, HSYA protects against ischemic stroke by dilating cerebral vessels and improving cerebrovascular permeability.

HSYA alleviates secondary neuronal death through attenuating oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and neural apoptosis in SD rat spinal cord compression injury

Background

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is a major active component of yellow pigment extracted from safflowers; this compound possesses potent neuroprotective effects both in vitro and in vivo. However, underlying mechanism of HSYA is not fully elucidated. The present study investigated the protective effects of HSYA in rat spinal cord compression injury model and related mechanisms involved.

Methods

Sprague–Dawley rats were divided as Sham, Control, and HSYA groups (n = 30 per group). Spinal cord injury (SCI) model was induced by application of vascular clips (force of 50 g, 1 min) to the dura at T9–T10 level of vertebra. Injured animals were administered with either HSYA (8 mg/kg at 1 and 6 h after injury, then 14 mg/kg, for a total of 7 days at 24-h time intervals) or equal volume of saline by intraperitoneal injection.

Results

From this experiment, we discovered that SCI in rats resulted in severe trauma, which is characterized by tissue damage, lipid peroxidation, neutrophil infiltration, inflammation mediator release, and neuronal apoptosis. However, HSYA treatment significantly reduced the following: (1) degree of tissue injury (histological score) and edema; (2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity); (3) oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde, and nitric oxide); (4) pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2); (5) nuclear factor-κB activation; (6) apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining and cysteine-aspartic protease-3 activity). Moreover, in a separate set of experiments, we clearly demonstrated that HSYA treatment significantly ameliorated recovery of limb function (as evaluated by Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan behavioral recovery scores).

Conclusions

Treatment with HSYA restrains development of oxidative stress, inflammation response, and apoptotic events associated with SCI of rats, demonstrating that HSYA is a potential neuroprotectant for human SCI therapy.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A attenuates the expression of inflammatory cytokines in acute soft tissue injury

We examined the effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on the inflammatory response to strike-induced acute soft tissue injury in rats. Soft tissue injury was induced in rat leg muscles using a strike hammer, followed by intraperitoneal administration of HSYA at 16, 32, or 64 mg/kg. After 24 h, the rats were anaesthetized, blood and muscle samples were taken. Plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-αwere measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Total RNA and protein were isolated from muscle tissue to determine the mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, and intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and the protein level of phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Nuclear factor (NF)-κB expression was determined by muscle histopathology and immunohistochemistry. HSYA attenuated pathologic changes instrike-induced soft tissue inflammation. Treatment with HSYA also alleviated strike-induced increases in TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1mRNA levels and inhibited the increased activation of NF-κB and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in muscle tissue. These findings suggest that HSYA effectively inhibits strike-induced inflammatory signal transduction in rats.

Prophylactic and therapeutic treatment with the flavonone sakuranetin ameliorates LPS-induced acute lung injury

Sakuranetin is the main isolate flavonoid from Baccharis retusa (Asteraceae) leaves and exhibits anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities. Acute respiratory distress syndrome is an acute failure of the respiratory system for which effective treatment is urgently necessary. This study investigated the preventive and therapeutic effects of sakuranetin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. Animals were treated with intranasal sakuranetin 30 min before or 6 h after instillation of LPS. Twenty-four hours after ALI was induced, lung function, inflammation, macrophages population markers, collagen fiber deposition, the extent of oxidative stress, and the expression of matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9), tissue inhibitor of MMP-9 (TIMP-1) and NF-κB were evaluated. The animals began to show lung alterations 6 h after LPS instillation, and these changes persisted until 24 h after LPS administration. Preventive and therapeutic treatment with sakuranetin reduced the neutrophils in the peripheral blood and in the bronchial alveolar lavage. Sakuranetin treatment also reduced macrophage populations, particularly that of M1-like macrophages. In addition, sakurnaetin treatment reduced keratinocyte-derived chemokines (IL-8 homolog) and NF-κB levels, collagen fiber formation, MMM-9 and TIMP-1-positive cells, and oxidative stress in lung tissues compared with LPS animals treated with vehicle. Finally, sakuranetin treatment also reduced total protein, and the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in the lung. This study shows that sakuranetin prevented and reduced pulmonary inflammation induced by LPS. Because sakuranetin modulates oxidative stress, the NF-κB pathway, and lung function, it may constitute a novel therapeutic candidate to prevent and treat ALI.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A inhibits TGF-β1-induced activation of human fetal lung fibroblasts in vitro

Objective

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the chemical component isolated from Chinese medicine Carthamus tinctorius L. Our preliminary study confirmed that HSYA attenuated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. In this study, we evaluated the effect of HSYA on TGF-β1-induced activation of human fetal lung fibroblasts (MRC-5) and explored the underlying mechanisms of its activity.

Method

MRC-5 cells activated by TGF-β1 were incubated with HSYA and/or the TGF-β type I receptor inhibitor, SB431542. TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation, α-smooth muscle actin, collagen I alpha 1 and fibronectin expression, Smad, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt signalling pathway activation were observed.

Key findings

Hydroxysafflor yellow A significantly inhibited TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation and the expression, both mRNA and protein, of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen I alpha 1 and fibronectin. HSYA also suppressed TGF-β1 activation of Smad signal transduction via inhibition of Smad2 and Smad3 phosphorylation, their nuclear translocation and the binding activity of Smad3 to type I collagen promoter in MRC-5 cells. In addition, HSYA inhibited TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). The inhibitory effects of HSYA were similar to SB431542.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that HSYA inhibits TGF-β1-induced activation of MRC-5 cells associated with TGF-β1/Smad and ERK/MAPK signalling pathways.

Evidences of Herbal Medicine-Derived Natural Products Effects in Inflammatory Lung Diseases

Pulmonary inflammation is a hallmark of many respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and acute respiratory syndrome distress (ARDS). Most of these diseases are treated with anti-inflammatory therapy in order to prevent or to reduce the pulmonary inflammation. Herbal medicine-derived natural products have been used in folk medicine and scientific studies to evaluate the value of these compounds have grown in recent years. Many substances derived from plants have the biological effects in vitro and in vivo, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Among the biological activities of natural products derived from plants can be pointed out the anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antiplatelet, antitumor anti-allergic activities, and antioxidant. Although many reports have evaluated the effects of these compounds in experimental models, studies evaluating clinical trials are scarce in the literature. This review aims to emphasize the effects of these different natural products in pulmonary diseases in experimental models and in humans and pointing out some possible mechanisms of action.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A improves established monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension in rats

Objective

To evaluate the beneficial effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on monocrotaline (MCT)-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) in rats, and to investigate the main pathophysiological mechanism of HSYA in preventing development of MCT-induced PAH.

Methods

Four groups (control, control with HSYA treatment, MCT-exposed, and MCT-exposed with HSYA treatment) were evaluated at day 28 following MCT exposure. Haemodynamic measurements, right ventricular hypertrophy, morphometry, inflammatory cytokines and oxidant expression were assessed.

Results

HSYA significantly reduced haemodynamic changes, right ventricular hypertrophy and morphometric changes induced by exposure to MCT. HYSA also suppressed MCT-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in rat pulmonary tissue.

Conclusions

Experimental MCT-induced PAH may be reduced by HSYA treatment, and the mechanism may involve suppression of inflammation and oxidative stress.

Hydroxy-Safflower Yellow A inhibits the TNFR1-Mediated Classical NF-κB Pathway by Inducing Shedding of TNFR1

Hydroxy-safflower yellow A (HSYA) is the major active component of safflower, a traditional Asia herbal medicine well known for its cardiovascular protective activities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of HSYA on TNF-α-induced inflammatory responses in arterial endothelial cells (AECs) and to explore the mechanisms involved. The results showed that HSYA suppressed the up-regulation of ICAM-1 expression in TNF-α-stimulated AECs in a dose-dependent manner. High concentration (120 μM) HSYA significantly inhibited the TNF-α-induced adhesion of RAW264.7 cells to AECs. HSYA blocked the TNFR1-mediated phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα and also prevented the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. Moreover, HSYA reduced the cell surface level of TNFR1 and increased the content of sTNFR1 in the culture media. TNF-α processing inhibitor-0 (TAPI-0) prevented the HSYA inhibition of TNFR1-induced IκBα degradation, implying the occurrence of TNFR1 shedding. Furthermore, HSYA induced phosphorylation of TNF-α converting enzyme (TACE) at threonine 735, which is thought to be required for its activation. Conclusively, HSYA suppressed TNF-α-induced inflammatory responses in AECs, at least in part by inhibiting the TNFR1-mediated classical NF-κB pathway. TACE-mediated TNFR1 shedding can be involved in this effect. Our study provides new evidence for the antiinflammatory and anti-atherosclerotic effects of HSYA. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Attenuates Neuron Damage by Suppressing the Lipopolysaccharide-Induced TLR4 Pathway in Activated Microglial Cells

Microglia activation initiates a neurological deficit cascade that contributes to substantial neuronal damage and impairment following ischemia stroke. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) has been demonstrated to play a critical role in this cascade. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an active ingredient extracted from Flos Carthami tinctorii, alleviated inflammatory damage, and mediated neurotrophic effects in neurons by inducing the TLR4 pathway in microglia. A non-contact Transwell co-culture system comprised microglia and neurons was treated with HSYA followed by a 1 mg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. The microglia were activated prior to neuronal apoptosis, which were induced by increasing TLR4 expression in the activated microglia. However, HSYA suppressed TLR4 expression in the activated microglia, resulting in less neuronal damage at the early stage of LPS stimulation. Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence indicated that dose-dependently HSYA down-regulated TLR4-induced downstream effectors myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), nuclear factor kappa b (NF-κB), and the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)-regulated proteins c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK), protein kinase (ERK) 1/2 (ERK1/2), p38 MAPK (p38), as well as the LPS-induced inflammatory cytokine release. However, HSYA up-regulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Our data suggest that HSYA could exert neurotrophic and anti-inflammatory functions in response to LPS stimulation by inhibiting TLR4 pathway-mediated signaling.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A attenuate lipopolysaccharide-induced endothelium inflammatory injury

OBJECTIVE

This study observed attenuating effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an effective ingredient of aqueous extract of Carthamus tinctorius L, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endothelium inflammatory injury.

METHODS

Eahy926 human endothelium cell (EC) line was used; thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) test was assayed to observe the viability of EC; Luciferase reporter gene assay was applied to measure nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 subunit nuclear binding activity in EC; Western blot technology was used to monitor mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPKs) and NF-κB activation. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method was applied to observe intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-selectin mRNA level; EC surface ICAM-1 expression was measured with flow cytometry and leukocyte adhesion to EC was assayed with Rose Bengal spectrophotometry technology.

RESULTS

HSYA protected EC viability against LPS-induced injury (P <0.05). LPS-induced NF-κB p65 subunit DNA binding (P <0.01) and nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor α (IκBα) phosphorylation was inhibited by HSYA. HSYA attenuated LPS triggered ICAM-1 and E-selectin mRNA levels elevation and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK or c-Jun N-terminal kinase MAPK. HSYA also inhibited LPS-induced cell surface ICAM-1 protein expression P <0.01) and leukocyte adhesion to EC (P <0.05).

CONCLUSION

HSYA is effective to protect LPS-induced high expression of endothelium adhesive molecule and inflammatory signal transduction.

Pharmacokinetic profiles of hydroxysafflor yellow A following intravenous administration of its pure preparations in healthy Chinese volunteers

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), the major active marker compound isolated from Carthamus tinctorius L., has been demonstrated to possess various attractive pharmacological activities. However, there is a lack of information about the complete clinical pharmacokinetic profiles of HSYA following the administration of its pure preparations. The purpose of this study was to fully characterize the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of HSYA in healthy Chinese volunteers following drip intravenous infusion of injectable powder of pure HSYA (IPPH), a new drug recently approved for the phase I clinical study by China Food and Drug Administration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

36 healthy subjects of either sex were recruited in this single-center, and open-label, single doses (25, 50, and 75 mg) and multiple doses (50 mg, once daily, 7 consecutive days) study. Plasma samples were analyzed with a validated LC-MS/MS method. Various PK parameters were estimated from the plasma concentration versus time data using non-compartmental methods.

RESULTS

After single dose administration of IPPH, the values of AUC(0-t), AUC(0-∞) and C(max) for HSYA were statistically proportional over the dose range of 25-75 mg. After 7 repeated doses of 50 mg IPPH, both C(max) and AUC(0-∞) were significantly decreased, from 3207 to 2959 μg L(-1), and from 12,811 to 12,135 µg h L(-1) respectively, while t(1/2) was significantly prolonged from 3.912 to 4.414 h. The minimum plasma concentrations on day 5, 6 and 7 showed good stability with no significant difference. Both Cmax and AUC of HSYA in male volunteers were generally lower than that in females. IPPH was generally well tolerated in healthy volunteers by either single or multiple dosing.

CONCLUSION

HSYA displayed moderately linear PK properties over the doses ranging from 25 to 75 mg of IPPH. Repeated administration of IPPH once daily could not lead to the in-vivo drug accumulation, but significantly affect PK behavior of HSYA. Gender difference should be considered for dosage recommendation in the clinic.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A inhibits angiogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma via blocking ERK/MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathway in H22 tumor-bearing mice

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), a flavonoid derived and isolated from traditional Chinese medicine Carthamus tinctorius L., possesses anti-tumor activity. However, its effects on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have not been investigated. The proliferation and metastasis of HCC are dependent on angiogenesis, which also strongly links with several signal transduction pathways associated with cell proliferation and apoptosis. This study aimed to explore the effect of HSYA on vasculogenesis and to determine its molecular mechanism by investigating the expression of ERK/MAPK (p-c-Raf, c-Raf, p-ERK1/2, ERK1/2) and NF-κB (p65, IκB and p-IκB) signaling pathway in H22 tumor-bearing mice. The results showed that HSYA could considerably suppress tumor growth by inhibiting secretion of angiogenesis factors (vascular endothelial growth factor A, basic fibroblast growth factor) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor1. At the moleculcould block ERK1/2 phosphorylation and then restrain the activation of NF-κB and its nuclear translocation by down-regulating the expression of p65 in the nucleus, up-regulating p65 level in the cytoplasm, inhibiting IκB phosphorylation and cytoplasmic degradation of IκB-α. Finally, we demonstrate that HSYA could suppress mRNA expression levels of cell proliferation-related genes (cyclinD1, c-myc, c-Fos) compared with negative control group. And best of all, HSYA could improve spleen/thymus indexes, which was evaluated as the marker of protective effect on the immune system. Our findings support HSYA as a promising candidate for the prevention and treatment of HCC.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A suppresses liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride with high-fat diet by regulating PPAR-γ/p38 MAPK signaling

CONTEXT

One approach to protect against liver fibrosis is the use of herb-derived natural compounds, such as hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA). The antifibrosis effect of HYSA against liver fibrosis has been investigated; however, its mechanisms have not yet been entirely revealed.

OBJECTIVES

To study the protective effects of HSYA on liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and a high-fat diet (HFD), and to determine the mechanism of action of HSYA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CCl4 and HFD were used to mimic liver fibrosis in rats, and serum biochemical indicators were determined. The antifibrosis effects of HSYA were evaluated and its mechanisms were investigated by histopathological analysis, immunohistochemical staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, real-time-PCR, and western blotting.

RESULTS

HSYA reduced CCl4- and HFD-mediated liver fibrosis and ameliorated serum biochemical indicator, downregulated the expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) (0.31 ± 0.03 protein, 0.59 ± 0.02 mRNA) and transformin growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) (0.81 ± 0.02 protein, 0.58 ± 0.04 mRNA), and upregulated the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) (1.57 ± 0.13 protein, 2.48 ± 0.19 mRNA) and matrix metallopeptidases-2 (MMP-2) (2.31 ± 0.16 protein, 2.79 ± 0.22 mRNA) (p < 0.01, versus model group). These effects were significantly attenuated by PPAR-γ antagonist GW9662 via blocking the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate a novel role for HSYA in inhibiting CCl4- and HFD-mediated liver fibrosis, and reveal that PPAR-γ and p38 MAPK signaling play pivotal roles in the prevention of liver fibrosis induced by CCl4 and HFD.

Hydroxysafflor yellow a attenuates small airway remodeling in a rat model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Our previous studies found that hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an active ingredient in Carthamus tinctorius L., has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrosis properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of HSYA on small airway remodeling (SAR) in a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) rat model induced by cigarette smoke and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). SAR is a common lesion in COPD characterized by thickening of the airway wall, mainly by subepithelial fibrosis. In this study the thickness of the small airway was determined by total wall area/basement membrane perimeter (WAt/Pbm). Collagen deposition of the small airway was assessed by Masson's trichrome staining. HSYA significantly attenuated the thickening and collagen deposition of the small airway and inhibited transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) mRNA and protein expression in COPD rat. In addition, HSYA inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in the lung tissue of rat. HSYA can attenuate experimentally induced airway remodeling and this attenuation may be attributed to suppression of TGF-β1 expression.

Hydroxy-safflor yellow A attenuates Aβ₁₋₄₂-induced inflammation by modulating the JAK2/STAT3/NF-κB pathway

Beta-amyloid (Aβ)-mediated inflammation plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of Alzheimer׳s disease (AD). Anti-inflammatory treatment may provide therapeutic benefits. In this study, the effect of hydroxy-safflor yellow A (HSYA) on Aβ1-42-induced inflammation in AD mice was investigated and the underlying mechanisms were explored. Aβ1-42 was injected into bilateral hippocampi of mice to induce AD models in vivo. Spatial learning and memory of mice were investigated by the Morris water maze test. Activated microglia and astrocytes were examined by immunofluorescence staining for ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). The mRNA of inflammatory cytokines were measured using real-time PCR. NF-κB p65 translocation was analyzed by western blotting and immunostaining. IκB and phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3 were tested by western blotting. The results showed that HSYA ameliorated the memory deficits in Aβ1-42-induced AD mice. HSYA suppressed Aβ1-42-induced activation of microglia and astrocytes and reduced the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. HSYA up-regulated the JAK2/STAT3 pathway and inhibits the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways. Pharmacological inhibition of STAT3 by AG490 reversed the inactivation of p65 and anti-inflammatory effects of HSYA. In conclusion, these results suggest that HSYA protects Aβ1-42-induced AD model through inhibiting inflammatory response, which may involve the JAK2/STAT3/NF-κB pathway.

Chemical and biological properties of quinochalcone C-glycosides from the florets of Carthamus tinctorius

Quinochalcone C-glycosides are regarded as characteristic components that have only been isolated from the florets of Carthamus tinctorius. Recently, quinochalcone C-glycosides were found to have multiple pharmacological activities, which has attracted the attention of many researchers to explore these compounds. This review aims to summarize quinochalcone C-glycosides’ physicochemical properties, chromatographic behavior, spectroscopic characteristics, as well as their biological activities, which will be helpful for further study and development of quinochalcone C-glycosides.

Potential effects of medicinal plants and secondary metabolites on acute lung injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening syndrome that causes high morbidity and mortality worldwide. ALI is characterized by increased permeability of the alveolar-capillary membrane, edema, uncontrolled neutrophils migration to the lung, and diffuse alveolar damage, leading to acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Although corticosteroids remain the mainstay of ALI treatment, they cause significant side effects. Agents of natural origin, such as medicinal plants and their secondary metabolites, mainly those with very few side effects, could be excellent alternatives for ALI treatment. Several studies, including our own, have demonstrated that plant extracts and/or secondary metabolites isolated from them reduce most ALI phenotypes in experimental animal models, including neutrophil recruitment to the lung, the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, edema, and vascular permeability. In this review, we summarized these studies and described the anti-inflammatory activity of various plant extracts, such as Ginkgo biloba and Punica granatum, and such secondary metabolites as epigallocatechin-3-gallate and ellagic acid. In addition, we highlight the medical potential of these extracts and plant-derived compounds for treating of ALI.

Identification of NF-κB Inhibitors in Xuebijing injection for sepsis treatment based on bioactivity-integrated UPLC-Q/TOF

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Inflammation plays an important role in sepsis, and NF-κB is a key mediator of inflammation. Xuebijing (XBJ) injection is a traditional Chinese medicine injection that was widely used in the treatment of sepsis in China. However, the active constituents and mechanism responsible for its actions have not been investigated experimentally.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To screen the anti-inflammatory components in XBJ injection and investigate the modulation of NF-κB in the treatment of sepsis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the effect of XBJ was assessed in the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) -induced sepsis model. Subsequently, a bioactivity-integrated ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF) assay system was established for screening potential anti-inflammatory ingredients in XBJ. Ultimately, six active ingredients were confirmed through an in vitro test.

RESULTS

XBJ significantly reduced the mortality rate, anal temperature and expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 induced by CLP. Nine potential anti-inflammatory ingredients, including gallic acid, danshensu, protocatechualdehyde, hydroxysafflor yellow A, oxypaeoniflorin, paeoniflorin, safflor yellow A, senkyunolide I and benzoylpaeoniflorin, were found based on the bioactivity-integrated UPLC-Q/TOF assay system. Among these compounds, the NF-κB inhibitor activity of senkyunolide I, safflor yellow A, oxypaeoniflorin, and benzoylpaeoniflorin are first reported here.

CONCLUSIONS

XBJ showed significant efficacy in the treatment of sepsis induced by CLP. Multiple targets of the different components were related to these anti-inflammatory effects, which contributed to the treatment of sepsis by XBJ in a clinical setting.

Inhibitory effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on the formation of advanced glycation end products in vitro

To investigate the inhibitory effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on the protein glycation in vitro. Using bovine serum albumin (BSA)-glucose assay, BSA-methylglyoxal (MGO) assay, and N-acetylglycyl-lysine methyl ester (G.K.) peptide-ribose assay, inhibitory effects of HSYA were investigated. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) production was assessed by AGEs-specific fluorescence and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). In BSA-glucose assay, HSYA concentration dependently decreased AGEs formation, with maximum inhibitory effects at 1 mM by 95%. Further more, HSYA also showed significant inhibitory effects on MGO-medicated protein modification and subsequent cross-linking of proteins. Finally, when co-incubated with G.K. peptide and ribose, HSYA exhibited its antiglycation effects, and the maximum inhibitory effects of HSYA at 1 mM were 84%. Overall, our present study provides the first evidence of the antiglycation effects of HSYA on AGEs formation in vitro.

Effect of safflor yellow injection on inhibiting lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammatory injury in mice

OBJECTIVE

To observe the effect of Safflor Yellow (SY) Injection on acute lung injury (ALI) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice.

METHODS

Seventy-two mice were divided into six groups: control (saline + saline); LPS (LPS + saline); SY Injection [LPS + SY (10, 20 or 40 mg/kg, intravenously)] and anisodamine (AD) (LPS + AD). Thirty minutes after SY or AD administration, 15 mg/kg LPS was given intraperitoneally. All animals were sacrificed 4 h after LPS injection. Arterial blood gas and lung water content index (LWCI) were measured. Lung tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was assayed. mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines was assayed by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Lung morphological and nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65-positive cell changes were observed by HE and immunohistochemical staining. p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation was observed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

After LPS administration, all animals displayed increased arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure (PaCO2) and decreased arterial oxygen partial pressure (PaO2), arterial oxygen saturation (SO2), HCO3 (-) concentration and pH, and increased LWCI, MPO activity, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA expression, NF-κB p65-positive staining and p38 MAPK activation compared with normal controls (all P<0.01). SY Injection significantly mitigated the LPS-induced increase in arterial PaCO and the decreases in arterial PaO2, SO2 and pH, and attenuated increases in LWCI and lung tissue MPO activity (all P<0.01). Moreover, SY Injection inhibited the increases in NF-κB p65 staining and in TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA expression (all P<0.01), and promoted the expression of the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10 (P<0.05) following LPS injection. LPS-induced pulmonary p38 MAPK phosphorylation was suppressed by pretreatment with SY Injection (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

SY Injection ameliorates inflammatory ALI induced by LPS in mice.

The first Illumina-based de novo transcriptome sequencing and analysis of safflower flowers

Background

The safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L., is a worldwide oil crop, and its flowers, which have a high flavonoid content, are an important medicinal resource against cardiovascular disease in traditional medicine. Because the safflower has a large and complex genome, the development of its genomic resources has been delayed. Second-generation Illumina sequencing is now an efficient route for generating an enormous volume of sequences that can represent a large number of genes and their expression levels.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To investigate the genes and pathways that might control flavonoids and other secondary metabolites in the safflower, we used Illumina sequencing to perform a de novo assembly of the safflower tubular flower tissue transcriptome. We obtained a total of 4.69 Gb in clean nucleotides comprising 52,119,104 clean sequencing reads, 195,320 contigs, and 120,778 unigenes. Based on similarity searches with known proteins, we annotated 70,342 of the unigenes (about 58% of the identified unigenes) with cut-off E-values of 10⁻⁵. In total, 21,943 of the safflower unigenes were found to have COG classifications, and BLAST2GO assigned 26,332 of the unigenes to 1,754 GO term annotations. In addition, we assigned 30,203 of the unigenes to 121 KEGG pathways. When we focused on genes identified as contributing to flavonoid biosynthesis and the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, which are important pathways that control flower and seed quality, respectively, we found that these genes were fairly well conserved in the safflower genome compared to those of other plants.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study provides abundant genomic data for Carthamus tinctorius L. and offers comprehensive sequence resources for studying the safflower. We believe that these transcriptome datasets will serve as an important public information platform to accelerate studies of the safflower genome, and may help us define the mechanisms of flower tissue-specific and secondary metabolism in this non-model plant.

Effects of downregulation of aquaporin1 by peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide via MAPK pathways in MeT-5A cells

This study was designed to investigate the signaling pathway involved in aquaporin1 (AQP1) expression caused by peptidoglycan (PGN) from Staphylococcus aureus and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in human pleural mesothelial cell lines (MeT-5A) in vitro. RT-PCR, immunoblot analysis, and immunofluorescence assay were used to determine the relative mRNA and protein levels of AQP1 caused by PGN and LPS in MeT-5A cells. Activation of MAPKs by PGN and LPS was reflected by detecting the phosphorylation constituents of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 using immunoblot. MAPKs inhibitors were used to determine the effects of PGN- and LPS-induced AQP1 expression by immunoblot. AQP1 transcription and protein expression were decreased by PGN and LPS in dose- and time-dependent manners in MeT-5A cells. Both PGN and LPS activated p38/ERK/JNK pathways in MeT-5A cells. Furthermore, downregulation of AQP1 expression by LPS was blocked by SB203580, SP600125, and PD98059, which are inhibitors of p38, JNK, and ERK1/2, respectively. In contrast, downregulation of AQP1 expression by PGN was blocked only by SB203580, not by SP600125 or PD98059, underlying the importance of p38 MAPK in the downregulation of AQP1 expression by PGN in MeT-5A cells. AQP1 expression was decreased by both PGN and LPS in dose- and time-dependent manners in MeT-5A cells. AQP1 expression was down-regulated by PGN via p38 MAPK pathway, while AQP1 expression was down-regulated by LPS via p38/JNK/ERK pathways.