1
|
De Freitas-Suarez A, Espinosa-Ponce N, Alvarez-Roger N, Cabrera-Suarez AI, Jiménez-Jordán G, Vega-Roman R, Inyushin M, Alves JM. An Integrative Approach to the Current Treatment of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders and the Implementation of Leukemia Inhibitor Factor as a Mediator of Neurocognitive Preservation. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2194. [PMID: 38004334 PMCID: PMC10672511 DOI: 10.3390/life13112194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HANDs) continue to impact patients despite antiretroviral therapy. A combination of antiretroviral therapies can diminish the HIV viral load to near undetectable levels, but fails to preserve neurocognitive integrity. The cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has shown neuroprotective properties that could mitigate neurodegeneration in HANDs. The LIF promotes neurogenesis, neural cell differentiation, and survival. Combination antiretroviral therapy reduces severe forms of HANDs, but neurocognitive impairment persists; additionally, some antiretrovirals have additional adverse neurotoxic effects. The LIF counteracts neurotoxic viral proteins and limits neural cell damage in models of neuroinflammation. Adding the LIF as an adjuvant therapy to enhance neuroprotection merits further research for managing HANDs. The successful implementation of the LIF to current therapies would contribute to achieving a better quality of life for the affected population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalia Espinosa-Ponce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, Bayamón, PR 00960, USA; (N.E.-P.); (A.I.C.-S.)
| | - Natalia Alvarez-Roger
- Department of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR 00956, USA; (N.A.-R.); (R.V.-R.)
| | - Arianna Iris Cabrera-Suarez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, Bayamón, PR 00960, USA; (N.E.-P.); (A.I.C.-S.)
| | | | - Rocio Vega-Roman
- Department of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR 00956, USA; (N.A.-R.); (R.V.-R.)
| | - Mikhail Inyushin
- Department of Physiology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, Bayamón, PR 00960, USA;
| | - Janaina M. Alves
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine, Bayamón, PR 00960, USA; (N.E.-P.); (A.I.C.-S.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Radoszkiewicz K, Hribljan V, Isakovic J, Mitrecic D, Sarnowska A. Critical points for optimizing long-term culture and neural differentiation capacity of rodent and human neural stem cells to facilitate translation into clinical settings. Exp Neurol 2023; 363:114353. [PMID: 36841464 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Despite several decades of research on the nature and functional properties of neural stem cells, which brought great advances in regenerative medicine, there is still a plethora of ambiguous protocols and interpretations linked to their applications. Here, we present a whole spectrum of protocol elements that should be standardized in order to obtain viable cell cultures and facilitate their translation into clinical settings. Additionally, this review also presents outstanding limitations and possible problems to be encountered when dealing with protocol optimization. Most importantly, we also outline the critical points that should be considered before starting any experiments utilizing neural stem cells or interpreting their results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Klaudia Radoszkiewicz
- Translational Platform for Regenerative Medicine, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5 Street, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Valentina Hribljan
- Laboratory for Stem Cells, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 12, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jasmina Isakovic
- Omnion Research International Ltd, Heinzelova 4, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dinko Mitrecic
- Laboratory for Stem Cells, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 12, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Anna Sarnowska
- Translational Platform for Regenerative Medicine, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5 Street, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ha GH, Kim EJ, Park JS, Kim JE, Nam H, Yeon JY, Lee SH, Lee K, Kim CK, Joo KM. JAK2/STAT3 pathway mediates neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic treatment effects of adult human neural stem cells in middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke animal models. Aging (Albany NY) 2022; 14:8944-8969. [PMID: 36446389 PMCID: PMC9740376 DOI: 10.18632/aging.204410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Mismatches between pre-clinical and clinical results of stem cell therapeutics for ischemic stroke limit their clinical applicability. To overcome these discrepancies, precise planning of pre-clinical experiments that can be translated to clinical trials and the scientific elucidation of treatment mechanisms is important. In this study, adult human neural stem cells (ahNSCs) derived from temporal lobe surgical samples were used (to avoid ethical and safety issues), and their therapeutic effects on ischemic stroke were examined using middle cerebral artery occlusion animal models. 5 × 105 ahNSCs was directly injected into the lateral ventricle of contralateral brain hemispheres of immune suppressed rat stroke models at the subacute phase of stroke. Compared with the mock-treated group, ahNSCs reduced brain tissue atrophy and neurological sensorimotor and memory functional loss. Tissue analysis demonstrated that the significant therapeutic effects were mediated by the neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic activities of ahNSCs, which preserved neurons in ischemic brain areas and decreased reactive astrogliosis and microglial activation. The neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic effects of ahNSCs were validated in in vitro stroke models and were induced by paracrine factors excreted by ahNSCs. When the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway was inhibited by a specific inhibitor, AG490, the paracrine neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic effects of ahNSCs were reversed. This pre-clinical study that closely simulated clinical settings and provided treatment mechanisms of ahNSCs for ischemic stroke may aid the development of protocols for subsequent clinical trials of ahNSCs and the realization of clinically available stem cell therapeutics for ischemic stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geun-Hyoung Ha
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea
| | - Eun Ji Kim
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea
| | - Jee Soo Park
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Ji Eun Kim
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea
| | - Hyun Nam
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea,Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, Research Institute for Future Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul 06351, South Korea,Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Je Young Yeon
- Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Sun-Ho Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Kyunghoon Lee
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, South Korea,Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16149, South Korea,Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Chung Kwon Kim
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea,Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Kyeung Min Joo
- Medical Innovation Technology Inc. (MEDINNO Inc.), Seoul 08513, South Korea,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, South Korea,Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, Research Institute for Future Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul 06351, South Korea,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 06351, South Korea,Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16149, South Korea,Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lv J, Gao R, Wang Y, Huang C, Wu R. Protective effect of leukemia inhibitory factor on the retinal injury induced by acute ocular hypertension in rats. Exp Ther Med 2022; 25:19. [PMID: 36561619 PMCID: PMC9748713 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2022.11717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of irreversible blindness worldwide. As such, neuroprotective therapy is essential for the treatment of this disease. Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is a member of the IL-6 cytokine family and the LIF signaling pathway is considered to be one of the major endogenous factors mediating neuroprotection in the retina. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the possible effects of LIF in acute ocular hypertension (AOH). The intraocular pressure in rat eyes was raised to 110 mmHg for 1 h by infusing the anterior chamber with normal saline to establish the AOH model. In the treatment group, LIF was then injected into the vitreous cavity after AOH was ceased. The retinal tissues were obtained after the termination of AOH, and H&E staining was conducted to assess the morphological damage. The number of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) was counted using the Fluoro-Gold retrograde staining method. TUNEL staining was used to determine the extent of apoptosis among the retinal cells. In addition, the protein expression levels of cleaved caspase-3, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), STAT3 and components of the AKT/mTOR/70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) signaling pathway were examined by western blotting. The results showed that AOH induced tissue swelling and structural damage in the retina, which were reversed by LIF injection. In the LIF treatment group, RGC loss was significantly inhibited and the quantity of TUNEL-stained cells was also significantly reduced, whereas the expression of cleaved caspase-3 and PARP was decreased. Furthermore, increased phosphorylation of STAT3, AKT, mTOR and p70S6K was observed after LIF treatment. By contrast, pretreatment with the STAT3 inhibitor C188-9 or the PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitor LY3023414 reversed the LIF-induced inhibition of RGC loss. These results suggested that exogenous LIF treatment inhibited the retinal damage induced by AOH, which was associated with the activation of STAT3 and mTOR/p70S6K signaling. Therefore, LIF may serve a role in neuroprotection for glaucoma treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiexuan Lv
- Eye Institute and Affiliated Xiamen Eye Center of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China
| | - Ruxin Gao
- Eye Institute and Affiliated Xiamen Eye Center of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China
| | - Yao Wang
- Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Shaanxi Institute of Ophthalmology, Shaanxi Clinical Study Center for Ocular Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Medical School, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710002, P.R. China
| | - Changquan Huang
- Eye Institute and Affiliated Xiamen Eye Center of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Corneal and Ocular Surface Diseases, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China
| | - Renyi Wu
- Eye Institute and Affiliated Xiamen Eye Center of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Corneal and Ocular Surface Diseases, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China,Department of Glaucoma, Shanghai Peace Eye Hospital, Shanghai 200437, P.R. China,Correspondence to: Professor Renyi Wu, Eye Institute and Affiliated Xiamen Eye Center of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, 336 Xiahe Road, Xiamen, Fujian 361001, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
An D, Wei XW, Zhang HN, Liu D, Ma W, Yuan ZW. Spatiotemporal expression of leukemia inhibitory factor receptor protein during neural tube development in embryos with neural tube defects. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:705-711. [PMID: 31638095 PMCID: PMC6975157 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.266921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR), as a neuroregulatory cytokine receptor, generally shows a neuroprotective effect in central nervous system injuries. In this study, to understand the effect of LIFR on pathogenesis of neural tube defects, we explored spatiotemporal expression of LIFR at different stages of fetal development in normal and neural tube defect embryos. Spina bifida aperta was induced with all-trans retinoic acid on embryonic day 10 in rats, and the spatiotemporal expression of LIFR was investigated in spina bifida aperta rats and healthy rats from embryonic day 11 to 17. Real time-polymerase chain reaction and western blot assay were used to examine mRNA and protein expression of LIFR in healthy control and neural tube defect embryos. Results of the animal experiment demonstrated that expression of LIFR protein and mRNA in the spinal cords of normal rat embryos increased with embryonic development. LIFR was significantly downregulated in the spinal cords of spina bifida aperta rats compared with healthy rats from embryonic days 11 to 17. Immunohistochemical staining showed that the expression of LIFR in placenta and spinal cord in spina bifida aperta rat embryos was decreased compared with that in control embryos at embryonic day 15. Results from human embryo specimens showed that LIFR mRNA expression was significantly down-regulated in spinal cords of human fetuses with neural tube defects compared with normal controls at a gestational age of 24 to 33 weeks. The results were consistent with the down-regulation of LIFR in the animal experiments. Our study revealed spatiotemporal changes in expression of LIFR during embryonic neurulation. Thus, LIFR might play a specific role in neural tube development. All animal and human experimental procedures were approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, China (approval No. 2016PS106K) on February 25, 2016.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dong An
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University; Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Xiao-Wei Wei
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - He-Nan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Dan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Wei Ma
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Zheng-Wei Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Peng Y, Liou B, Inskeep V, Blackwood R, Mayhew CN, Grabowski GA, Sun Y. Intravenous infusion of iPSC-derived neural precursor cells increases acid β-glucosidase function in the brain and lessens the neuronopathic phenotype in a mouse model of Gaucher disease. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 28:3406-3421. [PMID: 31373366 PMCID: PMC6891072 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Gaucher disease (GD) is caused by GBA1 mutations leading to functional deficiency of acid-β-glucosidase (GCase). No effective treatment is available for neuronopathic GD (nGD). A subclass of neural stem and precursor cells (NPCs) expresses VLA4 (integrin α4β1, very late antigen-4) that facilitates NPC entry into the brain following intravenous (IV) infusion. Here, the therapeutic potential of IV VLA4+NPCs was assessed for nGD using wild-type mouse green fluorescent protein (GFP)-positive multipotent induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived VLA4+NPCs. VLA4+NPCs successfully engrafted in the nGD (4L;C*) mouse brain. GFP-positive cells differentiated into neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in the brainstem, midbrain and thalamus of the transplanted mice and significantly improved sensorimotor function and prolonged life span compared to vehicle-treated 4L;C* mice. VLA4+NPC transplantation significantly decreased levels of CD68 and glial fibrillary acidic protein, as well as TNFα mRNA levels in the brain, indicating reduced neuroinflammation. Furthermore, decreased Fluoro-Jade C and NeuroSilver staining suggested inhibition of neurodegeneration. VLA4+NPC-engrafted 4L;C* midbrains showed 35% increased GCase activity, reduced substrate [glucosylceramide (GC, -34%) and glucosylsphingosine (GS, -11%)] levels and improved mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates in comparison to vehicle-4L;C* mice. VLA4+NPC engraftment in 4L;C* brain also led to enhanced expression of neurotrophic factors that have roles in neuronal survival and the promotion of neurogenesis. This study provides evidence that iPSC-derived NPC transplantation has efficacy in an nGD mouse model and provides proof of concept for autologous NPC therapy in nGD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanyan Peng
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Benjamin Liou
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Venette Inskeep
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Rachel Blackwood
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Christopher N Mayhew
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Gregory A Grabowski
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Ying Sun
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Harischandra DS, Rokad D, Ghaisas S, Verma S, Robertson A, Jin H, Anantharam V, Kanthasamy A, Kanthasamy AG. Enhanced differentiation of human dopaminergic neuronal cell model for preclinical translational research in Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1866:165533. [PMID: 31442530 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.165533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Human-derived neuronal cell lines are progressively being utilized in understanding neurobiology and preclinical translational research as they are biologically more relevant than rodent-derived cells lines. The Lund human mesencephalic (LUHMES) cell line comprises human neuronal cells that can be differentiated to post-mitotic neurons and is increasingly being used as an in vitro model for various neurodegenerative diseases. A previously published 2-step differentiation procedure leads to the generation of post-mitotic neurons within 5-days, but only a small proportion (10%) of the total cell population tests positive for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Here we report on a novel differentiation protocol that we optimized by using a cocktail of neurotrophic factors, pleiotropic cytokines, and antioxidants to effectively generate proportionately more dopaminergic neurons within the same time period. Visualization and quantification of TH-positive cells revealed that under our new protocol, 25% of the total cell population expressed markers of dopaminergic neurons with the TH-positive neuron count peaking on day 5. These neurons showed spontaneous electrical activity and responded to known Parkinsonian toxins as expected by showing decreased cell viability and dopamine uptake and a concomitant increase in apoptotic cell death. Together, our results outline an improved method for generating a higher proportion of dopaminergic neurons, thus making these cells an ideal neuronal culture model of Parkinson's disease (PD) for translational research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dilshan S Harischandra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Dharmin Rokad
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Shivani Ghaisas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Saurabh Verma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Alan Robertson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Huajun Jin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Vellareddy Anantharam
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Arthi Kanthasamy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Anumantha G Kanthasamy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Parkinson's Disorder Research Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Guidolin D, Fede C, Tortorella C. Nerve cells developmental processes and the dynamic role of cytokine signaling. Int J Dev Neurosci 2018; 77:3-17. [PMID: 30465872 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The stunning diversity of neurons and glial cells makes possible the higher functions of the central nervous system (CNS), allowing the organism to sense, interpret and respond appropriately to the external environment. This cellular diversity derives from a single primary progenitor cell type initiating lineage leading to the formation of both differentiated neurons and glial cells. The processes governing the differentiation of the progenitor pool of cells into mature nerve cells will be here briefly reviewed. They involve morphological transformations, specialized modes of cell division, migration, and controlled cell death, and are regulated through cell-cell interactions and cues provided by the extracellular matrix, as well as by humoral factors from the cerebrospinal fluid and the blood system. In this respect, a quite large body of studies have been focused on cytokines, proteins representing the main signaling network that coordinates immune defense and the maintenance of homeostasis. At the same time, they are deeply involved in CNS development as regulatory factors. This dual role in the nervous system appears of particular relevance for CNS pathology, since cytokine dysregulation (occurring as a consequence of maternal infection, exposure to environmental factors or prenatal hypoxia) can profoundly impact on neurodevelopment and likely influence the response of the adult tissue during neuroinflammatory events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Guidolin
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, I-35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Caterina Fede
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, I-35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Cinzia Tortorella
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, via Gabelli 65, I-35121, Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Prokaryotic Expression and Purification of Recombinant Human Leukemia Inhibitory Factor; Analysis of the Ability to Maintain Pluripotency in Embryonic Stem Cells. IRANIAN RED CRESCENT MEDICAL JOURNAL 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/ircmj.64813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
Brain Cell Type Specific Gene Expression and Co-expression Network Architectures. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8868. [PMID: 29892006 PMCID: PMC5995803 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27293-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Elucidating brain cell type specific gene expression patterns is critical towards a better understanding of how cell-cell communications may influence brain functions and dysfunctions. We set out to compare and contrast five human and murine cell type-specific transcriptome-wide RNA expression data sets that were generated within the past several years. We defined three measures of brain cell type-relative expression including specificity, enrichment, and absolute expression and identified corresponding consensus brain cell “signatures,” which were well conserved across data sets. We validated that the relative expression of top cell type markers are associated with proxies for cell type proportions in bulk RNA expression data from postmortem human brain samples. We further validated novel marker genes using an orthogonal ATAC-seq dataset. We performed multiscale coexpression network analysis of the single cell data sets and identified robust cell-specific gene modules. To facilitate the use of the cell type-specific genes for cell type proportion estimation and deconvolution from bulk brain gene expression data, we developed an R package, BRETIGEA. In summary, we identified a set of novel brain cell consensus signatures and robust networks from the integration of multiple datasets and therefore transcend limitations related to technical issues characteristic of each individual study.
Collapse
|
11
|
Examination of pathways involved in leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)-induced cell growth arrest using label-free proteomics approach. J Proteomics 2017; 168:37-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
12
|
Davis SM, Pennypacker KR. The role of the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor in neuroprotective signaling. Pharmacol Ther 2017; 183:50-57. [PMID: 28827150 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Several neurotropic cytokines relay their signaling through the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor. This 190kDa subunit couples with the 130kDa gp130 subunit to transduce intracellular signaling in neurons and oligodendrocytes that leads to expression of genes associated with neurosurvival. Moreover, activation of this receptor alters the phenotype of immune cells to an anti-inflammatory one. Although cytokines that activate the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor have been studied in the context of neurodegenerative disease, therapeutic targeting of the specific receptor subunit has been understudied in by comparison. This review examines the role of this receptor in the CNS and immune system, and its application in the treatment in stroke and other brain pathologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Davis
- Center for Advanced Translational Stroke Science, Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, United States
| | - Keith R Pennypacker
- Center for Advanced Translational Stroke Science, Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wu X, Majumder A, Webb R, Stice SL. High content imaging quantification of multiple in vitro human neurogenesis events after neurotoxin exposure. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 17:62. [PMID: 27903287 PMCID: PMC5131404 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-016-0107-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Our objective was to test neural active compounds in a human developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) model that represents neural tube stages of vulnerability. Previously we showed that 14 days in vitro (DIV 14) was sufficient to generate cryopreserved neuronal cells for post thaw neurite recovery assays. However, short exposure and assessment may not detect toxicants that affect an early neurogenesis continuum, from a mitotic human neural progenitor (hNP) cell population through the course of neurite outgrowth in differentiating neurons. Therefore, we continuously exposed differentiating hNP cells from DIV 0 through DIV 14 to known toxicants and endocrine active compounds in order to assess at DIV 14 effects of these compounds in a human DNT maturation model for neurogenesis. Methods The Human DNT continuum (DIV 0 to DIV 14) was determined using immunocytochemistry for SOX1+ (proliferating hNP) and HuC/D+ (post mitotic neurons). The cumulative effects of five compounds was observed on neurite outgrowth in (βIII-tubulin+) and (HuC/D+) cells using high content imaging. All data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA with a significance threshold of p < 0.05. Results During maturation in vitro, the neural cultures transitioned from uniform hNP cells (DIV 0) to predominantly mature post mitotic neuronal neurons (HuC/D+, 65%; DIV14) but also maintained a smaller population of hNP cells (SOX1+). Using this DNT maturation model system, Bis-1, testosterone, and β-estradiol inhibited neuronal maturation at micromolar levels but were unaffected by acetaminophen. β-estradiol also disrupted neurite extension at 10 μM. Treating cells in this window with Bisphenol A (BPA) significantly inhibited neurite outgrowth and branching in these continuum cultures but only at the highest concentrations tested (10 μM). Conclusions Cumulative effects of neurotoxicant exposure during a maturation continuum altered human neurogenesis at lower exposure levels than observed in acute exposure of static cryopreserved neurite recovery neurons cultures. Unlike prior acute studies, β-estradiol was highly toxic when present throughout the continuum and cytotoxicity was manifested starting early in the continuum via a non-estrogen receptor α (ER α) mechanism. Therefore, the effect of neural developmental neurotoxins can and should be determined during the dynamic process of human neural maturation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40360-016-0107-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xian Wu
- Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.,Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | | | - Robin Webb
- Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Steven L Stice
- Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA. .,Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA. .,ArunA Biomedical, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhdanov AV, Aviello G, Knaus UG, Papkovsky DB. Cellular ROS imaging with hydro-Cy3 dye is strongly influenced by mitochondrial membrane potential. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1861:198-204. [PMID: 27818165 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hydrocyanines are widely used as fluorogenic probes to monitor reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in cells. Their brightness, stability to autoxidation and photobleaching, large signal change upon oxidation, pH independence and red/near infrared emission are particularly attractive for imaging ROS in live tissue. METHODS Using confocal fluorescence microscopy we have examined an interference of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) with fluorescence intensity and localisation of a commercial hydro-Cy3 probe in respiring and non-respiring colon carcinoma HCT116 cells. RESULTS We found that the oxidised (fluorescent) form of hydro-Cy3 is highly homologous to the common ΔΨm-sensitive probe JC-1, which accumulates and aggregates only in 'energised' negatively charged mitochondrial matrix. Therefore, hydro-Cy3 oxidised by hydroxyl and superoxide radicals tends to accumulate in mitochondrial matrix, but dissipates and loses brightness as soon as ΔΨm is compromised. Experiments with mitochondrial inhibitor oligomycin and uncoupler FCCP, as well as a common ROS producer paraquat demonstrated that signals of the oxidised hydro-Cy3 probe rapidly and strongly decrease upon mitochondrial depolarisation, regardless of the rate of cellular ROS production. CONCLUSIONS While analysing ROS-derived fluorescence of commercial hydrocyanine probes, an accurate control of ΔΨm is required. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE If not accounted for, non-specific effect of mitochondrial polarisation state on the behaviour of oxidised hydrocyanines can cause artefacts and data misinterpretation in ROS studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Zhdanov
- School of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Gabriella Aviello
- School of Medicine, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Ulla G Knaus
- School of Medicine, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Dmitri B Papkovsky
- School of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Selvaraj P, Xiao L, Lee C, Murthy SRK, Cawley NX, Lane M, Merchenthaler I, Ahn S, Loh YP. Neurotrophic Factor-α1: A Key Wnt-β-Catenin Dependent Anti-Proliferation Factor and ERK-Sox9 Activated Inducer of Embryonic Neural Stem Cell Differentiation to Astrocytes in Neurodevelopment. Stem Cells 2016; 35:557-571. [PMID: 27709799 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic neurodevelopment involves inhibition of proliferation of multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) followed by differentiation into neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes to form the brain. We have identified a new neurotrophic factor, NF-α1, which inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation of NSC/progenitors derived from E13.5 mouse cortex. Inhibition of proliferation of these cells was mediated through negatively regulating the Wnt pathway and decreasing β-catenin. NF-α1 induced differentiation of NSCs to astrocytes by enhancing Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) expression through activating the ERK1/2-Sox9 signaling pathway. Cultured E13.5 cortical stem cells from NF-α1-knockout mice showed decreased astrocyte numbers compared to wild-type mice, which was rescued by treatment with NF-α1. In vivo, immunocytochemistry of brain sections and Western blot analysis of neocortex of mice showed a gradual increase of NF-α1 expression from E14.5 to P1 and a surge of GFAP expression at P1, the time of increase in astrogenesis. Importantly, NF-α1-Knockout mice showed ∼49% fewer GFAP positive astrocytes in the neocortex compared to WT mice at P1. Thus, NF-α1 is critical for regulating antiproliferation and cell fate determination, through differentiating embryonic stem cells to GFAP-positive astrocytes for normal neurodevelopment. Stem Cells 2017;35:557-571.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Lan Xiao
- Section on Cellular Neurobiology, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Cheol Lee
- Unit on Developmental Neurogenetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Niamh X Cawley
- Section on Cellular Neurobiology, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Malcolm Lane
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health and Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Istvan Merchenthaler
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health and Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Sohyun Ahn
- Unit on Developmental Neurogenetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Y Peng Loh
- Section on Cellular Neurobiology, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Oxford AE, Jorcyk CL, Oxford JT. Neuropathies of Stüve-Wiedemann Syndrome due to mutations in leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) gene. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 1:37-44. [PMID: 28058407 DOI: 10.29245/2572.942x/2016/7.1068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Stüve-Wiedemann syndrome (STWS; OMIM #610559) is a rare disease that results in dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary processes such as breathing rate and body temperature. In infants, this can result in respiratory distress, feeding and swallowing difficulties, and hyperthermic episodes. Individuals may sweat excessively when body temperature is not elevated. Additionally, individuals have reduced ability to feel pain and may lose reflexes such as the corneal reflex that normally causes one to blink, and the patellar reflex resulting in the knee-jerk. STWS usually results in infant mortality, yet some STWS patients survive into early adulthood. STWS is caused by a mutation in the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) gene, which is inherited in an autosomal-recessive pattern. Most LIFR mutations resulting in STWS cause instability of the mRNA due to frameshift mutations leading to premature stop codons, which prevent the formation of LIFR protein. STWS is managed on a symptomatic basis as no treatment is currently available.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra E Oxford
- Boise State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Biomolecular Research Center, 1910 University Drive, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725
| | - Cheryl L Jorcyk
- Boise State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Biomolecular Research Center, 1910 University Drive, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725
| | - Julia Thom Oxford
- Boise State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Biomolecular Research Center, 1910 University Drive, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Robinson JF, Gormley MJ, Fisher SJ. A genomics-based framework for identifying biomarkers of human neurodevelopmental toxicity. Reprod Toxicol 2016; 60:1-10. [PMID: 26827931 PMCID: PMC4867143 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Human embryonic stem cell (hESC) neural differentiation models have tremendous potential for evaluating environmental compounds in terms of their ability to induce neurodevelopmental toxicity. Genomic based-approaches are being applied to identify changes underlying normal human development (in vitro and in vivo) and the effects of environmental exposures. Here, we investigated whether mechanisms that are shared between hESC neural differentiation model systems and human embryos are candidate biomarkers of developmental toxicities for neurogenesis. We conducted a meta-analysis of transcriptomic datasets with the goal of identifying differentially expressed genes that were common to the hESC-model and human embryos. The overlapping NeuroDevelopmental Biomarker (NDB) gene set contained 304 genes which were enriched for their roles in neurogenesis. These genes were investigated for their utility as candidate biomarkers in the context of toxicogenomic studies focused on the effects of retinoic acid, valproic acid, or carbamazepine in hESC models of neurodifferentiation. The results revealed genes, including 13 common targets of the 3 compounds, that were candidate biomarkers of neurotoxicity in hESC-based studies of environmental toxicants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J F Robinson
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; The Eli & Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States.
| | - M J Gormley
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; The Eli & Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States
| | - S J Fisher
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; The Eli & Edythe Broad Center for Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States; Human Embryonic Stem Cell Program, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Rapid and robust generation of long-term self-renewing human neural stem cells with the ability to generate mature astroglia. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16321. [PMID: 26541394 PMCID: PMC4635383 DOI: 10.1038/srep16321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell bear the potential to differentiate into any desired cell type and hold large promise for disease-in-a-dish cell-modeling approaches. With the latest advances in the field of reprogramming technology, the generation of patient-specific cells has become a standard technology. However, directed and homogenous differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into desired specific cell types remains an experimental challenge. Here, we report the development of a novel hiPSCs-based protocol enabling the generation of expandable homogenous human neural stem cells (hNSCs) that can be maintained under self-renewing conditions over high passage numbers. Our newly generated hNSCs retained differentiation potential as evidenced by the reliable generation of mature astrocytes that display typical properties as glutamate up-take and expression of aquaporin-4. The hNSC-derived astrocytes showed high activity of pyruvate carboxylase as assessed by stable isotope assisted metabolic profiling. Moreover, using a cell transplantation approach, we showed that grafted hNSCs were not only able to survive but also to differentiate into astroglial in vivo. Engraftments of pluripotent stem cells derived from somatic cells carry an inherent tumor formation potential. Our results demonstrate that hNSCs with self-renewing and differentiation potential may provide a safer alternative strategy, with promising applications especially for neurodegenerative disorders.
Collapse
|
19
|
Qiu XC, Jin H, Zhang RY, Ding Y, Zeng X, Lai BQ, Ling EA, Wu JL, Zeng YS. Donor mesenchymal stem cell-derived neural-like cells transdifferentiate into myelin-forming cells and promote axon regeneration in rat spinal cord transection. Stem Cell Res Ther 2015; 6:105. [PMID: 26012641 PMCID: PMC4482203 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-015-0100-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Severe spinal cord injury often causes temporary or permanent damages in strength, sensation, or autonomic functions below the site of the injury. So far, there is still no effective treatment for spinal cord injury. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been used to repair injured spinal cord as an effective strategy. However, the low neural differentiation frequency of MSCs has limited its application. The present study attempted to explore whether the grafted MSC-derived neural-like cells in a gelatin sponge (GS) scaffold could maintain neural features or transdifferentiate into myelin-forming cells in the transected spinal cord. Methods We constructed an engineered tissue by co-seeding of MSCs with genetically enhanced expression of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and its high-affinity receptor tropomyosin receptor kinase C (TrkC) separately into a three-dimensional GS scaffold to promote the MSCs differentiating into neural-like cells and transplanted it into the gap of a completely transected rat spinal cord. The rats received extensive post-operation care, including cyclosporin A administrated once daily for 2 months. Results MSCs modified genetically could differentiate into neural-like cells in the MN + MT (NT-3-MSCs + TrKC-MSCs) group 14 days after culture in the GS scaffold. However, after the MSC-derived neural-like cells were transplanted into the injury site of spinal cord, some of them appeared to lose the neural phenotypes and instead transdifferentiated into myelin-forming cells at 8 weeks. In the latter, the MSC-derived myelin-forming cells established myelin sheaths associated with the host regenerating axons. And the injured host neurons were rescued, and axon regeneration was induced by grafted MSCs modified genetically. In addition, the cortical motor evoked potential and hindlimb locomotion were significantly ameliorated in the rat spinal cord transected in the MN + MT group compared with the GS and MSC groups. Conclusion Grafted MSC-derived neural-like cells in the GS scaffold can transdifferentiate into myelin-forming cells in the completely transected rat spinal cord. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13287-015-0100-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Cheng Qiu
- Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Hui Jin
- Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Rong-Yi Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Ying Ding
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Xiang Zeng
- Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Bi-Qin Lai
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Eng-Ang Ling
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore.
| | - Jin-Lang Wu
- Department of Electron Microscope, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
| | - Yuan-Shan Zeng
- Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510080, China. .,Department of Histology and Embryology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China. .,Institute of Spinal Cord Injury, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, China. .,Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Role of leukemia inhibitory factor in the nervous system and its pathology. Rev Neurosci 2015; 26:443-59. [DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2014-0086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractLeukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is a multifunction cytokine that has various effects on different tissues and cell types in rodents and humans; however, its insufficiency has a relatively mild impact. This could explain why only some aspects of LIF activity are in the limelight, whereas other aspects are not well known. In this review, the LIF structure, signaling pathway, and primary roles in the development and function of an organism are reviewed, and the effects of LIF on stem cell growth and differentiation, which are important for its use in cell culturing, are described. The focus is on the roles of LIF in central nervous system development and on the modulation of its physiological functions as well as the involvement of LIF in the pathogenesis of brain diseases and injuries. Finally, LIF and its signaling pathway are discussed as potential targets of therapeutic interventions to influence both negative phenomena and regenerative processes following brain injury.
Collapse
|
21
|
Callihan P, Ali MW, Salazar H, Quach N, Wu X, Stice SL, Hooks SB. Convergent regulation of neuronal differentiation and Erk and Akt kinases in human neural progenitor cells by lysophosphatidic acid, sphingosine 1-phosphate, and LIF: specific roles for the LPA1 receptor. ASN Neuro 2014; 6:6/6/1759091414558416. [PMID: 25424429 PMCID: PMC4357610 DOI: 10.1177/1759091414558416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The bioactive lysophospholipids lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) have diverse effects on the developing nervous system and neural progenitors, but the molecular basis for their pleiotropic effects is poorly understood. We previously defined LPA and S1P signaling in proliferating human neural progenitor (hNP) cells, and the current study investigates their role in neuronal differentiation of these cells. Differentiation in the presence of LPA or S1P significantly enhanced cell survival and decreased expression of neuronal markers. Further, the LPA receptor antagonist Ki16425 fully blocked the effects of LPA, and differentiation in the presence of Ki16425 dramatically enhanced neurite length. LPA and S1P robustly activated Erk, but surprisingly both strongly suppressed Akt activation. Ki16425 and pertussis toxin blocked LPA activation of Erk but not LPA inhibition of Akt, suggesting distinct receptor and G-protein subtypes mediate these effects. Finally, we explored cross talk between lysophospholipid signaling and the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). LPA/S1P effects on neuronal differentiation were amplified in the presence of LIF. Similarly, the ability of LPA/S1P to regulate Erk and Akt was impacted by the presence of LIF; LIF enhanced the inhibitory effect of LPA/S1P on Akt phosphorylation, while LIF blunted the activation of Erk by LPA/S1P. Taken together, our results suggest that LPA and S1P enhance survival and inhibit neuronal differentiation of hNP cells, and LPA1 is critical for the effect of LPA. The pleiotropic effects of LPA may reflect differences in receptor subtype expression or cross talk with LIF receptor signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Phillip Callihan
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Mourad W Ali
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Hector Salazar
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Nhat Quach
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Xian Wu
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Steven L Stice
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Shelley B Hooks
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Xiao L, Saiki C, Ide R. Stem cell therapy for central nerve system injuries: glial cells hold the key. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1253-60. [PMID: 25221575 PMCID: PMC4160849 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.137570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian adult central nerve system (CNS) injuries are devastating because of the intrinsic difficulties for effective neuronal regeneration. The greatest problem to be overcome for CNS recovery is the poor regeneration of neurons and myelin-forming cells, oligodendrocytes. Endogenous neural progenitors and transplanted exogenous neuronal stem cells can be the source for neuronal regeneration. However, because of the harsh local microenvironment, they usually have very low efficacy for functional neural regeneration which cannot compensate for the loss of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Glial cells (including astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes and NG2 glia) are the majority of cells in CNS that provide support and protection for neurons. Inside the local microenvironment, glial cells largely influence local and transplanted neural stem cells survival and fates. This review critically analyzes current finding of the roles of glial cells in CNS regeneration, and highlights strategies for regulating glial cells’ behavior to create a permissive microenvironment for neuronal stem cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Xiao
- Pharmacology Department, The Nippon Dental University, School of Life Dentistry at Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chikako Saiki
- Physiology Department, The Nippon Dental University, School of Life Dentistry at Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryoji Ide
- Physiology Department, The Nippon Dental University, School of Life Dentistry at Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Alfano R, Youngblood BA, Zhang D, Huang N, MacDonald CC. Human leukemia inhibitory factor produced by the ExpressTec method from rice (Oryza sativa L.) is active in human neural stem cells and mouse induced pluripotent stem cells. Bioengineered 2014; 5:180-5. [PMID: 24776984 PMCID: PMC4101010 DOI: 10.4161/bioe.28996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cell-based therapy has the potential to treat an array of human diseases. However, to study the therapeutic potential and safety of these cells, a scalable cell culture medium is needed that is free of human or bovine-derived serum proteins. Thus, cost-effective recombinant serum proteins and cytokines are needed to produce such mediums. One such cytokine, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), has been shown to be a critical paracrine factor that maintains stem cell pluripotency in murine embryonic stem cells and human naïve stem cells while simultaneously inhibiting differentiation. We recently produced recombinant human LIF (rhLIF) in a rice-based protein expression system known as ExpressTec. (12) We described expression of rice-derived rhLIF and demonstrated its biological equivalency to E. coli-derived rhLIF in traditional and embryonic mouse stem cell systems. Here we describe the expression yield of rice-derived rhLIF and the scale up production capacity. We provide further evidence of the efficacy of rice-derived rhLIF in additional stem cell systems including human neural stem cells and mouse induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. The expression level, biological activity, and potential for production at commercial scale of rice-derived rhLIF provides a proof-of-principal for ExpressTec-derived proteins to produce regulatory-friendly, high performance, and dependable stem cell media.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bradford A Youngblood
- Department of Cell Biology & Biochemistry; Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center; Lubbock, TX USA
| | | | - Ning Huang
- Ventria Bioscience Inc; Fort Collins, CO USA
| | - Clinton C MacDonald
- Department of Cell Biology & Biochemistry; Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center; Lubbock, TX USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Label-free characterization of emerging human neuronal networks. Sci Rep 2014; 4:4434. [PMID: 24658536 PMCID: PMC3963031 DOI: 10.1038/srep04434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergent self-organization of a neuronal network in a developing nervous system is the result of a remarkably orchestrated process involving a multitude of chemical, mechanical and electrical signals. Little is known about the dynamic behavior of a developing network (especially in a human model) primarily due to a lack of practical and non-invasive methods to measure and quantify the process. Here we demonstrate that by using a novel optical interferometric technique, we can non-invasively measure several fundamental properties of neural networks from the sub-cellular to the cell population level. We applied this method to quantify network formation in human stem cell derived neurons and show for the first time, correlations between trends in the growth, transport, and spatial organization of such a system. Quantifying the fundamental behavior of such cell lines without compromising their viability may provide an important new tool in future longitudinal studies.
Collapse
|
25
|
Mikelonis D, Jorcyk CL, Tawara K, Oxford JT. Stüve-Wiedemann syndrome: LIFR and associated cytokines in clinical course and etiology. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2014; 9:34. [PMID: 24618404 PMCID: PMC3995696 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1172-9-34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Stüve-Wiedemann syndrome (STWS; OMIM #610559) is a rare bent-bone dysplasia that includes radiologic bone anomalies, respiratory distress, feeding difficulties, and hyperthermic episodes. STWS usually results in infant mortality, yet some STWS patients survive into and, in some cases, beyond adolescence. STWS is caused by a mutation in the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) gene, which is inherited in an autosomally recessive pattern. Most LIFR mutations resulting in STWS are null mutations which cause instability of the mRNA and prevent the formation of LIFR, impairing the signaling pathway. LIFR signaling usually follows the JAK/STAT3 pathway, and is initiated by several interleukin-6-type cytokines. STWS is managed on a symptomatic basis since there is no treatment currently available.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Julia Thom Oxford
- Boise State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Biomolecular Research Center, 1910 University Drive, Boise State University, Boise ID 83725, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Marei HES, Althani A, Afifi N, Abd-Elmaksoud A, Bernardini C, Michetti F, Barba M, Pescatori M, Maira G, Paldino E, Manni L, Casalbore P, Cenciarelli C. Over-expression of hNGF in adult human olfactory bulb neural stem cells promotes cell growth and oligodendrocytic differentiation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82206. [PMID: 24367504 PMCID: PMC3868548 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The adult human olfactory bulb neural stem/progenitor cells (OBNC/PC) are promising candidate for cell-based therapy for traumatic and neurodegenerative insults. Exogenous application of NGF was suggested as a promising therapeutic strategy for traumatic and neurodegenerative diseases, however effective delivery of NGF into the CNS parenchyma is still challenging due mainly to its limited ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and intolerable side effects if administered into the brain ventricular system. An effective method to ensure delivery of NGF into the parenchyma of CNS is the genetic modification of NSC to overexpress NGF gene. Overexpression of NGF in adult human OBNSC is expected to alter their proliferation and differentiation nature, and thus might enhance their therapeutic potential. In this study, we genetically modified adult human OBNS/PC to overexpress human NGF (hNGF) and green fluorescent protein (GFP) genes to provide insight about the effects of hNGF and GFP genes overexpression in adult human OBNS/PC on their in vitro multipotentiality using DNA microarray, immunophenotyping, and Western blot (WB) protocols. Our analysis revealed that OBNS/PC-GFP and OBNS/PC-GFP-hNGF differentiation is a multifaceted process involving changes in major biological processes as reflected in alteration of the gene expression levels of crucial markers such as cell cycle and survival markers, stemness markers, and differentiation markers. The differentiation of both cell classes was also associated with modulations of key signaling pathways such MAPK signaling pathway, ErbB signaling pathway, and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway for OBNS/PC-GFP, and axon guidance, calcium channel, voltage-dependent, gamma subunit 7 for OBNS/PC-GFP-hNGF as revealed by GO and KEGG. Differentiated OBNS/PC-GFP-hNGF displayed extensively branched cytoplasmic processes, a significant faster growth rate and up modulated the expression of oligodendroglia precursor cells markers (PDGFRα, NG2 and CNPase) respect to OBNS/PC-GFP counterparts. These findings suggest an enhanced proliferation and oligodendrocytic differentiation potential for OBNS/PC-GFP-hNGF as compared to OBNS/PC-GFP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hany E. S. Marei
- Department of Cytology and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Asmaa Althani
- College of Arts & Sciences, Health Sciences Department, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Nahla Afifi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Abd-Elmaksoud
- Department of Cytology and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Camilla Bernardini
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del S. Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Michetti
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del S. Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Marta Barba
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del S. Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Mario Pescatori
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giulio Maira
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Emanuela Paldino
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council of Italy, Roma, Italy
| | - Luigi Manni
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, National Research Council of Italy, Roma, Italy
| | - Patrizia Casalbore
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council of Italy, Roma, Italy
| | - Carlo Cenciarelli
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, National Research Council of Italy, Roma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Lalitkumar S, Boggavarapu NR, Menezes J, Dimitriadis E, Zhang JG, Nicola NA, Gemzell-Danielsson K, Lalitkumar LP. Polyethylene glycated leukemia inhibitory factor antagonist inhibits human blastocyst implantation and triggers apoptosis by down-regulating embryonic AKT. Fertil Steril 2013; 100:1160-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
28
|
Mousa A, Bakhiet M. Role of cytokine signaling during nervous system development. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:13931-57. [PMID: 23880850 PMCID: PMC3742226 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140713931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokines are signaling proteins that were first characterized as components of the immune response, but have been found to have pleiotropic effects in diverse aspects of body function in health and disease. They are secreted by numerous cells and are used extensively in intercellular communications to produce different activities, including intricate processes engaged in the ontogenetic development of the brain. This review discusses factors involved in brain growth regulation and recent findings exploring cytokine signaling pathways during development of the central nervous system. In view of existing data suggesting roles for neurotropic cytokines in promoting brain growth and repair, these molecules and their signaling pathways might become targets for therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative processes due to diseases, toxicity, or trauma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyaa Mousa
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, Kuwait University, Safat 13060, Kuwait; E-Mail:
| | - Moiz Bakhiet
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Princess Al-Jawhara Center for Genetics and Inherited Diseases, College of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Arabian Gulf University, P.O. Box 26671 Manama, Bahrain
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +973-1723-7300
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Majumder A, Dhara SK, Swetenburg R, Mithani M, Cao K, Medrzycki M, Fan Y, Stice SL. Inhibition of DNA methyltransferases and histone deacetylases induces astrocytic differentiation of neural progenitors. Stem Cell Res 2013; 11:574-86. [PMID: 23644509 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2013.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how to specify rapid differentiation of human neural progenitor towards enriched non-transformed human astrocyte progenitors will provide a critical cell source to further our understanding of how astrocytes play a pivotal role in neural function and development. Human neural progenitors derived from pluripotent embryonic stem cells and propagated in adherent serum-free cultures provide a fate restricted renewable source for quick production of neural cells; however, such cells are highly refractive to astrocytogenesis and show a strong neurogenic bias, similar to neural progenitors from the early embryonic central nervous system (CNS). We found that several astrocytic genes are hypermethylated in such progenitors potentially preventing generation of astrocytes and leading to the proneuronal fate of these progenitors. However, epigenetic modification by Azacytidine (Aza-C) and Trichostatin A (TSA), with concomitant signaling from BMP2 and LIF in neural progenitor cultures shifts this bias, leading to expression of astrocytic markers as early as 5days of differentiation, with near complete suppression of neuronal differentiation. The resultant cells express major astrocytic markers, are amenable to co-culture with neurons, can be propagated as astrocyte progenitors and are cryopreservable. Although previous reports have generated astrocytes from pluripotent cells, the differentiation required extensive culture or selection based on cell surface antigens. The development of a label free and rapid differentiation process will expedite future derivation of astrocytes from various sources pluripotent cells including, but not limited to, human astrocytes associated with various neurological diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anirban Majumder
- Regenerative Bioscience Center, University of Georgia, 425 River Rd, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Radillo O, Norcio A, Addobbati R, Zauli G. Presence of CTAK/CCL27, MCP-3/CCL7 and LIF in human colostrum and breast milk. Cytokine 2012; 61:26-8. [PMID: 23040056 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human colostrum and breast milk are known to contain high levels of cytokines and chemokines, which are thought to contribute to the development of the newborn. The aim of this study was to investigate the difference in the presence and levels of 21 soluble cytokines and chemokines in paired samples of human colostrum (day 2 after delivery) and breast milk (day 4-5 after delivery) by using the multiplex technology. Of the 21 cytokine investigated in 10 pairs of samples, only β-NGF was absent in both colostrum and milk, while INF-α2, SCF and TNF-β were present in colostrum but not in human milk. As a general rule, colostrum contained higher concentrations of cytokines and chemokines with respect to breast milk. The majority of cytokines, detected in colostrum alone or in colostrum and human milk (IL-1α, IL-2Rα, IL-3, IL-16, IL-18, GRO-α, HGF, IFN-α2, M-CSF, MIF, MIG, TNF-β, SDF-1α, TRAIL) have been described in previous studies, while for the first time we describe the presence of additional cytokines either in colostrum alone (SCF) or in both colostrum and breast milk (CTAK/CCL27, MCP-3/CCL7, LIF). Our data confirm and expand previous studies showing that some cytokines/chemokines, which might contribute to the development of the gastro-intestinal and nervous systems, are overexpressed in human colostrum and breast milk, and might contribute to the development of these systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oriano Radillo
- Institute for Maternal and Child Health-IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, Trieste, Italy.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|