Cytotoxicity of the Roots ofTrillium govanianumAgainst Breast (MCF7), Liver (HepG2), Lung (A549) and Urinary Bladder (EJ138) Carcinoma Cells

Chemical constituents from Trillium camschatcense

Two undescribed polyacetylated 18-norspirostanol saponins, trilliumosides J (1) and 21-deoxyepitrillenoside C (2), a novel resveratrol aneuploid, 3a,3b-dimethoxyhopeachinol B (3) along with four known steroidal saponins (4-7), were isolated from the 70% EtOH extract of the roots and rhizomes of Trillium camschatcense. The structures of isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis and chemical degradation. Compounds 1,3 and 4 had potential cytotoxic activity against MCF-7, with IC50 values 86.38 ± 2.59 μM, 56.20 ± 1.57 μM and 45.70 ± 0.63 μM.

Exploring Steroidal Saponin Composition and Morphometric Characteristics of Rhizomes from Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don: Inference for Medicinal Properties and Genetic Stock Improvement

Trillium govanianum, a medicinal herb, exhibiting diverse morphometric traits and phytochemicals across developmental stages of plants. The changes in the chemical profile and steroidal saponin levels in the rhizome of T. govanianum across different developmental stages were previously unknown. This study categorizes rhizomes into three types based on scar presence: juvenile (5-10 scars, Type I), young (11-19 scars, Type II), and mature (21-29 scars, Type III). Rhizomes show varying sizes (length 1.2-4.7 cm, girth 0.3-1.6 cm), weight (0.18-5.0 g), and extractive yields (9.7-16.1 % w w-1), with notable differences in saponin content (5.95-21.9 mg g-1). Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-MS/MS (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS)-based chemical profiling identifies 31 phytochemicals, mainly including diverse saponins. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection (UHPLC-ELSD)-based quantitative analysis of seven key saponins reveals stage-specific accumulation patterns, with protodioscin (P) and dioscin (DS) predominant in mature rhizomes. Statistical analysis confirms significant variation (p=0.001) in saponin levels across developmental stages with chemical constituent protodioscin (P=4.03±0.03-15.76±0.14 mg g-1, PAve=9.79±3.03 mg g-1) and dioscin (DS=1.23±0.06-3.93±0.07 mg g-1, DSAve=2.59±0.70 mg g-1), with acceptable power (p=0.738; |δ|>0.5) statistics for effective sample size (n=27 samples used in the study) of T. govanianum. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Euclidean clustering further highlighted chemotype distinctions.

Organs-specific metabolomics and anticholinesterase activity suggests a trade-off between metabolites for therapeutic advantages of Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don

Trillium govanianum is traditionally used to treat innumerable alignments like sexual disorders, cancer, inflammation etc. Mainly rhizomes of T. govanianum have been explored for phytochemical profiling but comprehensive metabolomics of other parts has not been yet deeply investigated. Thus, current study was aimed for organs-specific (roots, rhizomes, rhizomatous buds, stems, leaves, and fruits) phytochemical profiling of T. govanianum via metabolomics approach. Targeted (steroidal saponins and free sugars) and non-targeted metabolomics were performed by UPLC-PDA/ELSD & UHPLC-Q-TOF-IMS. Among steroidal compounds, 20-hydroxyecdysone, pennogenin-3-O-β-chacotrioside, dioscin were found predominantly in all samples while diosgenin was identified only in rhizomes. Further, four free sugars viz. 2-deoxyribose (116.24 ± 1.26 mg/g: leaves), fructose (454.76 ± 12.14 mg/g: rhizomes), glucose (243.21 ± 7.53 mg/g: fruits), and galactose (69.06 ± 2.14 mg/g: fruits) were found significant in respective parts of T. govanianum. Elemental analysis of targeted samples was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Heavy metals (Cd, Hg, Pd, As) were absent while micro- (Mn, Na, Zn, Cu) and macro- (Ca, Fe, Mg, K) elements were found in all samples. Furthermore, UHPLC-Q-TOF-IMS had identified 103 metabolites based on their mass fragmentation patterns and 839 were tentatively predicted using METLIN database. The multivariate statistical analysis showed organs specific clustering and variance of metabolites. Apart from this, extracts were evaluated for in vitro anticholinesterase activity, and found potentials inhibitors with IC50 values 2.02 ± 0.15 to 27.65 ± 0.89 mg/mL and 3.58 ± 0.12 to 16.81 ± 2.48 mg/mL of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzyme, respectively. Thus, comprehensive metabolomics and anti-cholinesterase activity of different parts of T. govanianum would lay the foundation for improving medicinal importance and health benefits of T. govanianum.

Govanosides C-F, unprecedented steroidal saponins with rare sugars from rhizomes of Trillium govanianum and their antagonistic effects on acetylcholinesterase

Four previously undescribed steroidal saponins named govanosides C-F (1-4) and nine known compounds (5-13) were isolated from the rhizomes of Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don. Govanosides C-E contained a rare sugar moiety i.e., 6-deoxy allose, while govanoside F has acetylated rhamnose moiety in its glycan part. Also, this is the first report on the isolation of feruloyl sucrose derivatives (11-12) and (E)-4-hydroxy-dodec-2-enedioic acid (13) from the Trillium genus. The structure of isolated compounds was deduced using 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS, LC-MS/MS, GC-MS, and saccharide linkage analysis. Steroidal scaffold isolates (1-10) were evaluated for their antagonistic effects on acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. Govanoside C (1) significantly inhibited acetylcholinesterase (IC50: 2.38 μM). Molecular docking experiments have also been performed to depict the molecule's interaction and binding free energy with acetylcholinesterase.

Apoptotic Potential and Antitumor Efficacy of Trilliumoside A: A New Steroidal Saponin Isolated from Rhizomes of Trillium govanianum

Natural product-derived molecules exhibit potential as anticancer agents. Trilliumoside A, a new steroidal saponin, was obtained from rhizomes of Trillium govanianum, and its anticancer activity was investigated in the presented study. Trilliumoside A was investigated in a panel of cell lines, and it exhibited promising cytotoxic activity on the A549 cells (human lung cancer cells) with an IC50 of 1.83 μM. The mechanism of cell death induced by Trilliumoside A in A549 cells and its anticancer potential in murine tumor models (EAC and EAT) were presented in the current research. Trilliumoside A was found to induce apoptosis in A549 cells by increasing the expression of various apoptotic proteins, such as Bax, Puma, cytochrome C, cleaved PARP, and cleaved caspase 3. Additionally, Trilliumoside A regulates the expression of p53, CDK2, and Cyclin A by decreasing the mitochondrial membrane potential, elevating reactive oxygen species, and stopping the growth of A549 cells in the synthesis phase (S) of the cell cycle. Trilliumoside A showed a considerable reduction in the tumor volume, the amount of ascitic fluid, and the total cell number without affecting the body weight of animals. Our results demonstrate that Trilliumoside A inhibits the proliferation of human lung cancer cells by inducing DNA damage, arresting the cell cycle, and activating the mitochondrial signaling pathway. The study demonstrated the potential of Trilliumoside A as a potential anticancer agent.

Natural Products as New Approaches for Treating Bladder Cancer: From Traditional Medicine to Novel Drug Discovery

Bladder cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous disease that a tumor develops in the bladder lining and in some cases, the bladder muscle. Chemotherapy and immunotherapy are commonly used to treat bladder cancer. However, chemotherapy can cause burning and irritation in the bladder while BCG immunotherapy, which is the main type of intravesical immunotherapy for bladder cancer, can also cause burning in the bladder and flu-like symptoms. Thus, drugs originating from natural products have attracted much attention due to the reports that they have anti-cancer properties with low adverse effects. In this study, eighty-seven papers that dealt with natural products preventing or treating bladder cancer were reviewed. The studies were classified into the following mechanism: 71 papers on cell death, 5 papers on anti-metastasis, 3 papers on anti-angiogenesis, 1 paper on anti-resistance, and 7 papers on clinical trials. Most of the natural products that induced apoptosis up-regulated proteins such as caspase-3 and caspase-9. Regarding anti-metastasis, MMP-2 and MMP-9 are regulated frequently. Regarding anti-angiogenesis, HIF-1α and VEGF-A are down-regulated frequently. Nevertheless, the number of papers regarding anti-resistance and clinical trial are too few, so more studies are needed. In conclusion, this database will be useful for future in vivo studies of the anti-bladder cancer effect of natural products, in the process of selecting materials used for the experiment.

Morpho-anatomical, Molecular, and Chemical Standardization of Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don: An Endangered Medicinal Herb Native to the Himalayas

Background

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don occurring at high altitudes in the Himalayas and known by the common name ‘Nag Chhatri,’ has high medicinal value. Its rhizome samples have substantial therapeutic potential and possess anti-cancer and anti-aging properties. Due to similar common names and morphology, there is an issue with adulteration and misidentification of actual rhizome samples with rhizomes of other species. So, there is a need to develop valid scientific methods to identify raw herbal samples of authentic ‘Nagchatri’ ( T. govanianum).

Objectives

The present study focused on developing botanical, molecular, and chemical standards for identifying raw herbal samples of T. govanianum.

Materials and Methods

Samples were collected from four locations in the Northwestern Himalayas. Botanical characters were studied by stereomicroscope and compound microscope. Molecular identification was done by DNA barcoding and chemical identification by chemical fingerprinting (TLC and HPTLC), LC-MS profiling, and NMR studies.

Results

The botanical characters involved detailed morpho-anatomical characterization of herbal samples. The DNA barcoding exhibited a 100% identification match of generated barcode sequences with NCBI database sequences for all the selected markers. Chemical profiling revealed diosgenin, makisterone A, and 20-hydroxy ecdysone as major constituents in the rhizome sample, confirming the authenticity of the species.

Conclusion

The integrated authentication approach employing botanical standardization, DNA barcoding, and chemical profiling will be a promising tool for accurately identifying the genuine raw herbal material of T. govanianum.

Steroidal saponins from Trillium govanianum as α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitory agents

OBJECTIVE

To provide the scientific basis for the utility of rhizome of Trillium govanianum as nutraceutical supplements in managing physiological glycemic levels.

METHODS

The in vitro enzyme inhibitory activity of the extract, fractions, and the isolated steroidal saponins from the rhizome part of T. govanianum was carried out against α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV. The molecular interactions, binding score, and pharmacokinetic parameters (absorption, distribution metabolism, and excretion) of steroidal saponins were analyzed by the Schrodinger molecular docking software.

KEY FINDINGS

Current study explained that the extract, fractions, and isolated steroidal saponins from T. govanianum possess good α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity while moderate dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitory activity. Moreover, in vitro results revealed that borassoside E (IC50 7.15 ± 1.78 μM), protodioscin (IC50 6.72 ± 0.04 μM), and diosgenin (IC50 12.75 ± 2.70 μM) are most effective in inhibiting the activity of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV, respectively. Current in silico and in vitro studies established an association between the steroidal saponins from T. govanianum and their molecular interactions with α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV.

CONCLUSION

The results of this investigation suggest that fractions and steroidal saponins from T. govanianum exhibit good antidiabetic activity which could be used as nutraceutical supplements for the management of systemic glucose level.

Phytochemical profiling and evaluation of modified resazurin microtiter plate assay of the roots of Trillium govanianum

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don (Melanthiaceae alt. Trilliaceae), is native to the Himalayas. The present study, for the first time, was undertaken to explore the antimicrobial potential, to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of the methanol extract of the roots of Trillium govanianum and its solid phase extraction (SPE) fractions by using resazurin microtiter assay (REMA) against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial registered strains and to carry out phytochemical analysis. The remarkable amount of gallic acid equivalent phenolic and quercetin equivalent flavonoid content was manifested by MeOH extract (20.27 ± 3.03 mg GAE/g DW and 9.25 ± 0.50 mg QE/g DW respectively). The GC/MS analysis revealed the presence saturated and unsaturated components. Considerable level of antibacterial potential against Gram-positive bacteria (MIC: 2.5-0.009 mg/mL) than against Gram-negative bacteria (MIC: 2.5-0.165 mg/mL) were observed. The use of microtiter plates has the advantage of lower cost, fast and quantitative results.

Effects of total saponins from Trillium tschonoskii rhizome on grey and white matter injury evaluated by quantitative multiparametric MRI in a rat model of ischemic stroke

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Trillium tschonoskii rhizome (TTR), a medicinal herb, has been traditionally used to treat traumatic brain injury and headache in China. Although the potential neuroprotective efficacy of TTR has gained increasing interest, the pharmacological mechanism remains unclear. Steroid saponins are the main bioactive components of the herb.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the protective and repair-promoting effects of the total saponins from TTR (TSTT) on grey and white matter damages in a rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) assay.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ischemic stroke was induced by MCAO. TSTT and Ginaton (positive control) were administered orally to rats 6h after stroke and daily thereafter. After 15 days of treatment, the survival rate of each group was calculated. We then conducted neurological deficit scores and beam walking test to access the neurological function after ischemic stroke. Subsequently, T2-weighted imaging (T2WI) and T2 relaxometry mapping were performed to measure infarct volume and grey and white matter integrity, respectively. Moreover, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was carried out to evaluate the grey and white matter microstructural damage. Additionally, arterial spin labelling (ASL) - cerebral blood flow (CBF) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) images provided dynamic information about vascular hemodynamic dysfunction after ischemic stroke. Finally, haematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining was carried out to evaluate the stroke-induced pathological changes in the brain.

RESULTS

The survival rate and neurological behavioural outcomes (Bederson scores and beam walking tests) were markedly ameliorated by TSTT (65mg/kg) treatment within 15 days after ischemic stroke. Moreover, T2WI and T2 relaxometry mapping showed that TSTT (65mg/kg) significantly reduced infarct volume and attenuated grey and white matter injury, respectively, which was confirmed by histopathological evaluation of brain tissue. The results obtained from DTI showed that TSTT (65mg/kg) not only significantly alleviated axonal damage and demyelination, but also promoted axonal remodelling and re-myelination. In addition, TSTT treatment also enhanced vascular signal density and increased CBF in rats after MCAO.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested the potential protective and repair-promoting effects of TSTT on grey and white matter from damage induced by ischemia. This study provides a modern pharmacological basis for the application of TSTT in managing ischemic stroke.

Population change of Trillium govanianum (Melanthiaceae) amid altered indigenous harvesting practices in the Indian Himalayas

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don (Melanthiaceae) is valued as a traditional medicinal herb in the Himalayan region. Applications include treatment of cancer, hypertension, neurasthenia, giddiness, arthritis, dysentery, inflammation, sepsis and reproductive disorders. Its range is highly specific, and limited to cold, shaded and moist habitats at 2400-3500 m a.s.l. Rhizomes are gathered from wild populations for trade, and this has recently emerged as a significant source of income among indigenous people of the Indian Himalayan region.

AIM

To assess the impact of changing rhizome prices on T. govanianum in the Indian Himalayan region by observing the status of existing populations and assessing the typical methods used for gathering and trade of rhizomes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Ecological attributes were assessed in 17 sites from Tirthan Valley (Himachal Pradesh), Munsiyari and Tunghnath (Uttarakhand). Socio-economic attributes assessed through communal focus groups and interviews with 579 medicinal plants gatherers and 19 traders, using semi-structured open ended questionnaires.

RESULTS

Population decline was highest in Munsiyari, followed by Tirthan Valley and Tunghnath, indicating that the species may become locally extinct in some areas. Methods used for gathering did not consider regeneration.

CONCLUSION

Gathering of T. govanianum from wild populations is unselective and unmanaged, raising the potential threat of local extinctions. Sustainable utilization and effective conservation is needed to protect the species and maintain community incomes. A status of 'threatened' is justified for the species in the Indian Himalayan region, due to its slow life cycle, specific habitat requirement, low population density, and commercial value.

Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry Analysis and Cytotoxicity of Asparagus adscendens Roots against Human Cancer Cell Lines

BACKGROUND

Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (Asparagaceae), is native to the Himalayas. This plant has been used in the prevention and effective treatment of various forms of cancers.

OBJECTIVE

This paper reports, for the first time, on the cytotoxicity of the methanol (MeOH) extract of the roots of A. adscendens and its solid-phase extraction (SPE) fractions against four human carcinoma cell lines and LC-ESI-QTOF-MS analysis of the SPE fractions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Finely powdered roots of A. adscendens were macerated in methanol and extracted through SPE using gradient solvent system (water: methanol) proceeded for analysis on LC-ESI-QTOF-MS and cytotoxicity against four human carcinoma cell lines: breast (MCF7), liver (HEPG2), lung (A549), and urinary bladder (EJ138), using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide assay.

RESULTS

The MeOH extract and four SPE fractions exhibited cytotoxicity against all cell lines with the IC50 values ranging from 6 to 79 μg/mL. As observed in other Asparagus species, the presence of saponins and sapogenins in the SPE fractions was evident in the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry data.

CONCLUSION

It is reasonable to assume that the cytotoxicity of the MeOH extract of the roots of A. adscendens and its SPE fractions, at least partly, due to the presence of saponins and their aglycones. This suggests that A. adscendens could be exploited as a potential source of cytotoxic compounds with putative anticancer potential.

SUMMARY

The MeOH extract and all solid-phase extraction (SPE) fractions exhibited various levels of cytotoxicity against all cell lines with the IC50 values ranging from 6 to 79 μg/mLThe presence of saponins and sapogenins in the SPE fractions was evident in the Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry dataDue to the presence of saponins and their aglycones, suggest that A. adscendens could be exploited as a potential source of cytotoxic compounds with putative anticancer potential. Abbreviation used: SPE: Solid-phase extraction, MCF7: Breast cancer cell line, HEPG2: Liver cancer cell line, A549: Lung liver cancer cell line, EJ138: Urinary bladder cancer cell line, MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide, LC-MS: Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.