Near-Infrared Switchable Fullerene-Based Synergy Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease

Nanomaterials-mediated lysosomal regulation: a robust protein-clearance approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a debilitating, progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive accumulation of abnormal proteins, including amyloid plaques and intracellular tau tangles, primarily within the brain. Lysosomes, crucial intracellular organelles responsible for protein degradation, play a key role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Some studies have suggested a link between the dysregulation of the lysosomal system and pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. Restoring the normal physiological function of lysosomes hold the potential to reduce the pathological burden and improve the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Currently, the efficacy of drugs in treating Alzheimer's disease is limited, with major challenges in drug delivery efficiency and targeting. Recently, nanomaterials have gained widespread use in Alzheimer's disease drug research owing to their favorable physical and chemical properties. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent advances in using nanomaterials (polymeric nanomaterials, nanoemulsions, and carbon-based nanomaterials) to enhance lysosomal function in treating Alzheimer's disease. This review also explores new concepts and potential therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease through the integration of nanomaterials and modulation of lysosomal function. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the potential of nanomaterials in modulating lysosomal function to improve the pathological features of Alzheimer's disease. The application of nanotechnology to the development of Alzheimer's disease drugs brings new ideas and approaches for future treatment of this disease.

Emerging paradigms in Alzheimer's Therapy

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects elderly, and its incidence is continuously increasing across the globe. Unfortunately, despite decades of research, a complete cure for Alzheimer's disease continues to elude us. The current medications are mainly symptomatic and slow the disease progression but do not result in reversal of all disease pathologies. The growing body of knowledge on the factors responsible for the onset and progression of the disease has resulted in the identification of new targets that could be targeted for treatment of Alzheimer's disease. This has opened new vistas for treatment of Alzheimer's disease that have moved away from chemotherapeutic agents modulating a single target to biologics and combinations that acted on multiple targets thereby offering better therapeutic outcomes. This review discusses the emerging directions in therapeutic interventions against Alzheimer's disease highlighting their merits that promise to change the treatment paradigm and challenges that limit their clinical translation.

Diagnosis and therapy of Alzheimer's disease: Light-driven heterogeneous redox processes

Light-driven heterogeneous processes are promising approaches for diagnosing and treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) by regulating its relevant biomolecules. The molecular understanding of the heterogeneous interface environment and its interaction with target biomolecules is important. This review critically appraises the advances in AD early diagnosis and therapy employing heterogeneous light-driven redox processes, encompassing photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensing, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, PEC therapy, and photoacoustic therapy. The design strategies for heterogeneous interfaces based on target biomolecules and applications are also compiled. Finally, the remaining challenges and future perspectives are discussed. The present review may promote the fundamental understanding of AD diagnosis and therapy and facilitate interdisciplinary studies at the junction of nanotechnology and bioscience.

Rationally Designed Benzobisthiadiazole-Based Covalent Organic Framework for High-Performance NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging-Guided Photodynamic Therapy

Although being applied as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) fail the precise fluorescence imaging in vivo and phototherapy in deep-tissue, due to short excitation/emission wavelengths. Herein, this work proposes the first example of NIR-II emissive and benzobisthiadiazole-based COF-980. Comparing to its ligands, the structure of COF-980 can more efficiently reducing the energy gap (ΔES1-T1) between the excited state and the triplet state to enhance photodynamic therapy efficiency. Importantly, COF-980 demonstrates high photostability, good anti-diffusion property, superior reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation efficiency, promising imaging ability, and ROS production in deep tissue (≈8 mm). Surprisingly, COF-980 combined with laser irradiation could trigger larger amount of intracellular ROS to high efficiently induce cancer cell death. Notably, COF-980 NPs precisely enable PDT guided by NIR-II fluorescence imaging that effectively inhibit the 4T1 tumor growth with negligible adverse effects. This study provides a universal approach to developing long-wavelength emissive COFs and exploits its applications for biomedicine.

Innovative Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery Systems for Advanced Treatment of Posterior Segment Ocular Diseases

Funduscopic diseases, including diabetic retinopathy (DR) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD), significantly impact global visual health, leading to impaired vision and irreversible blindness. Delivering drugs to the posterior segment of the eye remains a challenge due to the presence of multiple physiological and anatomical barriers. Conventional drug delivery methods often prove ineffective and may cause side effects. Nanomaterials, characterized by their small size, large surface area, tunable properties, and biocompatibility, enhance the permeability, stability, and targeting of drugs. Ocular nanomaterials encompass a wide range, including lipid nanomaterials, polymer nanomaterials, metal nanomaterials, carbon nanomaterials, quantum dot nanomaterials, and so on. These innovative materials, often combined with hydrogels and exosomes, are engineered to address multiple mechanisms, including macrophage polarization, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Compared to conventional modalities, nanomedicines achieve regulated and sustained delivery, reduced administration frequency, prolonged drug action, and minimized side effects. This study delves into the obstacles encountered in drug delivery to the posterior segment and highlights the progress facilitated by nanomedicine. Prospectively, these findings pave the way for next-generation ocular drug delivery systems and deeper clinical research, aiming to refine treatments, alleviate the burden on patients, and ultimately improve visual health globally.

Graphene-Based Photodynamic Therapy and Overcoming Cancer Resistance Mechanisms: A Comprehensive Review

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive therapy that has made significant progress in treating different diseases, including cancer, by utilizing new nanotechnology products such as graphene and its derivatives. Graphene-based materials have large surface area and photothermal effects thereby making them suitable candidates for PDT or photo-active drug carriers. The remarkable photophysical properties of graphene derivates facilitate the efficient generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation, which destroys cancer cells. Surface functionalization of graphene and its materials can also enhance their biocompatibility and anticancer activity. The paper delves into the distinct roles played by graphene-based materials in PDT such as photosensitizers (PS) and drug carriers while at the same time considers how these materials could be used to circumvent cancer resistance. This will provide readers with an extensive discussion of various pathways contributing to PDT inefficiency. Consequently, this comprehensive review underscores the vital roles that graphene and its derivatives may play in emerging PDT strategies for cancer treatment and other medical purposes. With a better comprehension of the current state of research and the existing challenges, the integration of graphene-based materials in PDT holds great promise for developing targeted, effective, and personalized cancer treatments.

Catalytic Nanoparticles in Biomedical Applications: Exploiting Advanced Nanozymes for Therapeutics and Diagnostics

Catalytic nanoparticles (CNPs) as heterogeneous catalyst reveals superior activity due to their physio-chemical features, such as high surface-to-volume ratio and unique optical, electric, and magnetic properties. The CNPs, based on their physio-chemical nature, can either increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level for tumor and antibacterial therapy or eliminate the ROS for cytoprotection, anti-inflammation, and anti-aging. In addition, the catalytic activity of nanozymes can specifically trigger a specific reaction accompanied by the optical feature change, presenting the feasibility of biosensor and bioimaging applications. Undoubtedly, CNPs play a pivotal role in pushing the evolution of technologies in medical and clinical fields, and advanced strategies and nanomaterials rely on the input of chemical experts to develop. Herein, a systematic and comprehensive review of the challenges and recent development of CNPs for biomedical applications is presented from the viewpoint of advanced nanomaterial with unique catalytic activity and additional functions. Furthermore, the biosafety issue of applying biodegradable and non-biodegradable nanozymes and future perspectives are critically discussed to guide a promising direction in developing span-new nanozymes and more intelligent strategies for overcoming the current clinical limitations.

Click synthesis of dendronized malonates for the preparation of amphiphilic dendro[60]fullerenes

Fullerene C60 and its malonate derivatives, produced via the Bingel-Hirsch reaction, have displayed promising properties against various diseases. These molecules have great therapeutic potential, but their broad use has been limited due to poor aqueous solubility and toxicity caused by accumulation. In this study, we synthesized new malonates and malonamides attached to first- and second-generation polyester dendrons using click chemistry (CuAAC). These dendrons were then linked at C60 through the Bingel-Hirsch reaction, resulting in an amphiphilic system that retains the hydrophobic nature of C60. The dendronized malonate derivatives showed good reaction yields for the Bingel-Hirsch mono-adducts and were easier to work with than the corresponding malonamides. However, the malonamide derivatives, which were obtained through a multistep reaction sequence, showed moderate yields in the Bingel-Hirsch reaction. Surprisingly, removing acetonide protecting groups from dendritic architectures was more challenging than anticipated, likely due to product decomposition. Only the corresponding free malonate derivatives 25 and 26 were obtained, but in a low yield due to decomposition under the reaction conditions. Meanwhile, it was not possible to obtain the corresponding malonamide derivatives 27 and 28. Currently, efforts are being made to improve the production of the desired molecules and to design new synthesis routes that allow direct access to the desired poly-hydroxylated derivatives. These derivatives will be evaluated as multitarget ligands against Alzheimer's disease, through their use as inhibitors of amyloid β-peptide aggregation, acetylcholinesterase modulators, and antioxidants.

Neuromodulation by nanozymes and ultrasound during Alzheimer's disease management

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with complex pathogenesis and effective clinical treatment strategies for this disease remain elusive. Interestingly, nanomedicines are under extensive investigation for AD management. Currently, existing redox molecules show highly bioactive property but suffer from instability and high production costs, limiting clinical application for neurological diseases. Compared with natural enzymes, artificial enzymes show high stability, long-lasting catalytic activity, and versatile enzyme-like properties. Further, the selectivity and performance of artificial enzymes can be modulated for neuroinflammation treatments through external stimuli. In this review, we focus on the latest developments of metal, metal oxide, carbon-based and polymer based nanozymes and their catalytic mechanisms. Recent developments in nanozymes for diagnosing and treating AD are emphasized, especially focusing on their potential to regulate pathogenic factors and target sites. Various applications of nanozymes with different stimuli-responsive features were discussed, particularly focusing on nanozymes for treating oxidative stress-related neurological diseases. Noninvasiveness and focused application to deep body regions makes ultrasound (US) an attractive trigger mechanism for nanomedicine. Since a complete cure for AD remains distant, this review outlines the potential of US responsive nanozymes to develop future therapeutic approaches for this chronic neurodegenerative disease and its emergence in AD management.

Light on Alzheimer's disease: from basic insights to preclinical studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD), referring to a gradual deterioration in cognitive function, including memory loss and impaired thinking skills, has emerged as a substantial worldwide challenge with profound social and economic implications. As the prevalence of AD continues to rise and the population ages, there is an imperative demand for innovative imaging techniques to help improve our understanding of these complex conditions. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging forms a hybrid imaging modality by integrating the high-contrast of optical imaging and deep-penetration of ultrasound imaging. PA imaging enables the visualization and characterization of tissue structures and multifunctional information at high resolution and, has demonstrated promising preliminary results in the study and diagnosis of AD. This review endeavors to offer a thorough overview of the current applications and potential of PA imaging on AD diagnosis and treatment. Firstly, the structural, functional, molecular parameter changes associated with AD-related brain imaging captured by PA imaging will be summarized, shaping the diagnostic standpoint of this review. Then, the therapeutic methods aimed at AD is discussed further. Lastly, the potential solutions and clinical applications to expand the extent of PA imaging into deeper AD scenarios is proposed. While certain aspects might not be fully covered, this mini-review provides valuable insights into AD diagnosis and treatment through the utilization of innovative tissue photothermal effects. We hope that it will spark further exploration in this field, fostering improved and earlier theranostics for AD.

Exploring Peptido-Nanocomposites in the Context of Amyloid Diseases

Therapeutic peptides are a major class of pharmaceutical drugs owing to their target-binding specificity as well as their versatility in inhibiting aberrant protein-protein interactions associated with human pathologies. Within the realm of amyloid diseases, the use of peptides and peptidomimetics tailor-designed to overcome amyloidogenesis has been an active research endeavor since the late 90s. In more recent years, incorporating nanoparticles for enhancing the biocirculation and delivery of peptide drugs has emerged as a frontier in nanomedicine, and nanoparticles have further demonstrated a potency against amyloid aggregation and cellular inflammation to rival strategies employing small molecules, peptides, and antibodies. Despite these efforts, however, a fundamental understanding of the chemistry, characteristics and function of peptido-nanocomposites is lacking, and a systematic analysis of such strategy for combating a range of amyloid pathogeneses is missing. Here we review the history, principles and evolving chemistry of constructing peptido-nanocomposites from bottom up and discuss their future application against amyloid diseases that debilitate a significant portion of the global population.

Carbon-Based Nanostructures as Emerging Materials for Gene Delivery Applications

Gene therapeutics are promising for treating diseases at the genetic level, with some already validated for clinical use. Recently, nanostructures have emerged for the targeted delivery of genetic material. Nanomaterials, exhibiting advantageous properties such as a high surface-to-volume ratio, biocompatibility, facile functionalization, substantial loading capacity, and tunable physicochemical characteristics, are recognized as non-viral vectors in gene therapy applications. Despite progress, current non-viral vectors exhibit notably low gene delivery efficiency. Progress in nanotechnology is essential to overcome extracellular and intracellular barriers in gene delivery. Specific nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon quantum dots (CQDs), nanodiamonds (NDs), and similar carbon-based structures can accommodate diverse genetic materials such as plasmid DNA (pDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), small interference RNA (siRNA), micro RNA (miRNA), and antisense oligonucleotides (AONs). To address challenges such as high toxicity and low transfection efficiency, advancements in the features of carbon-based nanostructures (CBNs) are imperative. This overview delves into three types of CBNs employed as vectors in drug/gene delivery systems, encompassing their synthesis methods, properties, and biomedical applications. Ultimately, we present insights into the opportunities and challenges within the captivating realm of gene delivery using CBNs.

From lab to ecosystem: Understanding the ecological footprints of engineered nanoparticles

Nanotechnology has attained significant attention from researchers in past decades due to its numerous advantages, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and improved stability over conventional drug delivery systems. The fabrication of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs), including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes, metallic and metal oxide-based NPs, has been steadily increasing day due to their wide range of applications from household to industrial applications. Fabricated ENPs can release different materials into the environment during their fabrication process. The effect of such materials on the environment is the primary concern with due diligence on the safety and efficacy of prepared NPs. In addition, an understanding of chemistry, reactivity, fabrication process, and viable mechanism of NPs involved in the interaction with the environment is very important. To date, only a limited number of techniques are available to assess ENPs in the natural environment which makes it difficult to ascertain the impact of ENPs in natural settings. This review extensively examines the environmental effects of ENPs and briefly discusses useful tools for determining NP size, surface charge, surface area, and external appearance. In conclusion, the review highlights the potential risks associated with ENPs and suggests possible solutions.

Peptide-Functionalized Prussian Blue Nanomaterial for Antioxidant Stress and NIR Photothermal Therapy against Alzheimer's Disease

Excessive accumulations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and amyloid-β (Aβ) protein are closely associated with the complex pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, approaches that synergistically exert elimination of ROS and dissociation of Aβ fibrils are effective therapeutic strategies for correcting the AD microenvironment. Herein, a novel near infrared (NIR) responsive Prussian blue-based nanomaterial (PBK NPs) is established with excellent antioxidant activity and photothermal effect. PBK NPs possess similar activities to multiple antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase, which can eliminate massive ROS and relieve oxidative stress. Under the NIR irradiation, PBK NPs can generate local heat to disaggregate Aβ fibrils efficiently. By modifying CKLVFFAED peptide, PBK NPs display obvious targeting ability for blood-brain barrier penetration and Aβ binding. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrate that PBK NPs have outstanding ability to decompose Aβ plaques and alleviate neuroinflammation in AD mouse model. Overall, PBK NPs provide evident neuroprotection by reducing ROS levels and regulating Aβ deposition, and may accelerate the development of multifunctional nanomaterials for delaying the progression of AD.

Zero-Dimensional Carbon Nanomaterials for Fluorescent Sensing and Imaging

Advances in nanotechnology and nanomaterials have attracted considerable interest and play key roles in scientific innovations in diverse fields. In particular, increased attention has been focused on carbon-based nanomaterials exhibiting diverse extended structures and unique properties. Among these materials, zero-dimensional structures, including fullerenes, carbon nano-onions, carbon nanodiamonds, and carbon dots, possess excellent bioaffinities and superior fluorescence properties that make these structures suitable for application to environmental and biological sensing, imaging, and therapeutics. This review provides a systematic overview of the classification and structural properties, design principles and preparation methods, and optical properties and sensing applications of zero-dimensional carbon nanomaterials. Recent interesting breakthroughs in the sensitive and selective sensing and imaging of heavy metal pollutants, hazardous substances, and bioactive molecules as well as applications in information encryption, super-resolution and photoacoustic imaging, and phototherapy and nanomedicine delivery are the main focus of this review. Finally, future challenges and prospects of these materials are highlighted and envisaged. This review presents a comprehensive basis and directions for designing, developing, and applying fascinating fluorescent sensors fabricated based on zero-dimensional carbon nanomaterials for specific requirements in numerous research fields.

Shear Stress and ROS Dual-Responsive RBC-Hitchhiking Nanoparticles for Atherosclerosis Therapy

Atherosclerosis (AS), a leading cause of death worldwide, is a chronic inflammatory disease rich in lipids and reactive oxygen species (ROS) within plaques. Therefore, lowering lipid and ROS levels is effective in treating AS and reducing AS-induced mortality. In this study, an intelligent biomimetic drug delivery system that specifically responded to both shear stress and ROS microenvironment was developed, consisting of red blood cells (RBCs) and cross-linked polyethyleneimine nanoparticles (SA PEI) loaded with a lipid-lowering drug simvastatin acid (SA), and RBCs were self-assembled with SA PEI to obtain biresponsive SA PEI@RBCs for the treatment of AS. SA PEI could achieve sustained release of SA in response to ROS and reduce ROS and lipid levels to achieve the purpose of treating AS. Shear stress model experiments showed that SA PEI@RBCs could respond to the high shear stress level (100 dynes/cm2) at plaques, realizing the desorption and enrichment of SA PEI and improving the therapeutic efficiency of SA PEI@RBCs. In vitro and in vivo experiments have confirmed that SA PEI@RBCs exhibits better in vivo safety and therapeutic efficacy than SA PEI and free SA. Therefore, shaping SA PEI@RBCs into a biomimetic drug delivery system with dual sensitivity to ROS and shear stress is an effective strategy and treatment to facilitate their delivery into plaques.

Antioxidant and Prooxidant Nanozymes: From Cellular Redox Regulation to Next-Generation Therapeutics

Nanozymes, nanomaterials with enzyme-mimicking activity, have attracted tremendous interest in recent years owing to their ability to replace natural enzymes in various biomedical applications, such as biosensing, therapeutics, drug delivery, and bioimaging. In particular, the nanozymes capable of regulating the cellular redox status by mimicking the antioxidant enzymes in mammalian cells are of great therapeutic significance in oxidative-stress-mediated disorders. As the distinction of physiological oxidative stress (oxidative eustress) and pathological oxidative stress (oxidative distress) occurs at a fine borderline, it is a great challenge to design nanozymes that can differentially sense the two extremes in cells, tissues and organs and mediate appropriate redox chemical reactions. In this Review, we summarize the advances in the development of redox-active nanozymes and their biomedical applications. We primarily highlight the therapeutic significance of the antioxidant and prooxidant nanozymes in various disease model systems, such as cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular diseases. The future perspectives of this emerging area of research and the challenges associated with the biomedical applications of nanozymes are described.

Hypochlorous Acid-Activated UCNPs-LMB/VQIVYK Multifunctional Nanosystem for Alzheimer's Disease Treatment

The development of nanosystems, which can photooxygenate amyloid-β (Aβ), detect the Tau protein, and inhibit effectively the Tau aggregation, is increasingly important in the diagnosis and therapy of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Herein, UCNPs-LMB/VQIVYK (UCNPs: upconversion nanoparticles, LMB: Leucomethylene blue, and VQIVYK: Biocompatible peptide) is designed as a HOCl-controlled released nanosystem for AD synergistic treatment. Under exposure to high levels of HOCl, the released MB from UCNPs-LMB/VQIVYK will produce singlet oxygen (¹O₂) under red light to depolymerize Aβ aggregation and reduce cytotoxicity. Meanwhile, UCNPs-LMB/VQIVYK can act as an inhibitor to decrease Tau-induced neurotoxicity. Besides, UCNPs-LMB/VQIVYK can be used for upconversion luminescence (UCL) due to its unexceptionable luminescence properties. This HOCl-responsive nanosystem offers a new therapy for AD treatment.

On-Site Remote Monitoring System with NIR Signal-Based Detection of Infectious Disease Virus in Opaque Salivary Samples

Infectious disease viruses, such as foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), are highly contagious viruses that cause significant socioeconomic damage upon spreading. Developing an on-site diagnostic tool for early clinical detection and real-time surveillance of FMDV outbreaks is essential to prevent the further spread of the disease. However, early diagnosis of FMDV is still challenging due to the limited sensitivity and time-consuming manual result entry of commercial on-site tests for salivary samples. Here, we report a near-infrared (NIR) signal nanoprobe-based highly accurate detection and remote monitoring system toward FMDVs, which automates the analysis and reporting of diagnosis data. The NIR signal lateral flow immunoassay (LFA) was assembled with a nanoprobe with a stable emission intensity at 800 nm, minimizing the interference signal of opaque salivary samples. We investigated the clinical applicability of the NIR signal LFA at biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories using 147 opaque salivary samples. The NIR signal LFA achieved a 32-fold lower limit of detection (LOD) than a commercial LFA in detecting live FMDVs, including all isolates occurring in the Republic of Korea during 2010-2017. Our results showed that the NIR signal LFA successfully discriminated the FMDV-positive clinical salivary samples from healthy controls with a sensitivity of 96.9%, specificity of 100.0%, and AUC (area under the receiver operator characteristic curve) value of 0.999. Finally, we substantiated the real-time collection of diagnostic results using a customized portable NIR reader at nine different laboratories of government-certified quarantine institutions for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD).

Partial Destabilization of Amyloid-β Protofibril by Methionine Photo-Oxidation: A Molecular Dynamic Simulation Study

Selective photosensitized oxidation of amyloid protein aggregates is being investigated as a possible therapeutic strategy for treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). Photo-oxidation has been shown to degrade amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregates and ameliorate aggregate toxicity in vitro and reduce aggregate levels in the brains of AD animal models. To shed light on the mechanism by which photo-oxidation induces fibril destabilization, we carried out an all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulation to examine the effect of methionine (Met35) oxidation on the conformation and stability of a β-sheet-rich Aβ9-40 protofibril. Analyses of up to 1 μs simulations showed that the oxidation of the Met35 residues, which resulted in the addition of hydrophilic oxygens in the fibril core, reduced the overall conformational stability of the protofibril. Specifically, Met35 disrupted the hydrophobic interface that stabilizes the stacking of the two hexamers that comprise the protofibril. The oxidized protofibril is more solvent exposed and exhibits more backbone flexibility. However, the protofibril retained the underlying U-shaped architecture of each peptide upon oxidation, and although some loss of β-sheets occurred, a significant portion remained. Our simulation results are thus consistent with our experimental observation that photo-oxidation of Aβ40 fibril resulted in the dis-agglomeration and fragmentation of Aβ fibrils but did not cause complete disruption of the fibrillar morphology or β-sheet structures. The partial destabilization of Aβ aggregates supports the further development of photosensitized platforms for the targeting and clearing of Aβ aggregates as a therapeutic strategy for treating AD.

Epigallocatechin gallate-derived carbonized polymer dots: A multifunctional scavenger targeting Alzheimer's β-amyloid plaques

The design of high-efficiency scavengers targeting β-amyloid protein (Aβ) plaques in the progress of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been recognized as an effective way to prevent and treat AD. Herein, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)-derived carbonized polymer dots (E-CPDs) were synthesized for the first time via a hydrothermal method using EGCG, an Aβ inhibitor, as one of the raw materials. The inhibitory efficiency and fluorescent property of E-CPDs were elegantly modulated by adjusting the molar ratio of EGCG to nitrogen-containing dopant, o-phenylenediamine (oPD), and 75E-CPDs fabricated with 75 mM EGCG and 50 mM oPD showed the highest inhibitory capability. The multifunctionality of 75E-CPDs on inhibition of Aβ fibrillization, Aβ fibrils disaggregation, amyloid fluorescent detection, and intracellular reactive oxygen species scavenging was demonstrated. 75E-CPDs inhibited the formation of β-sheet-rich Aβ aggregates, alleviated Aβ-induced cytotoxicity of cultured cells from 47% to 15%, and prolonged the lifespan of AD nematodes by scavenging in vivo amyloid plaques, demonstrating much higher performance than either EGCG or EGCG-free carbon dots. Notably, 75E-CPDs could rapidly disaggregate Aβ fibrils on "second" scale, faster than any other disaggregating agents. The aromatic structure as well as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups existing on 75E-CPDs surface, which would interact with Aβ species via hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, and hydrophobic interactions, played critical roles in their inhibition and disaggregation capabilities. This work reveals that potent CDs can be fabricated by using an Aβ inhibitor as the precursor, providing a new perspective for the design of multifunctional scavengers targeting amyloid plaques. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the top ten causes of death worldwide and seriously threatens human health. Recently, carbon nanomaterials have attracted much attention because of their good biocompatibility and capability in modulating Aβ aggregation via multiple interactions. This work has for the first time fabricated epigallocatechin gallate-derived carbonized polymer dots (E-CPDs) and revealed the multifunctional potency of E-CPDs on alleviating the multifaced symptoms associated with β-amyloid protein (Aβ) fibrillization in the progression of AD. Notably, E-CPDs exhibited enhanced fluorescence emission upon binding to Aβ fibrils, possessing potential as Aβ fluorescent probes. It is believed that this work would open a new horizon in the design of multifunctional carbon nanomaterials as a potent amyloid scavenger for AD theranostics.

Imine-Linked Covalent Organic Framework Modulates Oxidative Stress in Alzheimer's Disease

Oxidative stress due to Cu²⁺-triggered aggregation of β-amyloid protein (Aβ) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) overexpression in the brain is an important hallmark of early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. The ideal modulator for improving the oxidative stress microenvironment in AD brains should take both Cu²⁺ and ROS into consideration, which has been rarely reported. Here, a combined therapeutic strategy was achieved by co-encapsulating superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in imine-linked covalent organic frameworks (COFs), which were modified with peptide KLVFF (T5). The nanocomposite SC@COF-T5 exhibited an oxidative stress eradicating ability through ROS elimination and Cu²⁺ chelation, combined with the inhibition of Aβ42 monomer aggregation and disaggregation of Aβ42 fibrils. In vivo experiments indicated that SC@COF-T5 with a high blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration efficiency was effective to reduce Aβ deposition, expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, ROS levels, and neurologic damage in AD model mice, consequently rescuing memory deficits of AD mice. This work not only confirms the feasibility and merits of the therapeutic strategy regarding multiple targets for treatment of early AD pathogenesis but also opens up a novel direction for imine-linked COFs in biomedical applications.

In vitro electrochemical detection of the degradation of amyloid-β oligomers

The clearance of overloaded amyloid β (Aβ) oligomers is thought to be an attractive and potential strategy for the therapy of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A variety of strategies have already been utilized to study Aβ degradation in vitro. Here, the electrochemical detection based on direct electrooxidation of specific Tyr residues within Aβ peptide has been developed as a simple and robust approach for monitoring the oligomers' degradation. C60 was employed for photodegrading Aβ oligomers due to the generated ROS under light irradiation. The oxidation current of Tyr residues by square wave voltammetry (SWV) increased upon the Aβ degradation, confirming that the structure variation of Aβ peptide indeed influenced the exposure of those redox species to the electrode surface and final signal output. Chronoamperometric assay also found the electrooxidation of Tyr undergone an irreversible process. Additionally, the direct electrochemistry was capable of detecting the aggregation with rapid test and better sensitivity in compared with dynamic light scattering (DLS), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and thioflavin T (ThT) based fluorescence assay. Thus, this work indicated the potential application of direct electrochemistry in the in vitro measurement of Aβ degradation and clearance, providing new insights and a complementary means into the AD theranostics.

Advanced nanomaterials for modulating Alzheimer's related amyloid aggregation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease that brings about enormous economic pressure to families and society. Inhibiting abnormal aggregation of Aβ and accelerating the dissociation of aggregates is treated as an effective method to prevent and treat AD. Recently, nanomaterials have been applied in AD treatment due to their excellent physicochemical properties and drug activity. As a drug delivery platform or inhibitor, various excellent nanomaterials have exhibited potential in inhibiting Aβ fibrillation, disaggregating, and clearing mature amyloid plaques by enhancing the performance of drugs. This review comprehensively summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of nanomaterials in modulating amyloid aggregation and AD treatment. The design of various functional nanomaterials is discussed, and the strategies for improved properties toward AD treatment are analyzed. Finally, the challenges faced by nanomaterials with different dimensions in AD-related amyloid aggregate modulation are expounded, and the prospects of nanomaterials are proposed.

Efficient and reusable photocatalytic river water disinfection by addictive graphitic carbon nitride/magnesium oxide nano-onions with particular "nano-magnifying glass effect"

Photocatalytic disinfection is a promising way to combat bacterial pollution in the water environment. Inefficient use of visible light and undirected diffusion of reactive oxygen species (ROS) reduce photocatalytic disinfection efficiency. Herein, inspired by the concentrating effect of convex lens, photocatalysts with particular "nano-magnifying glass effect" (TCNMgNOs) were designed by embedding magnesium oxide with "converge effect" into the tailored hierarchical triple-shell porous g-C₃N₄ with "one light multi-purpose effect" to boost the visible-light utilization. Meanwhile, the ATPase hydrolysis homeostasis of bacteria was destroyed by TCNMgNOs to achieve the targeted movement of ROS. The results confirmed that the photocatalytic sterilization efficiency of TCNMgNOs was amplified by 30 times over g-C₃N₄, which was achieved by focusing visible light, multiple reflecting visible light and light transmission within the porous thin shells as well as the "addictive sterilization mechanism". The sterilization efficiency still maintains 98.8 % (15 min) after 6 rounds recycling and reusing in practical river water disinfection. A novel pathway for fighting against microbial contaminants in natural water was explored.

Functionalization strategies of polymeric nanoparticles for drug delivery in Alzheimer’s disease: Current trends and future perspectives

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, is a progressive and multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder whose primary causes are mostly unknown. Due to the increase in life expectancy of world population, including developing countries, AD, whose incidence rises dramatically with age, is at the forefront among neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, a definitive cure is not yet within reach, imposing substantial medical and public health burdens at every latitude. Therefore, the effort to devise novel and effective therapeutic strategies is still of paramount importance. Genetic, functional, structural and biochemical studies all indicate that new and efficacious drug delivery strategies interfere at different levels with various cellular and molecular targets. Over the last few decades, therapeutic development of nanomedicine at preclinical stage has shown to progress at a fast pace, thus paving the way for its potential impact on human health in improving prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of age-related neurodegenerative disorders, including AD. Clinical translation of nano-based therapeutics, despite current limitations, may present important advantages and innovation to be exploited in the neuroscience field as well. In this state-of-the-art review article, we present the most promising applications of polymeric nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery for bypassing the blood-brain barrier of AD preclinical models and boost pharmacological safety and efficacy. In particular, novel strategic chemical functionalization of polymeric nanocarriers that could be successfully employed for treating AD are thoroughly described. Emphasis is also placed on nanotheranostics as both potential therapeutic and diagnostic tool for targeted treatments. Our review highlights the emerging role of nanomedicine in the management of AD, providing the readers with an overview of the nanostrategies currently available to develop future therapeutic applications against this chronic neurodegenerative disease.

A multi-target theranostic nano-composite against Alzheimer's disease fabricated by conjugating carbon dots and triple-functionalized human serum albumin

The complex pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) involves the aggregation and accumulation of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) as well as elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which requires the development of comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. In this work, a multifunctional theranostic nano-composite (HSA-BFP@CDs) is constructed by conjugating triple-functionalized human serum albumin (HSA-BFP) as a theranostic agent targeting Aβ and carbon dots (CDs) as an ROS scavenger. HSA-BFP@CDs exhibits a fluorescence "off-on" effect at 700 nm upon interaction with Aβ aggregates, showing the capability for detection of Aβ plaques and potential for early diagnosis of AD. Besides, HSA-BFP@CDs effectively inhibits the aggregation of Aβ, increasing the viability of Aβ-treated cells from 74% to over 95% at 100 µg/mL. Moreover, multiple ROS, including hydroxyl radicals, superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and Aβ-Cu²⁺-induced-ROS, can be scavenged by HSA-BFP@CDs, thus resulting in the mitigation of cellular oxidative damages. Experiments with the AD model of Caenorhabditis elegans further demonstrate the multifunctionality of HSA-BFP@CDs in imaging amyloid plaques, reducing Aβ deposition, and relieving oxidative stress in vivo, showing the prospect for Aβ- and ROS-targeted AD diagnosis and treatment. This work provided new insight into the design of protein-carbon dots conjugate and the development of multi-target therapy of AD. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, which currently affects over 55 million people worldwide. Due to the complex pathogenesis of AD involving amyloid β-protein (Aβ) aggregation as well as elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), it is highly desired to develop comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. In this paper, we fabricated a multifunctional theranostic nano-composite (HSA-BFP@CDs) via the conjugation of triple-functionalized human serum albumin (HSA-BFP) and carbon dots (CDs). The multifunctionality of HSA-BFP@CDs for efficient detection of Aβ aggregates and inhibition of Aβ aggregation as well as scavenging of ROS was demonstrated, demonstrating the potential of the protein-carbon dots conjugate for the multi-target therapy of AD.

Rare-earth based materials: an effective toolbox for brain imaging, therapy, monitoring and neuromodulation

Brain diseases, including tumors and neurodegenerative disorders, are among the most serious health problems. Non-invasively high-resolution imaging methods are required to gain anatomical structures and information of the brain. In addition, efficient diagnosis technology is also needed to treat brain disease. Rare-earth based materials possess unique optical properties, superior magnetism, and high X-ray absorption abilities, enabling high-resolution imaging of the brain through magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography imaging, and fluorescence imaging technologies. In addition, rare-earth based materials can be used to detect, treat, and regulate of brain diseases through fine modulation of their structures and functions. Importantly, rare-earth based materials coupled with biomolecules such as antibodies, peptides, and drugs can overcome the blood-brain barrier and be used for targeted treatment. Herein, this review highlights the rational design and application of rare-earth based materials in brain imaging, therapy, monitoring, and neuromodulation. Furthermore, the development prospect of rare-earth based materials is briefly introduced.

Nanomaterials alleviating redox stress in neurological diseases: mechanisms and applications

Overproduced reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species (RONS) in the brain are involved in the pathogenesis of several neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, traumatic brain injury, and stroke, as they attack neurons and glial cells, triggering cellular redox stress. Neutralizing RONS, and, thus, alleviating redox stress, can slow down or stop the progression of neurological diseases. Currently, an increasing number of studies are applying nanomaterials (NMs) with anti-redox activity and exploring the potential mechanisms involved in redox stress-related neurological diseases. In this review, we summarize the anti-redox mechanisms of NMs, including mimicking natural oxidoreductase activity and inhibiting RONS generation at the source. In addition, we propose several strategies to enhance the anti-redox ability of NMs and highlight the challenges that need to be resolved in their application. In-depth knowledge of the mechanisms and potential application of NMs in alleviating redox stress will help in the exploration of the therapeutic potential of anti-redox stress NMs in neurological diseases.

Carbon Graphitization: Towards Greener Alternatives to Develop Nanomaterials for Targeted Drug Delivery

Carbon nanomaterials have attracted great interest for their unique physico-chemical properties for various applications, including medicine and, in particular, drug delivery, to solve the most challenging unmet clinical needs. Graphitization is a process that has become very popular for their production or modification. However, traditional conditions are energy-demanding; thus, recent efforts have been devoted to the development of greener routes that require lower temperatures or that use waste or byproducts as a carbon source in order to be more sustainable. In this concise review, we analyze the progress made in the last five years in this area, as well as in their development as drug delivery agents, focusing on active targeting, and conclude with a perspective on the future of the field.

High efficiency and related mechanism of Au(RC) nanoclusters on disaggregating Aβ fibrils

Revealing the disaggregating mechanism of amyloids fibrils under nanomaterials action is a key issue for their successful future use in therapy of neurodegenerative and overall amyloid-related diseases. Herein a gold nanocluster stabilized by Arg-Cys dipeptide (Au(RC)NCs) was synthesized to investigate its disaggregation activity toward Aβ fibrils by using Thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence assay and atomic force microscopy. It was demonstrated that Au(RC)NCs is very effective in disaggregating preformed Aβ fibrils, and characterized by the ultra-low apparent completely disaggregation concentration at the dose of 10 μg·mL^-1. A possible disaggregation mechanism based on Au(RC)NCs triggering the disassembly of Aβ fibrils into a dynamic equilibrium was proposed. The introduction of Au(RC)NCs with appropriate dose (5 μg·mL^-1) can trigger the disassemble process of mature Aβ fibrils into a critical state, at this very moment, if there is no more nano-disassembler, destruction of old Aβ fibrils and formation of new Aβ fibrils are thus in permanent dynamic equilibrium; in contrast, if there is more nano-disassembler (>10 μg·mL^-1), the dynamic equilibrium prefer to shift to the direction of Aβ further disassembly. Moreover, Au(RC)NCs with dosage over 10 μg·mL^-1 exhibited superb protection effect against Aβ-induced cytotoxicity in cell experiments. This study not only proposed a possible disassembly mechanism of amyloids fibrils under nanomaterials action, but also provide Au(RC)NCs as a promising high-effective nano-disassembler to disassemble unwanted amyloid aggregates.

Controlled and Selective Photo-oxidation of Amyloid-β Fibrils by Oligomeric p-Phenylene Ethynylenes

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been explored as a therapeutic strategy to clear toxic amyloid aggregates involved in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. A major limitation of PDT is off-target oxidation, which can be lethal for the surrounding cells. We have shown that a novel class of oligo-p-phenylene ethynylenes (OPEs) exhibit selective binding and fluorescence turn-on in the presence of prefibrillar and fibrillar aggregates of disease-relevant proteins such as amyloid-β (Aβ) and α-synuclein. Concomitant with fluorescence turn-on, OPE also photosensitizes singlet oxygen under illumination through the generation of a triplet state, pointing to the potential application of OPEs as photosensitizers in PDT. Herein, we investigated the photosensitizing activity of an anionic OPE for the photo-oxidation of Aβ fibrils and compared its efficacy to the well-known but nonselective photosensitizer methylene blue (MB). Our results show that, while MB photo-oxidized both monomeric and fibrillar conformers of Aβ40, OPE oxidized only Aβ40 fibrils, targeting two histidine residues on the fibril surface and a methionine residue located in the fibril core. Oxidized fibrils were shorter and more dispersed but retained the characteristic β-sheet rich fibrillar structure and the ability to seed further fibril growth. Importantly, the oxidized fibrils displayed low toxicity. We have thus discovered a class of novel theranostics for the simultaneous detection and oxidization of amyloid aggregates. Importantly, the selectivity of OPE's photosensitizing activity overcomes the limitation of off-target oxidation of traditional photosensitizers and represents an advancement of PDT as a viable strategy to treat neurodegenerative disorders.

Autophagy as a molecular target of quercetin underlying its protective effects in human diseases

Autophagy, known as a "self-eating" process, is associated with degradation of aged or damaged components and organelles. Generally, autophagy is a survival mechanism that provides energy during nutritional deprivation. This mechanism plays a remarkable role during the physiological condition by maintaining homeostasis and energy balance and several pathological conditions, particularly neurological disorders. Due to the critical role of autophagy in cancer, much attention has been made in the regulation of autophagy using both naturally occurring and synthetic drugs. Quercetin is a plant-derived chemical belonging to the family of flavonoids. Quercetin has valuable biological and therapeutic effects such as anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective. At the present review, we first provide an introduction about quercetin and autophagy with its related molecular pathways. We also describe how quercetin modulates autophagy mechanism to exert its therapeutic effects.

Gold Nanorods with Spatial Separation of CeO2 Deposition for Plasmonic-Enhanced Antioxidant Stress and Photothermal Therapy of Alzheimer's Disease

Activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) of ceria nanoparticles (CeO₂ NPs) provide the possibility for their application in nervous system oxidative stress diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). The addition of hot electrons produced by a plasma photothermal effect can expand the photocatalytic activity of CeO₂ to the near-infrared region (NIR), significantly improving its redox performance. Therefore, we coated both ends of gold nanorods (Au NRs) with CeO₂ NPs, and photocatalysis and photothermal therapy in the NIR are introduced into the treatment of AD. Meanwhile, the spatially separate structure enhances the catalytic performance and photothermal conversion efficiency. In addition, the photothermal effect significantly improves the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and overcomes the shortcomings of traditional anti-AD drugs. To further improve the therapeutic efficiency, Aβ-targeted inhibitory peptides were modified on the middle surface of gold nanorods to synthesize KLVFF@Au-CeO₂ (K-CAC) nanocomposites. We have verified their biocompatibility and therapeutic effectiveness at multiple levels in vitro and in vivo, which have a profound impact on the research and clinical transformation of nanotechnology in AD therapy.

Near-Infrared Upconversion Mesoporous Tin Dioxide Theranostic Nanocapsules for Synergetic Cancer Chemophototherapy

Smart nanotheranostic systems (SNSs) have attracted extensive attention in antitumor therapy. Nevertheless, constructing SNSs with disease diagnosis ability, improved drug delivery efficiency, inherent imaging performance, and high treatment efficiency remains a scientific challenge. Herein, ultrasmall tin dioxide (SnO₂) was assembled with upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) to form mesoporous nanocapsules by an in situ hydrothermal deposition method, followed by loading with doxorubicin (DOX) and modification with bovine serum albumin (BSA). pH/near-infrared dual-responsive nanotheranostics was constructed for computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-induced collaborative cancer treatment. The mesoporous channel of SnO₂ was utilized as a reservoir to encapsulate DOX, an antineoplastic drug, for chemotherapy and as a semiconductor photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy (PDT). Furthermore, the DOX-loaded UCNPs@SnO₂-BSA nanocapsules combined PDT, Nd³⁺-doped UCNP-triggered hyperthermia effect, and DOX-triggered chemotherapy simultaneously and demonstrated prominently enhanced treatment efficiency compared to the monotherapy model. Moreover, tin, as one of the trace elements in the human body, has a similar X-ray attenuation coefficient to iodine and therefore can act as a contrast agent for CT imaging to monitor the treatment process. Such an orchestrated synergistic anticancer treatment exhibited apparent inhibition of tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice with negligible side effects. Our study demonstrates nanocapsules with excellent biocompatibility and great potential for cancer treatment.

NIR-II Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks (HOFs) Used for Target-Specific Amyloid-β Photooxygenation in an Alzheimer's Disease Model

Phototherapy has emerged as a powerful approach for interrupting β-amyloid (Aβ) self-assembly. However, deeper tissue penetration and safer photosensitizers are urgent to be exploited for avoiding damaging nearby normal tissues and improving therapeutic effectiveness. A hydrogen-bonded organic framework (HOF)-based NIR-II photooxygenation catalyst is presented here to settle the abovementioned challenges. By encapsulating the pyridinium hemicyanine dye DSM with a large two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-section in NIR-II window into the porphyrin-based HOF, the resultant DSM@n-HOF-6 exhibits significant two-photon NIR-II-excited Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to generate singlet oxygen (1 O2 ) for Aβ oxidation. Further, the target peptides of KLVFFAED (KD8) are covalently grafted on DSM@n-HOF-6 to enhance the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and Aβ selectivity. The HOF-based photooxygenation catalyst shows an outstanding inhibitory effect of Aβ aggregation upon the NIR-II irradiation. Further in vivo studies demonstrate the obvious decrease of craniocerebral Aβ plaques and recovery of memory deficits in triple-transgenic AD (3×Tg-AD) model mice.

Chemical catalyst-promoted photooxygenation of amyloid proteins

Misfolded proteins produce aberrant fibrillar aggregates, called amyloids, which contain cross-β-sheet higher order structures. The species generated in the aggregation process (i.e., oligomers, protofibrils, and fibrils) are cytotoxic and can cause various diseases. Interfering with the amyloid formation of proteins could be a drug development target for treating diseases caused by aberrant protein aggregation. In this review, we introduce a variety of chemical catalysts that oxygenate amyloid proteins under light irradiation using molecular oxygen as the oxygen atom donor (i.e., photooxygenation catalysts). Catalytic photooxygenation strongly inhibits the aggregation of amyloid proteins due to covalent installation of hydrophilic oxygen atoms and attenuates the neurotoxicity of the amyloid proteins. Recent in vivo studies in disease model animals using photooxygenation catalysts showed promising therapeutic effects, such as memory improvement and lifespan extension. Moreover, photooxygenation catalysts with new modes of action, including interference with the propagation of amyloid core seeds and enhancement in the metabolic clearance of amyloids in the brain, have begun to be identified. Manipulation of catalytic photooxygenation with secured amyloid selectivity is indispensable for minimizing the side effects in clinical application. Here we describe several strategies for designing catalysts that selectively photooxygenate amyloids without reacting with other non-amyloid biomolecules.

Synthesis of D-π-A type benzothiazole-pyridinium salt composite and its application as photo-degradation agent for amyloid fibrils

We have synthesized a cyan fluorescent benzothiazole-pyridinium salt composite based on D-π-A architecture. This salt was found to work as not only a two- and three-photon excitable fluorophore but also a degradation agent against amyloid fibrils under LED irradiation conditions.

Dynamic nanoassemblies for imaging and therapy of neurological disorders

The past decades have witnessed an increased incidence of neurological disorders (NDs) such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, ischemic stroke, and epilepsy, which significantly lower patients' life quality and increase the economic and social burden. Recently, nanomedicines composed of imaging and/or therapeutic agents have been explored to diagnose and/or treat NDs due to their enhanced bioavailability, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and targeting capacity. Intriguingly, dynamic nanoassemblies self-assembled from functional nanoparticles to simultaneously interfere with multiple pathogenic substances and pathological changes, have been regarded as one of the foremost candidates to improve the diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy of NDs. To help readers better understand this emerging field, in this review, the pathogenic mechanism of different types of NDs is briefly introduced, then the functional nanoparticles used as building blocks in the construction of dynamic nanoassemblies for NDs theranostics are summarized. Furthermore, dynamic nanoassemblies that can actively cross the BBB to target brain lesions, sensitively and efficiently diagnose or treat NDs, and effectively promote neuroregeneration are highlighted. Finally, we conclude with our perspectives on the future development in this field.

Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapies via NIR-Activated Nanoagents in Combating Alzheimer's Disease

It is well established that the polymerization of amyloid-β peptides into fibrils/plaques is a critical step during the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Phototherapy, which includes photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy, is a highly attractive strategy in AD treatment due to its merits of operational flexibility, noninvasiveness, and high spatiotemporal resolution. Distinct from traditional chemotherapies or immunotherapies, phototherapies capitalize on the interaction between photosensitizers or photothermal transduction agents and light to trigger photochemical reactions to generate either reactive oxygen species or heat effects to modulate Aβ aggregation, ultimately restoring nerve damage and ameliorating memory deficits. In this Review, we provide an overview of the recent advances in the development of near-infrared-activated nanoagents for AD phototherapies and discuss the potential challenges of and perspectives on this emerging field with a special focus on how to improve the efficiency and utility of such treatment. We hope that this Review will spur preclinical research and the clinical translation of AD treatment through phototherapy.

Nanomaterials for Modulating the Aggregation of β-Amyloid Peptides

The aberrant aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides in the brain has been recognized as the major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thus, the inhibition and dissociation of Aβ aggregation are believed to be effective therapeutic strategiesforthe prevention and treatment of AD. When integrated with traditional agents and biomolecules, nanomaterials can overcome their intrinsic shortcomings and boost their efficiency via synergistic effects. This article provides an overview of recent efforts to utilize nanomaterials with superior properties to propose effective platforms for AD treatment. The underlying mechanismsthat are involved in modulating Aβ aggregation are discussed. The summary of nanomaterials-based modulation of Aβ aggregation may help researchers to understand the critical roles in therapeutic agents and provide new insight into the exploration of more promising anti-amyloid agents and tactics in AD theranostics.

Current Strategies for Modulating Aβ Aggregation with Multifunctional Agents

Alzheimer's disease (AD), as the primary cause of dementia, has seriously affected millions of people worldwide and brought a very heavy financial and social burden. With the growth of population and aging, the situation will worsen unless efficacious drugs are found to reverse, stop, or even slow down disease progression. More and more evidence has demonstrated that amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation is an upstream causative factor in AD pathogenesis and then triggers a slew of pathological events. Furthermore, the concentrated redox metal ions in the AD brain, especially Cu(II), can significantly exacerbate Aβ aggregation and contribute to the formation of neurotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, the inhibition of Aβ aggregation and relief of amyloidosis-initiated neurotoxicity play a critical role in AD treatment. Until now, several methods have been proposed to modulate Aβ aggregation, such as developing aggregation inhibitors to interfere with Aβ assembly via noncovalent interactions, copper chelators to cut off metal-accelerated Aβ aggregation and concomitant cytotoxicity, photooxidation to reduce the hydrophobicity and aggregation tendency of Aβ, thermal dissociation to disrupt amyloid aggregates susceptible to temperature, degradation with artificial protease to fracture the Aβ peptide into small fragments, and the clearance of peripheral Aβ to bypass the obstruction of the BBB and reduce the Aβ burden.In this Account, we focus on our contributions to the development of Aβ-targeted multifunctional molecules and nanoparticles, emphasizing the diversified strategies and synergistic therapeutic effects. These therapeutic agents possess the following multifunctionalities: (1) compared with frequently used aggregation inhibitors restricted by intrinsically feeble and sensitive noncovalent interactions, multifunctional agents can efficiently block Aβ aggregation by exploiting two or more Aβ-specific inhibition strategies simultaneously; (2) apart from regulating Aβ aggregation, multipronged agents can also target and modulate other pathological factors in AD pathogenesis, such as increased oxidative stress, abnormal copper accumulation, and irreversible neuron loss; (3) multifunctional platforms with both diagnostic and therapeutic modalities through integrating in situ imaging, real-time diagnostics, a multitarget direction, stimuli-responsive drug release, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) translocation features are instrumental in improving drug levels at trouble sites, diminishing off-target adverse reactions, evaluating therapeutic effects, and averting overtreatment.Given the fact that amyloid aggregation, local inflammation, and metal dyshomeostasis are universal biomarkers shared by various neurodegenerative disorders, this Account provides a perspective for the evolution of customized therapeutic agents with multiple reactivities for other neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, recent studies have indicated that Aβ aggregates can enter the nucleus and induce DNA damage and anomalous conformational transition. We also explore the influences of DNA on the biological effects of Aβ aggregates.

Multifaceted Therapy of Nanocatalysts in Neurological Diseases

With the development of enzymes immobilization technology and the discover of nanozymes, catalytic therapy exhibited tremendous potential for neurological diseases therapy. In especial, since the discovery of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles possessing intrinsic peroxidase-like activity, various nanozymes have been developed and recently started to explore for neurological diseases therapy, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and stroke. By combining the catalytic activities with other properties (such as optical, thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties) of nanomaterials, the multifunctional nanozymes would not only alleviate oxidative and nitrosative stress on the basis of multienzymes-mimicking activity, but also exert positive effects on immunization, inflammation, autophagy, protein aggregation, which provides the foundation for multifaceted treatments. This review will summarize various types of nanocatalysts and further provides a valuable discussion on multifaceted treatment by nanozymes for neurological diseases, which is anticipated to provide an easily accessible guide to the key opportunities and current challenges of the nanozymes-mediated treatments for neurological diseases.