Recent Advances in Electrode Design for Rechargeable Zinc–Air Batteries

Machine Learning Driven Optimization of Electrolyte for Highly Reversible Zn-Air Batteries with Superior Long-Term Cycling Performance

Aqueous alkaline Zn-air batteries (ZABs) have garnered widespread attention due to their high energy density and safety, however, the poor electrochemical reversibility of Zn and low battery round-trip efficiency strongly limit their further development. The manipulation of an intricate microscopic balance among anode/electrolyte/cathode, to enhance the performance of ZABs, critically relies on the formula of electrolytes. Herein, the Bayesian optimization approach is employed to achieve the effective design of optimal compositions of multicomponent electrolytes, resulting in the remarkable enhancement of ZAB performance. Notably, ethylene glycol has been successfully employed as both electrolyte additive and fuel, playing key roles in changing the reaction pathways of ZABs, especially the storage form of discharge products from ZnO deposition on the anode to Zn2+-based hybrid particle colloids in the electrolyte. As a result, the as-obtained novel ZABs can deliver superior battery reversibility and stability (1700 h at 2 mA cm-2 and 1400 h at 20 mA cm-2), greatly improved round-trip efficiency as high as 76.3%, and even continuous discharge until complete Zn anode depletion. This work has demonstrated enormous potential for long-term energy storage applications and holds promise for bringing new opportunities to the development of ZABs.

Construction of Fully Integrated and Energy Self-Sufficient NO2 Gas Sensors Utilizing Zinc-Air Batteries

Exploration of novel self-powered gas sensors free of external energy supply restrictions, such as light illumination and mechanical vibration, for flexible and wearable applications is in urgent need. Herein, this work constructs a flexible and self-powered NO2 gas sensor based on zinc-air batteries (ZABs) with the cathode of the ZABs also acting as the gas-sensitive layer. Furthermore, the SiO2 coating film, serving as a hydrophobic layer, increases the three-phase interfaces for the NO2 reduction reaction. The constructed sensors exhibit a high sensing response (0.3 V @ 5 ppm), an ultralow detection limit (61 ppb), a fast sensing process (129 and 103 s), and excellent selectivity. Moreover, the sensors also possess a wide working temperature range and a low working temperature tolerance (0.34 V at -15 °C). Simulations indicate that the hydrophobic surface at the cathode-hydrogel interface will accommodate more NO2 gas molecules at the reaction sites and prevent the influence of inner water evaporation and direct dissolution of NO2 in the electrolyte, which is beneficial to the enhanced gas sensing abilities. Finally, the self-powered sensing device is incorporated into a smart sensing system for practical applications. This work will pave a new insight into the construction of integrated and energy self-sufficient smart gas sensing systems.

Cu Regulating the Bifunctional Activity of Co-O Sites for the High-Performance Rechargeable Zinc-Air Battery

The rational design of cost-effective and highly active electrocatalysts becomes the crucial energy storage technology to boost the kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), which hinders the large-scale application of metal-air batteries under the situation of increasingly pressing energy anxiety. Herein, the Co-based ZIF introduced the moderate amount of Cu2+-derived Cu/Co metal nanoparticles (NPs) embedded in carbon frameworks after high-temperature calcination. The Co-O bond on the surface of Co nanoparticles is modulated by adjacent Cu nanoparticles with the surface Cu-O bonds. The resulted increase of the Co2+/Co3+ ratio in 0.1CuCo-NC enhances the ORR/OER bifunctional catalytic kinetics along with the ΔE of 0.639 V. In situ Raman spectra of the catalyst on the three-electrode system as well as in the driven zinc-air battery (ZAB) show that the Co-O active sites regulated by Cu nanoparticles with Cu-O bonds maintain a periodic lattice expansion and compression during discharging and charging. The zinc-air battery based on 0.1CuCo-NC has a peak power density of up to 198.3 mW cm-2, a mass-specific capacity of 798.2 mAh g-1, and a cycling stability of 923 h at room temperature. This work makes up the research gap of a Co-based metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived catalyst regulated by a transition metal.

Sustainable zinc-air battery chemistry: advances, challenges and prospects

Sustainable zinc-air batteries (ZABs) are considered promising energy storage devices owing to their inherent safety, high energy density, wide operating temperature window, environmental friendliness, etc., showing great prospect for future large-scale applications. Thus, tremendous efforts have been devoted to addressing the critical challenges associated with sustainable ZABs, aiming to significantly improve their energy efficiency and prolong their operation lifespan. The growing interest in sustainable ZABs requires in-depth research on oxygen electrocatalysts, electrolytes, and Zn anodes, which have not been systematically reviewed to date. In this review, the fundamentals of ZABs, oxygen electrocatalysts for air cathodes, physicochemical properties of ZAB electrolytes, and issues and strategies for the stabilization of Zn anodes are systematically summarized from the perspective of fundamental characteristics and design principles. Meanwhile, significant advances in the in situ/operando characterization of ZABs are highlighted to provide insights into the reaction mechanism and dynamic evolution of the electrolyte|electrode interface. Finally, several critical thoughts and perspectives are provided regarding the challenges and opportunities for sustainable ZABs. Therefore, this review provides a thorough understanding of the advanced sustainable ZAB chemistry, hoping that this timely and comprehensive review can shed light on the upcoming research horizons of this prosperous area.

Recent advances of bifunctional catalysts for zinc air batteries with stability considerations: from selecting materials to reconstruction

With the growing depletion of traditional fossil energy resources and ongoing enhanced awareness of environmental protection, research on electrochemical energy storage techniques like zinc-air batteries is receiving close attention. A significant amount of work on bifunctional catalysts is devoted to improving OER and ORR reaction performance to pave the way for the commercialization of new batteries. Although most traditional energy storage systems perform very well, their durability in practical applications is receiving less attention, with issues such as carbon corrosion, reconstruction during the OER process, and degradation, which can seriously impact long-term use. To be able to design bifunctional materials in a bottom-up approach, a summary of different kinds of carbon materials and transition metal-based materials will be of assistance in selecting a suitable and highly active catalyst from the extensive existing non-precious materials database. Also, the modulation of current carbon materials, aimed at increasing defects and vacancies in carbon and electron distribution in metal-N-C is introduced to attain improved ORR performance of porous materials with fast mass and air transfer. Finally, the reconstruction of catalysts is introduced. The review concludes with comprehensive recommendations for obtaining high-performance and highly-durable catalysts.

Improving Cycle Life of Zinc-Air Batteries with Calcium Ion Additive in Electrolyte or Separator

The electrolyte carbonation and the resulting air electrode plugging are the primary factors limiting the cycle life of aqueous alkaline zinc-air batteries (ZABs). In this work, calcium ion (Ca²⁺) additives were introduced into the electrolyte and the separator to resolve the above issues. Galvanostatic charge-discharge cycle tests were carried out to verify the effect of Ca²⁺ on electrolyte carbonation. With the modified electrolyte and separator, the cycle life of ZABs was improved by 22.2% and 24.7%, respectively. Ca²⁺ was introduced into the ZAB system to preferentially react with CO₃^2- rather than K⁺ and then precipitated granular CaCO₃ prior to K₂CO₃, which was deposited on the surface of the Zn anode and air cathode to form a flower-like CaCO₃ layer, thereby prolonging its cycle life.

Recent advances in zinc-air batteries: self-standing inorganic nanoporous metal films as air cathodes

Zinc-air batteries (ZABs) have promising prospects as next-generation electrochemical energy systems due to their high safety, high power density, environmental friendliness, and low cost. However, the air cathodes used in ZABs still face many challenges, such as the low catalytic activity and poor stability of carbon-based materials at high current density/voltage. To achieve high activity and stability of rechargeable ZABs, chemically and electrochemically stable air cathodes with bifunctional oxygen reduction reaction (ORR)/oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity, fast reaction rate with low platinum group metal (PGM) loading or PGM-free materials are required, which are difficult to achieve with common electrocatalysts. Meanwhile, inorganic nanoporous metal films (INMFs) have many advantages as self-standing air cathodes, such as high activity and stability for both the ORR/OER under highly alkaline conditions. The high surface area, three-dimensional channels, and porous structure with controllable crystal growth facet/direction make INMFs an ideal candidate as air cathodes for ZABs. In this review, we first revisit some critical descriptors to assess the performance of ZABs, and recommend the standard test and reported manner. We then summarize the recent progress of low-Pt, low-Pd, and PGM-free-based materials as air cathodes with low/non-PGM loading for rechargeable ZABs. The structure-composition-performance relationship between INMFs and ZABs is discussed in-depth. Finally, we provide our perspectives on the further development of INMFs towards rechargeable ZABs, as well as current issues that need to be addressed. This work will not only attract researchers' attention and guide them to assess and report the performance of ZABs more accurately, but also stimulate more innovative strategies to drive the practical application of INMFS for ZABs and other energy-related technologies.

Study on failure mechanism on rechargeable alkaline zinc-Air battery during charge/discharge cycles at different depths of discharge

Background: Zinc-air battery (ZAB) is a promising candidate for energy storage, but the short cycle life severely restricts the wider practical applications. Up to date, no consensus on the dominant factors affecting ZABs cycle life was reached to help understanding how to prolong the ZAB's cycle life. Here, a series of replacement experiments based on the ZAB were conducted to confirm the pivotal factors that influence the cycle life at different depths of discharge (DOD). Method: The morphology and composition of the components of the battery were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and chemical titration analyses. Result: SEM images and XRD results revealed that the failure of the zinc anode gradually deepens with the increase of DOD, while the performance degradation of the tricobalt tetroxide/Carbon Black (Co₃O₄/CB) air cathode depends on the operating time. The concentration of CO₃ ^2- depends on the charge/discharge cycle time. The replacement experiments results show that the dominant factors affecting the ZAB's cycle life is the reduction of active sites on the surface of Co₃O₄/CB air cathode at a shallow DOD, while that is the carbonation of the electrolyte at a deep DOD. The reduction of active sites on the surface of Co₃O₄/CB air cathode is caused by the coverage of K₂CO₃ precipitated by carbonation of the electrolyte, suggesting that the carbonation of the alkaline electrolyte limits ZAB's cycle life. Conclusion: Therefore, this work not only further discloses the failure mechanism of ZAB, but also provides some feasible guidance to design a ZAB with along cycle life.

Oxygen Spillover Effect at Cu/Fe2O3 Heterointerfaces to Enhance Oxygen Electrocatalytic Reactions for Rechargeable Zn-Air Batteries

Rational design and synthesis of high-performance electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are critical for practical application of Zn-air batteries (ZABs). In this work, the bifunctional composite Cu-Fe₂O₃/PNC was prepared by a simple and effective wet-hydrothermal coupled dry-annealing synthesis strategy. The Cu-Fe₂O₃/PNC displayed excellent catalytic activity in ORR and OER with a potential difference of 0.63 V. More importantly, the ZAB assembled with Cu-Fe₂O₃/PNC exhibited a high-power density of 138.00 mW cm^-2 and an excellent long-term cyclability. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) demonstrated that the excellent performance is due to the strong electronic interaction between Cu and Fe₂O₃ that arises as a result of the fast electron transfer through the Cu-O-Fe bond and the higher concentration of surface oxygen vacancies. Meanwhile, the spillover factor Bsp/2zF of Cu/PNC and Cu-Fe₂O₃/PNC obtained by the rotating disk experiment was 1.00 × 10^-7 and 1.10 × 10^-7 cm²·s^-1, respectively, indicating that the oxygen spillover effect between Cu and Fe₂O₃ lowers the energy barrier, increases the number of active sites, and alters the rate-determining reaction step. This work demonstrated the significant potential of Cu-Fe₂O₃/PNC in energy conversion and storage applications, providing a new perspective for the rational design of bifunctional electrocatalysts.

Carbon-based composites for rechargeable zinc-air batteries: A mini review

Rechargeable zinc-air batteries (ZABs) have gained a significant amount of attention as next-generation energy conversion and storage devices owing to their high energy density and environmental friendliness, as well as their safety and low cost. The performance of ZABs is dominated by oxygen electrocatalysis, which includes the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Therefore, it is crucial to develop effective bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts that are both highly active and stable. Carbon-based materials are regarded as reliable candidates because of their superior electrical conductivity, low price, and high durability. In this Review, we briefly introduce the configuration of ZABs and the reaction mechanism of bifunctional ORR/OER catalysts. Then, the most recent developments in carbon-based bifunctional catalysts are summarized in terms of carbon-based metal composites, carbon-based metal oxide composites, and other carbon-based composites. In the final section, we go through the significant obstacles and potential future developments for carbon-based bifunctional oxygen catalysts for ZABs.

Hydrogel-Derived Co3ZnC/Co Nanoparticles with Heterojunctions Supported on N-Doped Porous Carbon and Carbon Nanotubes for the Highly Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Zn-Air Batteries

It is crucial for metal-air batteries and fuel cells to design non-precious-metal catalysts instead of platinum-based materials to boost the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Herein, Co₃ZnC/Co nanoparticles with heterojunctions supported on N-doped porous carbon and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are fabricated by pyrolyzing the hydrogel prepared from melamine and citric acid chelated with Co²⁺/Zn²⁺ ions. This hybrid shows strong ORR catalytic activity as its half-wave potential reaches 0.88 V (vs reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE)) in 0.1 M KOH and Zn-air batteries with the catalyst have higher discharge plateaus and capacity than those employing Pt/C. The hybrid mixed with RuO₂ can also be used as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for rechargeable Zn-air batteries. The excellent performance is primarily derived from the Co₃ZnC/Co heterojunctions, the electron transfer of which boosts the ORR catalysis. Moreover, the suitable ratio of Co/Zn in precursors results in the epitaxial growth of hollow CNTs and abundant mesopores, hence promoting the adsorption of oxygen and the transport of ORR-related species.

Strategic design of Fe and N co-doped hierarchically porous carbon as superior ORR catalyst: from the perspective of nanoarchitectonics

In this study, we present microporous carbon (MPC), hollow microporous carbon (HMC) and hierarchically porous carbon (HPC) to demonstrate the importance of strategical designing of nanoarchitectures in achieving advanced catalyst (or electrode) materials, especially in the context of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Based on the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and ORR studies, we identify a marked structural effect depending on the porosity. Specifically, mesopores are found to have the most profound influence by significantly improving electrochemical wettability and accessibility. We also identify that macropore contributes to the rate capability of the porous carbons. The results of the rotating ring disk electrode (RRDE) method also demonstrate the advantages of strategically designed double-shelled nanoarchitecture of HPC to increase the overall electron transfer number (n) closer to four by offering a higher chance of the double two-electron pathways. Next, selective doping of highly active Fe-N x sites on HPC is obtained by increasing the nitrogen content in HPC. As a result, the optimized Fe and N co-doped HPC demonstrate high ORR catalytic activity comparable to the commercial 20 wt% Pt/C in alkaline electrolyte. Our findings, therefore, strongly advocate the importance of a strategic design of advanced catalyst (or electrode) materials, especially in light of both structural and doping effects, from the perspective of nanoarchitectonics.

Pyrophosphate Na2CoP2O7 Polymorphs as Efficient Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysts for Zinc-Air Batteries

Developing earth-abundant low-cost bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts is a key approach to realizing efficient energy storage and conversion. By exploring Co-based sodium battery materials, here we have unveiled nanostructured pyrophosphate Na₂CoP₂O₇ polymorphs displaying efficient bifunctional electrocatalytic activity. While the orthorhombic polymorph (o-NCPy) has superior oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity, the triclinic polymorph (t-NCPy) delivers better oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity. Simply by tuning the annealing condition, these pyrophosphate polymorphs can be easily prepared at temperatures as low as 500 °C. The electrocatalytic activity is rooted in the Co redox center with the (100) active surface and stable structural framework as per ab initio calculations. It marks the first case of phospho-anionic systems with both polymorphs showing stable bifunctional activity with low combined overpotential (ca. ∼0.7 V) comparable to that of reported state-of-the-art catalysts. These nanoscale cobalt pyrophosphates can be implemented in rechargeable zinc-air batteries.

S-Doping Promotes Pyridine Nitrogen Conversion and Lattice Defects of Carbon Nitride to Enhance the Performance of Zn-Air Batteries

The efficient operation of Zn-air batteries (ZABs) requires highly active and stable reversible air catalysts. Studies have shown that heteroatom-doped carbonaceous nanomaterials are effective metal-free electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Herein, we design a facile and scalable catalyst doping scheme to manufacture S-doped carbon nitride (S-C₃N₄). Surprisingly, this metal-free catalyst exhibits excellent OER and ORR electrocatalytic activities in alkaline electrolytes, being comparable to those of commercial Pt/C. For the first time, it is proved by experiments that S doping can not only effectively increase the lattice defects of C₃N₄ but also promote the conversion of pyrrolic nitrogen to pyridine nitrogen, thereby enhancing the bifunctional catalytic activity (OER and ORR). When the catalyst is used as an air electrode for rechargeable ZABs, its performance is obviously better than that provided by commercial Pt/C. Our findings and material design strategies are expected to provide new ideas for the synthesis of various high-performance carbon-based electrocatalysts.

A Substrate-Induced Fabrication of Active Free-Standing Nanocarbon Film as Air Cathode in Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries

Designing cost-effective and high-efficiency bifunctional electrocatalysts for both oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) occurred at air electrodes is vitally significant yet challenging for Zn-air batteries (ZABs). In this work, a zinc substrate induced fabrication is reported of free-standing nanocarbon hybrid film which shows good bifunctional activity and can be directly used as the air electrode in the rechargeable ZABs. The designed nanocarbon film in Zn-air battery provides a satisfactory power density of 185 mW cm^-2 and cycling stability for 1200 h under the current density of 10 mA cm^-2 . This hybrid film also gives a solid-state ZAB excellent flexibility with a power density of 160 mW cm^-2 . The free-standing hybrid with abundant cobalt-nitrogen-carbon species coupled with porous architecture would be the original factor for its satisfactory performance of rechargeable ZABs. This work would pave an ideal way to design integrated electrode with high electrocatalytic performance towards electrochemical energy technologies.

Molecular Engineering toward High-Crystallinity Yet High-Surface-Area Porous Carbon Nanosheets for Enhanced Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction

Carbon-based nanomaterials have been regarded as promising non-noble metal catalysts for renewable energy conversion system (e.g., fuel cells and metal-air batteries). In general, graphitic skeleton and porous structure are both critical for the performances of carbon-based catalysts. However, the pursuit of high surface area while maintaining high graphitization degree remains an arduous challenge because of the trade-off relationship between these two key characteristics. Herein, a simple yet efficient approach is demonstrated to fabricate a class of 2D N-doped graphitized porous carbon nanosheets (GPCNSs) featuring both high crystallinity and high specific surface area by utilizing amine aromatic organoalkoxysilane as an all-in-one precursor and FeCl3 ·6H2 O as an active salt template. The highly porous structure of the as-obtained GPCNSs is mainly attributed to the alkoxysilane-derived SiOx nanodomains that function as micro/mesopore templates; meanwhile, the highly crystalline graphitic skeleton is synergistically contributed by the aromatic nucleus of the precursor and FeCl3 ·6H2 O. The unusual integration of graphitic skeleton with porous structure endows GPCNSs with superior catalytic activity and long-term stability when used as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction and Zn-air batteries. These findings will shed new light on the facile fabrication of highly porous carbon materials with desired graphitic structure for numerous applications.

Direct Conversion of Solid g-C3N4 into Metal-ended N-doped Carbon Nanotubes for Rechargeable Zn-Air Batteries

Developing low-cost and bifunctional electrocatalysts with activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is great desirable for metal-air battery. Herein, we demonstrate an approach to realize...

CO2 Bubble-Assisted Pt Exposure in PtFeNi Porous Film for High-Performance Zinc-Air Battery

Fine-tuning the exposed active sites of platinum group metal (PGM)-based materials is an efficient way to improve their electrocatalytic performance toward large-scale applications in renewable energy devices such as Zn-air batteries (ZABs). However, traditional synthetic methods trade off durability for the high activity of PGM-based catalysts. Herein, a novel dynamic CO₂-bubble template (DCBT) approach was established to electrochemically fine-tuning the exposed Pt active sites in PtFeNi (PFN) porous films (PFs). Particularly, CO₂ bubbles were intentionally generated as gas-phase templates by methanol electrooxidation. The generation, adsorption, residing, and desorption of CO₂ bubbles on the surface of PFN alloys were explored and controlled by adjusting the frequency of applied triangular-wave voltage. Thereby, the surface morphology and Pt exposure of PFN PFs were controllably regulated by tuning the surface coverage of CO₂ bubbles. Consequently, the Pt_1.1%Fe_8.8%Ni PF with homogeneous nanoporous structure and sufficiently exposed Pt active sites was obtained, showing preeminent activities with a half-wave potential (E_1/2) of 0.87 V and onset overpotential (η_onset) of 288 mV at 10 mA cm^-2 for oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR and OER), respectively, at an ultralow Pt loading of 0.01 mg cm^-2. When tested in ZABs, a high power density of 175.0 mW cm^-2 and a narrow voltage gap of 0.64 V were achieved for the long cycling tests over 500 h (750 cycles), indicating that the proposed approach can efficiently improve the activity of PGM catalysts by fine-tuning the microstructure without compromising the durability.