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Obeid DA, Mir TA, Alzhrani A, Altuhami A, Shamma T, Ahmed S, Kazmi S, Fujitsuka I, Ikhlaq M, Shabab M, Assiri AM, Broering DC. Using Liver Organoids as Models to Study the Pathobiology of Rare Liver Diseases. Biomedicines 2024; 12:446. [PMID: 38398048 PMCID: PMC10887144 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12020446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Liver organoids take advantage of several important features of pluripotent stem cells that self-assemble in a three-dimensional culture matrix and reproduce many aspects of the complex organization found within their native tissue or organ counterparts. Compared to other 2D or 3D in vitro models, organoids are widely believed to be genetically stable or docile structures that can be programmed to virtually recapitulate certain biological, physiological, or pathophysiological features of original tissues or organs in vitro. Therefore, organoids can be exploited as effective substitutes or miniaturized models for the study of the developmental mechanisms of rare liver diseases, drug discovery, the accurate evaluation of personalized drug responses, and regenerative medicine applications. However, the bioengineering of organoids currently faces many groundbreaking challenges, including a need for a reasonable tissue size, structured organization, vascularization, functional maturity, and reproducibility. In this review, we outlined basic methodologies and supplements to establish organoids and summarized recent technological advances for experimental liver biology. Finally, we discussed the therapeutic applications and current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia A. Obeid
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Tanveer Ahmad Mir
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Alaa Alzhrani
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia
- College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21423, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah Altuhami
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Talal Shamma
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
| | - Sana Ahmed
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
- School of Materials Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Nomi 923-1292, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Shadab Kazmi
- School of Materials Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Nomi 923-1292, Ishikawa, Japan
- Department of Child Health, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | | | - Mohd Ikhlaq
- Graduate School of Innovative Life Science, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-8555, Toyama, Japan
| | - Mohammad Shabab
- School of Pharmacy, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh 147301, Punjab, India
| | - Abdullah M. Assiri
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia
| | - Dieter C. Broering
- Tissue/Organ Bioengineering and BioMEMS Lab, Organ Transplant Centre of Excellence, Transplant Research and Innovation Department, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia (A.A.); (S.A.)
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia
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Luo Q, Wang N, Que H, Mai E, Hu Y, Tan R, Gu J, Gong P. Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hepatocyte-like Cells: Induction Methods and Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11592. [PMID: 37511351 PMCID: PMC10380504 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of regenerative medicine provides new options for the treatment of end-stage liver diseases. Stem cells, such as bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), are effective tools for tissue repair in regenerative medicine. iPSCs are an appropriate source of hepatocytes for the treatment of liver disease due to their unlimited multiplication capacity, their coverage of the entire range of genetics required to simulate human disease, and their evasion of ethical implications. iPSCs have the ability to gradually produce hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) with homologous phenotypes and physiological functions. However, how to induce iPSCs to differentiate into HLCs efficiently and accurately is still a hot topic. This review describes the existing approaches for inducing the differentiation of iPSCs into HLCs, as well as some challenges faced, and summarizes various parameters for determining the quality and functionality of HLCs. Furthermore, the application of iPSCs for in vitro hepatoprotective drug screening and modeling of liver disease is discussed. In conclusion, iPSCs will be a dependable source of cells for stem-cell therapy to treat end-stage liver disease and are anticipated to facilitate individualized treatment for liver disease in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiulin Luo
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Nan Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Hanyun Que
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Erziya Mai
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Yanting Hu
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Rui Tan
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610032, China
| | - Jian Gu
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Puyang Gong
- College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610225, China
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Ma Y, Hu L, Tang J, Guo W, Feng Y, Liu Y, Tang F. Three-Dimensional Cell Co-Culture Liver Models and Their Applications in Pharmaceutical Research. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076248. [PMID: 37047220 PMCID: PMC10094553 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
As the primary site for the biotransformation of drugs, the liver is the most focused on organ type in pharmaceutical research. However, despite being widely used in pharmaceutical research, animal models have inherent species differences, while two-dimensional (2D) liver cell monocultures or co-cultures and three-dimensional (3D) liver cell monoculture in vitro liver models do not sufficiently represent the complexity of the human liver’s structure and function, making the evaluation results from these tools less reliable. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop more representative in vitro liver models for pharmaceutical research. Fortunately, an exciting new development in recent years has been the emergence of 3D liver cell co-culture models. These models hold great promise as in vitro pharmaceutical research tools, because they can reproduce liver structure and function more practically. This review begins by explaining the structure and main cell composition of the liver, before introducing the potential advantages of 3D cell co-culture liver models for pharmaceutical research. We also discuss the main sources of hepatocytes and the 3D cell co-culture methods used in constructing these models. In addition, we explore the applications of 3D cell co-culture liver models with different functional states and suggest prospects for their further development.
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Messelmani T, Morisseau L, Sakai Y, Legallais C, Le Goff A, Leclerc E, Jellali R. Liver organ-on-chip models for toxicity studies and risk assessment. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:2423-2450. [PMID: 35694831 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00307d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The liver is a key organ that plays a pivotal role in metabolism and ensures a variety of functions in the body, including homeostasis, synthesis of essential components, nutrient storage, and detoxification. As the centre of metabolism for exogenous molecules, the liver is continuously exposed to a wide range of compounds, such as drugs, pesticides, and environmental pollutants. Most of these compounds can cause hepatotoxicity and lead to severe and irreversible liver damage. To study the effects of chemicals and drugs on the liver, most commonly, animal models or in vitro 2D cell cultures are used. However, data obtained from animal models lose their relevance when extrapolated to the human metabolic situation and pose ethical concerns, while 2D static cultures are poorly predictive of human in vivo metabolism and toxicity. As a result, there is a widespread need to develop relevant in vitro liver models for toxicology studies. In recent years, progress in tissue engineering, biomaterials, microfabrication, and cell biology has created opportunities for more relevant in vitro models for toxicology studies. Of these models, the liver organ-on-chip (OoC) has shown promising results by reproducing the in vivo behaviour of the cell/organ or a group of organs, the controlled physiological micro-environment, and in vivo cellular metabolic responses. In this review, we discuss the development of liver organ-on-chip technology and its use in toxicity studies. First, we introduce the physiology of the liver and summarize the traditional experimental models for toxicity studies. We then present liver OoC technology, including the general concept, materials used, cell sources, and different approaches. We review the prominent liver OoC and multi-OoC integrating the liver for drug and chemical toxicity studies. Finally, we conclude with the future challenges and directions for developing or improving liver OoC models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taha Messelmani
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche Royallieu CS 60319, 60203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
| | - Lisa Morisseau
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche Royallieu CS 60319, 60203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
| | - Yasuyuki Sakai
- CNRS IRL 2820, Laboratory for Integrated Micro Mechatronic Systems, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8505, Japan.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Cécile Legallais
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche Royallieu CS 60319, 60203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
| | - Anne Le Goff
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche Royallieu CS 60319, 60203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
| | - Eric Leclerc
- CNRS IRL 2820, Laboratory for Integrated Micro Mechatronic Systems, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8505, Japan.
| | - Rachid Jellali
- Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Biomechanics and Bioengineering, Centre de Recherche Royallieu CS 60319, 60203 Compiègne Cedex, France.
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Tasnim F, Huang X, Lee CZW, Ginhoux F, Yu H. Recent Advances in Models of Immune-Mediated Drug-Induced Liver Injury. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 3:605392. [PMID: 35295156 PMCID: PMC8915912 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2021.605392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic inflammation is a key feature of a variety of liver diseases including drug-induced liver injury (DILI), orchestrated by the innate immune response (Kupffer cells, monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells) and the adaptive immune system (T cells and natural killer T cells). In contrast to acute DILI, prediction of immune-mediated DILI (im-DILI) has been more challenging due to complex disease pathogenesis, lack of reliable models and limited knowledge of underlying mechanisms. This review summarizes in vivo and in vitro systems that have been used to model im-DILI. In particular, the review focuses on state-of-the-art in vitro human-based multicellular models which have been developed to supplement the use of in vivo models due to interspecies variation and increasing ethical concerns regarding animal use. Advantages of the co-cultures in maintaining hepatocyte functions and importantly, introducing heterotypic cell-cell interactions to mimic inflammatory hepatic microenvironment are discussed. Challenges regarding cell source and incorporation of different cells with physical cell-cell contact are outlined and potential solutions are proposed. It is likely that better understanding of the interplay of immune cells in liver models will allow for the development of more accurate systems to better predict hepatotoxicity and stratification of drugs that can cause immune-mediated effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Tasnim
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, ASTAR, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The Nanos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xiaozhong Huang
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, ASTAR, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The Nanos, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Christopher Zhe Wei Lee
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, ASTAR, Singapore, Singapore.,Singapore Immunology Network, Singapore, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, ASTAR, Singapore, Singapore.,Singapore Immunology Network, Singapore, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Translational Immunology Institute, SingHealth Duke-NUS Academic Medical Centre, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hanry Yu
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, ASTAR, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The Nanos, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,National University of Singapore (NUS) Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, Centre for Life Sciences, Singapore, Singapore.,T-Labs, Mechanobiology Institute, Singapore, Singapore.,Critical Analytics for Manufacturing Personalised-Medicine Interdisciplinary Research Groups (CAMP-IRG), Singapore-Massachusetts Institute of Technology Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore, Singapore
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Gamboa CM, Wang Y, Xu H, Kalemba K, Wondisford FE, Sabaawy HE. Optimized 3D Culture of Hepatic Cells for Liver Organoid Metabolic Assays. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123280. [PMID: 34943788 PMCID: PMC8699701 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The liver is among the principal organs for glucose homeostasis and metabolism. Studies of liver metabolism are limited by the inability to expand primary hepatocytes in vitro while maintaining their metabolic functions. Human hepatic three-dimensional (3D) organoids have been established using defined factors, yet hepatic organoids from adult donors showed impaired expansion. We examined conditions to facilitate the expansion of adult donor-derived hepatic organoids (HepAOs) and HepG2 cells in organoid cultures (HepGOs) using combinations of growth factors and small molecules. The expansion dynamics, gluconeogenic and HNF4α expression, and albumin secretion are assessed. The conditions tested allow the generation of HepAOs and HepGOs in 3D cultures. Nevertheless, gluconeogenic gene expression varies greatly between conditions. The organoid expansion rates are limited when including the TGFβ inhibitor A8301, while are relatively higher with Forskolin (FSK) and Oncostatin M (OSM). Notably, expanded HepGOs grown in the optimized condition maintain detectable gluconeogenic expression in a spatiotemporal distribution at 8 weeks. We present optimized conditions by limiting A8301 and incorporating FSK and OSM to allow the expansion of HepAOs from adult donors and HepGOs with gluconeogenic competence. These models increase the repertoire of human hepatic cellular tools available for use in liver metabolic assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Moya Gamboa
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA;
| | - Yujue Wang
- Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; (Y.W.); (H.X.); (K.K.)
| | - Huiting Xu
- Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; (Y.W.); (H.X.); (K.K.)
| | - Katarzyna Kalemba
- Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; (Y.W.); (H.X.); (K.K.)
| | - Fredric E. Wondisford
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; (Y.W.); (H.X.); (K.K.)
- Correspondence: (F.E.W.); (H.E.S.); Tel.: +1-732-235-9838 (F.E.W.); +1-732-235-8081 (H.E.S.)
| | - Hatem E. Sabaawy
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; (Y.W.); (H.X.); (K.K.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, RBHS-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Correspondence: (F.E.W.); (H.E.S.); Tel.: +1-732-235-9838 (F.E.W.); +1-732-235-8081 (H.E.S.)
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Zhang J, Li J, Ding M, Chen Y, Duan Z. Cortisol in Peripheral Blood Predicts the Severity and Prognosis in Patients with Liver Failure at 90 Days. Risk Manag Healthc Policy 2021; 14:4311-4319. [PMID: 34703342 PMCID: PMC8528544 DOI: 10.2147/rmhp.s327440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To investigate the cortisol level in peripheral blood in evaluating the severity and prognosis of patients with liver failure. Methods A total of 211 inpatients with liver failure were enrolled in Beijing You ‘an Hospital affiliated with Capital Medical University, from September 2018 to January 2020. They were divided into three groups according to the severity of liver failure: early-stage liver failure, medium-stage liver failure and end-stage liver failure. In all patients, peripheral venous blood was gathered to detect the level of peripheral cortisol and related biochemical indexes. Logistic regression was used to screen the risk factors affecting the prognosis of patients at 90 days. A receiver operating curve (ROC) was used to reflect the value of cortisol on the prognosis of patients at 90 days. A model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) was accessed. Results Among these 211 patients with liver failure, aged from 19 to 70 years, the average level of cortisol was 351.26 ± 129.78 nmol/L for 101 cases with early-stage liver failure, 281.05 ± 81.31 nmol/L for 58 cases with medium-stage liver failure, and 189.21 ± 89.27 nmol/L for 52 cases with end-stage liver failure (P < 0.05). The level of cortisol in the survival group and the non-survival group was 339.26 ± 121.19 nmol/L and 192.71 ± 67.23 nmol/L, respectively (P < 0.05). The results of logistics regression analysis showed that the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of cortisol were 1.025 and 1.013–1.038 nmol/L (P < 0.05). MELD results showed that patients with higher MELD scores had lower cortisol content. Conclusion The level of cortisol is correlated with the severity of liver failure and decreases with the aggravation of liver failure, suggesting that the level of cortisol could be used as one of the indicators to evaluate the prognosis in patients with liver failure at 90 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Junfeng Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei Ding
- Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Chen
- Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongping Duan
- Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
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Xu H, Wu L, Yuan G, Liang X, Liu X, Li Z, Chen N, Farzaneh M. MicroRNAs: Crucial Players in the Differentiation of Human Pluripotent and Multipotent Stem Cells into Functional Hepatocyte-Like Cells. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 17:734-740. [PMID: 34615452 DOI: 10.2174/1574888x16666211006102039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic disease negatively impacts liver function and metabolism. Primary human hepatocytes are the gold standard for the prediction and successful treatment of liver disease. However, the sources of hepatocytes for drug toxicity testing and disease modeling are limited. To overcome this issue, pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have emerged as an alternative strategy for liver disease therapy. Human PSCs, including embryonic stem cells (ESC) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) can self-renew and give rise to all cells of the body. Human PSCs are attractive cell sources for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug discovery, and developmental studies. Several recent studies have shown that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can also differentiate (or trans-differentiate) into hepatocytes. Differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs into functional hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) opens new strategies to study genetic diseases, hepatotoxicity, infection of hepatotropic viruses, and analyze hepatic biology. Numerous in vitro and in vivo differentiation protocols have been established to obtain human PSCs/MSCs-derived HLCs and mimic their characteristics. It was recently discovered that microRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in controlling the ectopic expression of transcription factors and governing the hepatocyte differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs. In this review, we focused on the role of miRNAs in the differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs into hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Xu
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Liying Wu
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Guojia Yuan
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Xiaolu Liang
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Xiaoguang Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Zuobiao Li
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Nianping Chen
- Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, Guangdong. China
| | - Maryam Farzaneh
- Fertility, Infertility and Perinatology Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz. Iran
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9
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Peng WC, Kraaier LJ, Kluiver TA. Hepatocyte organoids and cell transplantation: What the future holds. Exp Mol Med 2021; 53:1512-1528. [PMID: 34663941 PMCID: PMC8568948 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-021-00579-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, primary hepatocytes have been difficult to expand or maintain in vitro. In this review, we will focus on recent advances in establishing hepatocyte organoids and their potential applications in regenerative medicine. First, we provide a background on the renewal of hepatocytes in the homeostatic as well as the injured liver. Next, we describe strategies for establishing primary hepatocyte organoids derived from either adult or fetal liver based on insights from signaling pathways regulating hepatocyte renewal in vivo. The characteristics of these organoids will be described herein. Notably, hepatocyte organoids can adopt either a proliferative or a metabolic state, depending on the culture conditions. Furthermore, the metabolic gene expression profile can be modulated based on the principles that govern liver zonation. Finally, we discuss the suitability of cell replacement therapy to treat different types of liver diseases and the current state of cell transplantation of in vitro-expanded hepatocytes in mouse models. In addition, we provide insights into how the regenerative microenvironment in the injured host liver may facilitate donor hepatocyte repopulation. In summary, transplantation of in vitro-expanded hepatocytes holds great potential for large-scale clinical application to treat liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weng Chuan Peng
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Lianne J Kraaier
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas A Kluiver
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Baas FS, Rishi G, Swinkels DW, Subramaniam VN. Genetic Diagnosis in Hereditary Hemochromatosis: Discovering and Understanding the Biological Relevance of Variants. Clin Chem 2021; 67:1324-1341. [PMID: 34402502 DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvab130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a genetic disease, leading to iron accumulation and possible organ damage. Patients are usually homozygous for p. Cys282Tyr in the homeostatic iron regulator gene but may have mutations in other genes involved in the regulation of iron. Next-generation sequencing is increasingly being utilized for the diagnosis of patients, leading to the discovery of novel genetic variants. The clinical significance of these variants is often unknown. CONTENT Determining the pathogenicity of such variants of unknown significance is important for diagnostics and genetic counseling. Predictions can be made using in silico computational tools and population data, but additional evidence is required for a conclusive pathogenicity classification. Genetic disease models, such as in vitro models using cellular overexpression, induced pluripotent stem cells or organoids, and in vivo models using mice or zebrafish all have their own challenges and opportunities when used to model HH and other iron disorders. Recent developments in gene-editing technologies are transforming the field of genetic disease modeling. SUMMARY In summary, this review addresses methods and developments regarding the discovery and classification of genetic variants, from in silico tools to in vitro and in vivo models, and presents them in the context of HH. It also explores recent gene-editing developments and how they can be applied to the discussed models of genetic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floor S Baas
- Translational Metabolic Laboratory (TML 831), Radboudumc, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.,Hepatogenomics Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gautam Rishi
- Hepatogenomics Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Dorine W Swinkels
- Translational Metabolic Laboratory (TML 831), Radboudumc, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - V Nathan Subramaniam
- Hepatogenomics Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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11
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Heydari Z, Moeinvaziri F, Agarwal T, Pooyan P, Shpichka A, Maiti TK, Timashev P, Baharvand H, Vosough M. Organoids: a novel modality in disease modeling. Biodes Manuf 2021; 4:689-716. [PMID: 34395032 PMCID: PMC8349706 DOI: 10.1007/s42242-021-00150-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Limitations of monolayer culture conditions have motivated scientists to explore new models that can recapitulate the architecture and function of human organs more accurately. Recent advances in the improvement of protocols have resulted in establishing three-dimensional (3D) organ-like architectures called ‘organoids’ that can display the characteristics of their corresponding real organs, including morphological features, functional activities, and personalized responses to specific pathogens. We discuss different organoid-based 3D models herein, which are classified based on their original germinal layer. Studies of organoids simulating the complexity of real tissues could provide novel platforms and opportunities for generating practical knowledge along with preclinical studies, including drug screening, toxicology, and molecular pathophysiology of diseases. This paper also outlines the key challenges, advantages, and prospects of current organoid systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Heydari
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
| | - Farideh Moeinvaziri
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
| | - Tarun Agarwal
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302 India
| | - Paria Pooyan
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
| | - Anastasia Shpichka
- World-Class Research Center “Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare”, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 19991 Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Tapas K. Maiti
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302 India
| | - Peter Timashev
- World-Class Research Center “Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare”, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 19991 Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Department of Polymers and Composites, N.N. Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Hossein Baharvand
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
| | - Massoud Vosough
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Cell Science Research Centre, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, 14155-4364 Iran
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12
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Jalan-Sakrikar N, Navarro-Corcuera A, Huebert RC. Bioengineered Mini Human Livers for Transplantation. Hepatology 2021; 73:449-451. [PMID: 32865234 DOI: 10.1002/hep.31528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Robert C Huebert
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
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13
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Oliveira AG, Fiorotto R. Novel approaches to liver disease diagnosis and modeling. Transl Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 6:19. [PMID: 33824923 PMCID: PMC7829068 DOI: 10.21037/tgh-20-109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lack of a prompt and accurate diagnosis remains on top of the list of challenges faced by patients with rare liver diseases. Although rare liver diseases affect a significant percentage of the population as a group, when taken singularly they represent unique diseases and the approaches used for diagnosis of common liver diseases are insufficient. However, the development of new methods for the acquisition of molecular and clinical data (i.e., genomic, proteomics, metabolomics) and computational tools for their analysis and integration, together with advances in modeling diseases using stem cell-based technology [i.e., induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and tissue organoids] represent a promising and powerful tool to improve the clinical management of these patients. This is the goal of precision medicine, a novel approach of modern medicine that aims at delivering a specific treatment based on disease-specific biological insights and individual profile. This review will discuss the application and advances of these technologies and how they represent a new opportunity in hepatology.
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Affiliation(s)
- André G. Oliveira
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Romina Fiorotto
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Digestive Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, USA
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14
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Parafati M, Bae SH, Kirby RJ, Fitzek M, Iyer P, Engkvist O, Smith DM, Malany S. Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hepatocytes Phenotypic Screening Reveals Small Molecules Targeting the CDK2/4-C/EBPα/DGAT2 Pathway Preventing ER-Stress Induced Lipid Accumulation. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249557. [PMID: 33334026 PMCID: PMC7765409 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has a large impact on global health. At the onset of disease, NAFLD is characterized by hepatic steatosis defined by the accumulation of triglycerides stored as lipid droplets. Developing therapeutics against NAFLD and progression to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) remains a high priority in the medical and scientific community. Drug discovery programs to identify potential therapeutic compounds have supported high throughput/high-content screening of in vitro human-relevant models of NAFLD to accelerate development of efficacious anti-steatotic medicines. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology is a powerful platform for disease modeling and therapeutic assessment for cell-based therapy and personalized medicine. In this study, we applied AstraZeneca’s chemogenomic library, hiPSC technology and multiplexed high content screening to identify compounds that significantly reduced intracellular neutral lipid content. Among 13,000 compounds screened, we identified hits that protect against hiPSC-derived hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced steatosis by a mechanism of action including inhibition of the cyclin D3-cyclin-dependent kinase 2-4 (CDK2-4)/CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPα)/diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 (DGAT2) pathway, followed by alteration of the expression of downstream genes related to NAFLD. These findings demonstrate that our phenotypic platform provides a reliable approach in drug discovery, to identify novel drugs for treatment of fatty liver disease as well as to elucidate their underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maddalena Parafati
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; (M.P.); (S.H.B.)
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
| | - Sang Hyo Bae
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; (M.P.); (S.H.B.)
| | - R. Jason Kirby
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
| | - Martina Fitzek
- Hit Discovery, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Alderley Park, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, UK;
| | - Preeti Iyer
- Molecular AI, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 431 83 Mölndal, Sweden; (P.I.); (O.E.)
| | - Ola Engkvist
- Molecular AI, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, 431 83 Mölndal, Sweden; (P.I.); (O.E.)
| | - David M. Smith
- Emerging Innovations Unit, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge SG8 6HB, UK;
| | - Siobhan Malany
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; (M.P.); (S.H.B.)
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +352-273-6400
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15
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Tavares MR, de Castro RVG, Pieri NCG, Cruz NRN, Martins DS, Ambrósio CE, Garcia JM, Camplesi AC, Bressan FF, Toniollo GH. Identification of hepatic progenitor cells in the canine fetal liver. Res Vet Sci 2020; 133:239-245. [PMID: 33032111 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The liver plays essential roles in human and animal organisms, such as the storage, release, metabolism, and elimination of various endogenous or exogenous substances. Although its vital importance, few treatments are yet available when a hepatic failure occurs, and hence, the use of stem cells has arisen as a possible solution for both human and veterinary medicines. Previous studies have shown the existence of hepatic progenitor cells in human fetuses that were positive for EpCAM and NCAM. There is limited evidence, however, further identification and characterization of these cells in other species. Considering the similarity between dogs and humans regarding physiology, and also the increasing importance of developing new treatments for both veterinary and translational medicine, this study attempted to identify hepatic progenitor cells in canine fetal liver. For that, livers from canine fetuses were collected, cells were isolated by enzymatic digestion and cultured. Cells were characterized regarding morphology and expression of EpCAM, NCAM, Nestin, and Thy-1/CD90 markers. Our results suggest that it is possible to identify hepatic progenitor cells in the canine fetal liver; however, for therapeutic use, further techniques for cellular isolation and culture are necessary to obtain enriched populations of hepatic progenitors from the canine fetal liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Tavares
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil.
| | - R V G de Castro
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil; Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga/SP, Brazil
| | - N C G Pieri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga/SP, Brazil
| | - N R N Cruz
- Department of Veterinary Clinical and Surgery, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil
| | - D S Martins
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga/SP, Brazil; Post-Graduate Program in Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - C E Ambrósio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga/SP, Brazil; Post-Graduate Program in Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo/SP, Brazil
| | - J M Garcia
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil
| | - A C Camplesi
- Department of Veterinary Clinical and Surgery, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil
| | - F F Bressan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga/SP, Brazil; Post-Graduate Program in Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo/SP, Brazil..
| | - G H Toniollo
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction, Faculty of Agricultural and Animal Science, State University of São Paulo, Jaboticabal/SP, Brazil
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16
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Kunst RF, Niemeijer M, van der Laan LJW, Spee B, van de Graaf SFJ. From fatty hepatocytes to impaired bile flow: Matching model systems for liver biology and disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 180:114173. [PMID: 32717228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A large variety of model systems are used in hepatobiliary research. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of established and emerging models for specific research questions. We specifically discuss the value and limitations of these models for research on metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), (previously named non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD/NASH)) and cholestasis-related diseases such as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). The entire range of models is discussed varying from immortalized cell lines, mature or pluripotent stem cell-based models including organoids/spheroids, to animal models and human ex vivo models such as normothermic machine perfusion of livers and living liver slices. Finally, the pros and cons of each model are discussed as well as the need in the scientific community for continuous innovation in model development to better mimic the human (patho)physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roni F Kunst
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam Gastroenterology Endocrinology Metabolism, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marije Niemeijer
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Luc J W van der Laan
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Bart Spee
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Stan F J van de Graaf
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Amsterdam Gastroenterology Endocrinology Metabolism, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam Gastroenterology Endocrinology Metabolism, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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17
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Maepa SW, Ndlovu H. Advances in generating liver cells from pluripotent stem cells as a tool for modeling liver diseases. Stem Cells 2020; 38:606-612. [PMID: 32012379 PMCID: PMC7216946 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Developing robust in vitro models of the liver is essential for studying the pathogenesis of liver diseases, hepatotoxicity testing, and regenerative medicine. Earlier studies were conducted using cell lines derived from hepatomas. Due to the inherent limitations of cell lines, researchers used primary human hepatocytes (PHHs), which are considered a gold standard for in vitro modeling of the liver. However, due to the high cost of PHHs and lack of donors, researchers have sought an alternative source for functional liver cells. Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) emerged as a viable alternative due to their plasticity and high proliferative capacity. This review gives an overview of the major advances that have been achieved to develop protocols to generate liver cells such as hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, and Küpffer cells from PSCs. We also discuss their application in modeling the pathogenesis of liver diseases such as drug‐induced liver injury, acute liver failure, and hepatic steatosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Setjie W Maepa
- Division of Chemical and Systems Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Hlumani Ndlovu
- Division of Chemical and Systems Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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