Assimilation, dissimilation, and detoxification of formaldehyde, a central metabolic intermediate of methylotrophic metabolism

Identification and characterization of a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase in Bacillus subtilis

Formaldehyde is a known toxic compound, and functional formaldehyde detoxification is crucial for the survival of all living cells. Such detoxification systems are of particular importance for methylotrophic microorganisms that rely on formaldehyde as a central metabolite in their one-carbon metabolism. Understanding formaldehyde dissimilation pathways in non-methylotrophic industrial microorganisms is necessary for ongoing research aiming at engineering methylotrophy into their metabolism (synthetic methylotrophy). There is a variety of formaldehyde dissimilation pathways across microorganisms, often based on the activity of formaldehyde dehydrogenases. In this study, we investigated the role of the yycR gene of Bacillus subtilis putatively encoding a novel, uncharacterized zinc-type alcohol dehydrogenase-like protein. We showed that the B. subtilis ΔyycR mutant displayed a reduced formaldehyde tolerance level and confirmed the enzymatic activity of recombinantly produced and purified YycR as formaldehyde dehydrogenase in vitro. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that YycR activity is optimal at 40°C, with the highest measured activity at pH 9.5, formaldehyde is the preferred substrate, and the kinetic constants are Km of 0.19 ± 0.05 mM and Vmax of 2.24 ± 0.05 nmol min-1. Altogether, we showed that YycR is a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase with a role in formaldehyde detoxification in B. subtilis, providing valuable insights for future research on synthetic methylotrophy in this organism.

IMPORTANCE

Formaldehyde is a key metabolite in methanol assimilation for many methylotrophic microorganisms, and at the same time, it is toxic to all living cells, which means its intracellular concentrations must be tightly controlled. An in-depth understanding of methanol detoxification systems in industrially relevant microorganisms is a prerequisite for the introduction of methanol utilization pathways into their metabolism (synthetic methylotrophy). Bacillus subtilis, an industrial workhorse conventionally used for the production of enzymes, is known to possess two formaldehyde detoxification pathways. Here, we identify a novel formaldehyde dehydrogenase in this bacterium as a path towards creating innovative prospect strategies for strain engineering towards synthetic methylotrophy.

Formaldehyde: An Essential Intermediate for C1 Metabolism and Bioconversion

Formaldehyde is an intermediate metabolite of methylotrophic microorganisms that can be obtained from formate and methanol through oxidation-reduction reactions. Formaldehyde is also a one-carbon (C1) compound with high uniquely reactive activity and versatility, which is more amenable to further biocatalysis. Biosynthesis of high-value-added chemicals using formaldehyde as an intermediate is theoretically feasible and promising. This review focuses on the design of the biosynthesis of high-value-added chemicals using formaldehyde as an essential intermediate. The upstream biosynthesis and downstream bioconversion pathways of formaldehyde as an intermediate metabolite are described in detail, aiming to highlight the important role of formaldehyde in the transition from inorganic to organic carbon and carbon chain elongation. In addition, challenges and future directions of formaldehyde as an intermediate for the chemicals are discussed, with the expectation of providing ideas for the utilization of C1.

Bulk and selective autophagy cooperate to remodel a fungal proteome in response to changing nutrient availability

Cells remodel their proteomes in response to changing environments by coordinating changes in protein synthesis and degradation. In yeast, such degradation involves both proteasomal and vacuolar activity, with a mixture of bulk and selective autophagy delivering many of the vacuolar substrates. Although these pathways are known to be generally important for such remodeling, their relative contributions have not been reported on a proteome-wide basis. To assess this, we developed a method to pulse-label the methylotrophic yeast Komagataella phaffii (i.e. Pichia pastoris) with isotopically labeled nutrients, which, when coupled to quantitative proteomics, allowed us to globally monitor protein degradation on a protein-by-protein basis following an environmental perturbation. Using genetic ablations, we found that a targeted combination of bulk and selective autophagy drove the vast majority of the observed proteome remodeling activity, with minimal non-autophagic contributions. Cytosolic proteins and protein complexes, including ribosomes, were degraded via Atg11-independent bulk autophagy, whereas proteins targeted to the peroxisome and mitochondria were primarily degraded in an Atg11-dependent manner. Notably, these degradative pathways were independently regulated by environmental cues. Taken together, our new approach greatly increases the range of known autophagic substrates and highlights the outsized impact of autophagy on proteome remodeling. Moreover, the resulting datasets, which we have packaged in an accessible online database, constitute a rich resource for identifying proteins and pathways involved in fungal proteome remodeling.

Different oxygen affinities of methanotrophs and Comammox Nitrospira inform an electrically induced symbiosis for nitrogen loss

Aerobic methanotrophs establish a symbiotic association with denitrifiers to facilitate the process of aerobic methane oxidation coupled with denitrification (AME-D). However, the symbiosis has been frequently observed in hypoxic conditions continuing to pose an enigma. The present study has firstly characterized an electrically induced symbiosis primarily governed by Methylosarcina and Hyphomicrobium for the AME-D process in a hypoxic niche caused by Comammox Nitrospira. The kinetic analysis revealed that Comammox Nitrospira exhibited a higher apparent oxygen affinity compared to Methylosarcina. While the coexistence of comammox and AME-D resulted in an increase in methane oxidation and nitrogen loss rates, from 0.82 ± 0.10 to 1.72 ± 0.09 mmol CH4 d-1 and from 0.59 ± 0.04 to 1.30 ± 0.15 mmol N2 d-1, respectively. Furthermore, the constructed microbial fuel cells demonstrated a pronounced dependence of the biocurrents on AME-D due to oxygen competition, suggesting the involvement of direct interspecies electron transfer in the AME-D process under hypoxic conditions. Metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analysis revealed that Methylosarcina efficiently oxidized methane to formaldehyde, subsequently generating abundant NAD(P)H for nitrate reduction by Hyphomicrobium through the dissimilatory RuMP pathway, leading to CO2 production. This study challenges the conventional understanding of survival mechanism employed by AME-D symbionts, thereby contributing to the characterization responsible for limiting methane emissions and promoting nitrogen removal in hypoxic regions.

Genome-resolved metagenomics identifies novel active microbes in biogeochemical cycling within methanol-enriched soil

Metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs), generated from sequenced 13C-labelled DNA from 13C-methanol enriched soils, were binned using an ensemble approach. This method produced a significantly larger number of higher-quality MAGs compared to direct binning approaches. These MAGs represent both the primary methanol utilizers and the secondary utilizers labelled via cross-feeding and predation on the labelled methylotrophs, including numerous uncultivated taxa. Analysis of these MAGs enabled the identification of multiple metabolic pathways within these active taxa that have climatic relevance relating to nitrogen, sulfur and trace gas metabolism. This includes denitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, ammonia oxidation and metabolism of organic sulfur species. The binning of viral sequence data also yielded extensive viral MAGs, identifying active viral replication by both lytic and lysogenic phages within the methanol-enriched soils. These MAGs represent a valuable resource for characterizing biogeochemical cycling within terrestrial environments.

Exploratory study on the metabolic similarity of denitrifying carbon sources

Mixed carbon sources have been developed for denitrification to eliminate the "carbon dependency" problem of single carbon. The metabolic correlation between different carbon sources is significant as guidance for the development of novel mixed carbon sources. In this study, to explore the metabolic similarity of denitrifying carbon sources, we selected alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and glycerol) and saccharide carbon sources (glucose, sucrose, and starch). Batch denitrification experiments revealed that methanol-acclimated sludge improved the denitrification rate of both methanol (14.42 mg-N/gMLVSS*h) and ethanol (9.65 mg-N/gMLVSS*h), whereas ethanol-acclimated sludge improved the denitrification rate of both methanol (7.80 mg-N/gMLVSS*h) and ethanol (22.23 mg-N/gMLVSS*h). In addition, the glucose-acclimated sludge and sucrose-acclimated sludge possibly improved the denitrification rate of glucose and sucrose, and the glycerol-acclimated sludge improved the denitrification rate of volatile fatty acids (VFAs), alcohols, and saccharide carbon sources. Functional gene analysis revealed that methanol, ethanol, and glycerol exhibited active alcohol oxidation and glyoxylate metabolism, and glycerol, glucose, and sucrose exhibited active glycolysis metabolism. This indicated that the similarity in the denitrification metabolism of these carbon sources was based on functional gene similarity, and glycerol-acclimated sludge exhibited the most diverse metabolism, which ensured its good denitrification effect with other carbon sources.

Deciphering the molecular mechanism and regulation of formaldehyde detoxification in Mycobacterium smegmatis

The build-up of formaldehyde, a highly reactive molecule is cytotoxic and must be eliminated for the organism's survival. Formaldehyde detoxification system is found in nearly all organisms including both pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacteria. MscR, a formaldehyde dehydrogenase from Mycobacterium smegmatis (Msm), is an indispensable part of this system and forms a bicistronic operon with its downstream uncharacterized gene, fmh. We here show that Fmh, a putative metallo-beta-lactamase, is essential in tolerating higher amounts of formaldehyde when co-overexpressed with mscR in vivo. Our NMR studies indicate that MscR, along with Fmh, enhances formate production through a mycothiol (MSH)-dependent pathway, emphasizing the importance of Fmh in detoxifying formaldehyde. Although another aldehyde dehydrogenase, MSMEG_1543, induces upon formaldehyde addition, it is not involved in its detoxification. We also show that the expression of the mscR operon is constitutive and remains unchanged upon formaldehyde addition, as displayed by the promoter activity of PmscR and by the transcript and protein levels of MscR. Furthermore, we establish the role of a thiol-responsive sigma factor SigH in formaldehyde detoxification. We show that SigH, and not SigE, is crucial for formaldehyde detoxification, even though it does not directly regulate mscR operon expression. In addition, sensitivity to formaldehyde in sigH-knockout could be alleviated by overexpression of mscR. Taken together, our data demonstrate the importance of MSH-dependent pathways in detoxifying formaldehyde in a mycobacterial system. An absence of such MSH-dependent proteins in eukaryotes and its complete conservation in M. tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, further unravel new drug targets for this pathogen.IMPORTANCEExtensive research has been done on formaldehyde detoxification in different bacteria. However, our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying this process in mycobacteria remains exceedingly little. We previously showed that MscR, a formaldehyde dehydrogenase from Mycobacterium smegmatis, plays a pivotal role in this detoxification pathway. Here, we present a potential S-formyl-mycothiol hydrolase named Fmh, thought to be a metallo-beta-lactamase, which functions along with mycothiol (MSH) and MscR to enhance formate production within this detoxification pathway. Co-expression of Fmh with MscR significantly enhances the efficiency of formaldehyde detoxification in M. smegmatis. Our experiments establish that Fmh catalyzes the final step of this detoxification pathway. Although an alternative sigma factor SigH was found to be involved in formaldehyde detoxification, it did not directly regulate the expression of mscR. Since formaldehyde detoxification is essential for bacterial survival, we envisage this process to be a potential drug target for M. tuberculosis eradication.

Methanol bioconversion into C3, C4, and C5 platform chemicals by the yeast Ogataea polymorpha

BACKGROUND

One carbon (C1) molecules such as methanol have the potential to become sustainable feedstocks for biotechnological processes, as they can be derived from CO2 and green hydrogen, without the need for arable land. Therefore, we investigated the suitability of the methylotrophic yeast Ogataea polymorpha as a potential production organism for platform chemicals derived from methanol. We selected acetone, malate, and isoprene as industrially relevant products to demonstrate the production of compounds with 3, 4, or 5 carbon atoms, respectively.

RESULTS

We successfully engineered O. polymorpha for the production of all three molecules and demonstrated their production using methanol as carbon source. We showed that the metabolism of O. polymorpha is well suited to produce malate as a product and demonstrated that the introduction of an efficient malate transporter is essential for malate production from methanol. Through optimization of the cultivation conditions in shake flasks, which included pH regulation and constant substrate feeding, we were able to achieve a maximum titer of 13 g/L malate with a production rate of 3.3 g/L/d using methanol as carbon source. We further demonstrated the production of acetone and isoprene as additional heterologous products in O. polymorpha, with maximum titers of 13.6 mg/L and 4.4 mg/L, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight how O. polymorpha has the potential to be applied as a versatile cell factory and contribute to the limited knowledge on how methylotrophic yeasts can be used for the production of low molecular weight biochemicals from methanol. Thus, this study can serve as a point of reference for future metabolic engineering in O. polymorpha and process optimization efforts to boost the production of platform chemicals from renewable C1 carbon sources.

Biodegradation enhancement of high concentrations formaldehyde waste gas and verification of the metabolic mechanism

The enhanced effects of formaldehyde biodegradation in a biofilm packing tower are investigated in this study. Three experimental groups were established: a blank control group, a biochar addition group, and a lanthanum addition group. The inlet gas flow rate, the inlet gas concentration, and the structural succession characteristics of the microbial community in the tower were investigated by regular sampling. The intracellular metabolites and key enzymes of the dominant functional bacteria, Pseudomonas P1 and Methylobacterium Q1, in the tower were analyzed. The results indicated that with the biochar addition, the formaldehyde purification efficiency increased significantly from 91.67-94.67 % to 94.12 96.85 %, and the bio-elimination capacity increased with an increase in the inlet gas flow rate from 2.314 to 13.988 mg L-1h-1 to 2.697-15.051 mg L-1h-1. With the addition of lanthanum, the purification efficiency increased significantly from 90.80-93.98 % to 94.36-96.78 %, and the bio-elimination capacity increased with an increase in the inlet gas concentration from 1.099-11.284 mg L-1h-1 to 1.266-11.961 mg L-1h-1. The microbial community structure in the tower changed with system operation, and the formaldehyde degrading functional bacteria formed the dominant bacteria. It was verified that P1 and Q1 metabolized high concentrations of formaldehyde by the serine cycle and the ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) cycle.

Engineering a synthetic energy-efficient formaldehyde assimilation cycle in Escherichia coli

One-carbon (C1) substrates, such as methanol or formate, are attractive feedstocks for circular bioeconomy. These substrates are typically converted into formaldehyde, serving as the entry point into metabolism. Here, we design an erythrulose monophosphate (EuMP) cycle for formaldehyde assimilation, leveraging a promiscuous dihydroxyacetone phosphate dependent aldolase as key enzyme. In silico modeling reveals that the cycle is highly energy-efficient, holding the potential for high bioproduct yields. Dissecting the EuMP into four modules, we use a stepwise strategy to demonstrate in vivo feasibility of the modules in E. coli sensor strains with sarcosine as formaldehyde source. From adaptive laboratory evolution for module integration, we identify key mutations enabling the accommodation of the EuMP reactions with endogenous metabolism. Overall, our study demonstrates the proof-of-concept for a highly efficient, new-to-nature formaldehyde assimilation pathway, opening a way for the development of a methylotrophic platform for a C1-fueled bioeconomy in the future.

Methanol-based biomanufacturing of fuels and chemicals using native and synthetic methylotrophs

Methanol has recently gained significant attention as a potential carbon substrate for the production of fuels and chemicals, owing to its high degree of reduction, abundance, and low price. Native methylotrophic yeasts and bacteria have been investigated for the production of fuels and chemicals. Alternatively, synthetic methylotrophic strains are also being developed by reconstructing methanol utilization pathways in model microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli. Owing to the complex metabolic pathways, limited availability of genetic tools, and methanol/formaldehyde toxicity, the high-level production of target products for industrial applications are still under development to satisfy commercial feasibility. This article reviews the production of biofuels and chemicals by native and synthetic methylotrophic microorganisms. It also highlights the advantages and limitations of both types of methylotrophs and provides an overview of ways to improve their efficiency for the production of fuels and chemicals from methanol.

Achieving net zero CO2 emission in the biobased production of reduced platform chemicals using defined co-feeding of methanol

Next-generation bioprocesses of a future bio-based economy will rely on a flexible mix of readily available feedstocks. Renewable energy can be used to generate sustainable CO₂-derived substrates. Metabolic engineering already enables the functional implementation of different pathways for the assimilation of C1 substrates in various microorganisms. In addition to feedstocks, the benchmark for all future bioprocesses will be sustainability, including the avoidance of CO₂ emissions. Here we review recent advances in the utilization of C1-compounds from different perspectives, considering both strain and bioprocess engineering technologies. In particular, we evaluate methanol as a co-feed for enabling the CO₂ emission-free production of acetyl-CoA-derived compounds. The possible metabolic strategies are analyzed using stoichiometric modeling combined with thermodynamic analysis and prospects for industrial-scale implementation are discussed.

Engineering the methylotrophic yeast Ogataea polymorpha for lactate production from methanol

Introduction: Lactate has gained increasing attention as a platform chemical, particularly for the production of the bioplastic poly-lactic acid (PLA). While current microbial lactate production processes primarily rely on the use of sugars as carbon sources, it is possible to envision a future where lactate can be produced from sustainable, non-food substrates. Methanol could be such a potential substrate, as it can be produced by (electro)chemical hydrogenation from CO₂. Methods: In this study, the use of the methylotrophic yeast Ogataea polymorpha as a host organism for lactate production from methanol was explored. To enable lactate production in Ogataea polymorpha, four different lactate dehydrogenases were expressed under the control of the methanol-inducible MOX promoter. The L-lactate dehydrogenase of Lactobacillus helveticus performed well in the yeast, and the lactate production of this engineered strain could additionally be improved by conducting methanol fed-batch experiments in shake flasks. Further, the impact of different nitrogen sources and the resulting pH levels on production was examined more closely. In order to increase methanol assimilation of the lactate-producing strain, an adaptive laboratory evolution experiment was performed. Results and Discussion: The growth rate of the lactate-producing strain on methanol was increased by 55%, while at the same time lactate production was preserved. The highest lactate titer of 3.8 g/L in this study was obtained by cultivating this evolved strain in a methanol fed-batch experiment in shake flasks with urea as nitrogen source. This study provides a proof of principle that Ogataea polymorpha is a suitable host organism for the production of lactate using methanol as carbon source. In addition, it offers guidance for the engineering of methylotrophic organisms that produce platform chemicals from CO₂-derived substrates. With reduced land use, this technology will promote the development of a sustainable industrial biotechnology in the future.

Alcohol acyltransferases for the biosynthesis of esters

Esters are widely used in food, energy, spices, chemical industry, etc., becoming an indispensable part of life. However, their production heavily relies on the fossil energy industry, which presents significant challenges associated with energy shortages and environmental pollution. Consequently, there is an urgent need to identify alternative green methods for ester production. One promising solution is biosynthesis, which offers sustainable and environmentally friendly processes. In ester biosynthesis, alcohol acyltransferases (AATs) catalyze the condensation of acyl-CoAs and alcohols to form esters, enabling the biosynthesis of nearly 100 different kinds of esters, such as ethyl acetate, hexyl acetate, ethyl crotonate, isoamyl acetate, and butyl butyrate. However, low catalytic efficiency and low selectivity of AATs represent the major bottlenecks for the biosynthesis of certain specific esters, which should be addressed with protein molecular engineering approaches before practical biotechnological applications. This review provides an overview of AAT enzymes, including their sequences, structures, active sites, catalytic mechanisms, and metabolic engineering applications. Furthermore, considering the critical role of AATs in determining the final ester products, the current research progresses of AAT modification using protein molecular engineering are also discussed. This review summarized the major challenges and prospects of AAT enzymes in ester biosynthesis.

Simultaneous influence of light and CO2 on phytoremediation performance and physiological response of plants to formaldehyde

Phytoremediation technology is an effective method to remove formaldehyde indoors, but the purification capacity and physiological response of plants to formaldehyde under the simultaneous influence of light and CO₂ have not been examined in previous studies. In this study, formaldehyde fumigation experiments were conducted on the C₃ plants Epipremnum aureum A. and Chlorophytum comosum L., and the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Dieffenbachia maculate A. The phytoremediation performance and physiological response of plants were studied. The initial concentration of formaldehyde was established at 11.950 ± 1.442 [Formula: see text]; the light intensities were 448 ± 7 [Formula: see text], 1628 ± 22 [Formula: see text], and 3259 ± 22 [Formula: see text], respectively; and the concentrations of CO₂ were 455 ± 29 [Formula: see text], 978 ± 50 [Formula: see text], 2020 ± 66 [Formula: see text], and 3006 ± 95 [Formula: see text], respectively. The results indicated that the highest purification rates of formaldehyde by E. aureum, D. maculata, and C. comosum were 55.8%, 43.7%, and 53.2%, respectively. The light intensity had a positive effect on the formaldehyde purification rates of all three plants and positively stimulated peroxidase (POD) activity, while the CO₂ concentration had no significant impact on the formaldehyde purification capacity and plants' physiological characteristics. Exposure to formaldehyde inhibited formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FADH) activity and positively stimulated catalase (CAT) activity. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity positively correlated with the formaldehyde purification capacity of plants.

Unique alcohol dehydrogenases involved in algal sugar utilization by marine bacteria

Marine algae produce complex polysaccharides, which can be degraded by marine heterotrophic bacteria utilizing carbohydrate-active enzymes. The red algal polysaccharide porphyran contains the methoxy sugar 6-O-methyl-D-galactose (G6Me). In the degradation of porphyran, oxidative demethylation of this monosaccharide towards D-galactose and formaldehyde occurs, which is catalyzed by a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and its redox partners. In direct proximity to the genes encoding for the key enzymes of this oxidative demethylation, genes encoding for zinc-dependent alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) were identified, which seem to be conserved in porphyran utilizing marine Flavobacteriia. Considering the fact that dehydrogenases could play an auxiliary role in carbohydrate degradation, we aimed to elucidate the physiological role of these marine ADHs. Although our results reveal that the ADHs are not involved in formaldehyde detoxification, a knockout of the ADH gene causes a dramatic growth defect of Zobellia galactanivorans with G6Me as a substrate. This indicates that the ADH is required for G6Me utilization. Complete biochemical characterizations of the ADHs from Formosa agariphila KMM 3901T (FoADH) and Z. galactanivorans DsijT (ZoADH) were performed, and the substrate screening revealed that these enzymes preferentially convert aromatic aldehydes. Additionally, we elucidated the crystal structures of FoADH and ZoADH in complex with NAD+ and showed that the strict substrate specificity of these new auxiliary enzymes is based on a narrow active site. KEY POINTS: • Knockout of the ADH-encoding gene revealed its role in 6-O-methyl-D-galactose utilization, suggesting a new auxiliary activity in marine carbohydrate degradation. • Complete enzyme characterization indicated no function in a subsequent reaction of the oxidative demethylation, such as formaldehyde detoxification. • These marine ADHs preferentially convert aromatic compounds, and their strict substrate specificity is based on a narrow active site.

Metabolic engineering of thermophilic Bacillus methanolicus for riboflavin overproduction from methanol

The growing need of next generation feedstocks for biotechnology spurs an intensification of research on the utilization of methanol as carbon and energy source for biotechnological processes. In this paper, we introduced the methanol-based overproduction of riboflavin into metabolically engineered Bacillus methanolicus MGA3. First, we showed that B. methanolicus naturally produces small amounts of riboflavin. Then, we created B. methanolicus strains overexpressing either homologous or heterologous gene clusters encoding the riboflavin biosynthesis pathway, resulting in riboflavin overproduction. Our results revealed that the supplementation of growth media with sublethal levels of chloramphenicol contributes to a higher plasmid-based riboflavin production titre, presumably due to an increase in plasmid copy number and thus biosynthetic gene dosage. Based on this, we proved that riboflavin production can be increased by exchanging a low copy number plasmid with a high copy number plasmid leading to a final riboflavin titre of about 523 mg L^-1 in methanol fed-batch fermentation. The findings of this study showcase the potential of B. methanolicus as a promising host for methanol-based overproduction of extracellular riboflavin and serve as basis for metabolic engineering of next generations of riboflavin overproducing strains.

Integrating Carbohydrate and C1 Utilization for Chemicals Production

In the face of increasing mobility and energy demand, as well as the mitigation of climate change, the development of sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives to fossil fuels will be one of the most important tasks facing humankind in the coming years. In order to initiate the transition from a petroleum-based economy to a new, greener future, biofuels and synthetic fuels have great potential as they can be adapted to already common processes. Thereby, especially synthetic fuels from CO₂ and renewable energies are seen as the next big step for a sustainable and ecological life. In our study, we directly address the sustainable production of the most common biofuel, ethanol, and the highly interesting next-generation biofuel, isobutanol, from methanol and xylose, which are directly derivable from CO₂ and lignocellulosic waste streams, respectively, such integrating synthetic fuel and biofuel production. After enzyme and reaction optimization, we succeeded in producing either 3 g L^-1 ethanol or 2 g L^-1 isobutanol from 7.5 g L^-1 xylose and 1.6 g L^-1 methanol. In our cell-free enzyme system, C1-compounds are efficiently combined and fixed by the key enzyme transketolase and converted to the intermediate pyruvate. This opens the way for a hybrid production of biofuels, platform chemicals and fine chemicals from CO₂ and lignocellulosic waste streams as alternative to conventional routes depending solely either on CO₂ or sugars.

Developing methylotrophic microbial platforms for a methanol-based bioindustry

Methanol, a relatively cheap and renewable single-carbon feedstock, has gained considerable attention as a substrate for the bio-production of commodity chemicals. Conventionally produced from syngas, along with emerging possibilities of generation from methane and CO2, this C1 substrate can serve as a pool for sequestering greenhouse gases while supporting a sustainable bio-economy. Methylotrophic organisms, with the inherent ability to use methanol as the sole carbon and energy source, are competent candidates as platform organisms. Accordingly, methanol bioconversion pathways have been an attractive target for biotechnological and bioengineering interventions in developing microbial cell factories. This review summarizes the recent advances in methanol-based production of various bulk and value-added chemicals exploiting the native and synthetic methylotrophic organisms. Finally, the current challenges and prospects of streamlining these methylotrophic platforms are discussed.

Synthetic methylotrophic yeasts for the sustainable fuel and chemical production

Global energy-related emissions, in particular carbon dioxide, are rapidly increasing. Without immediate and strong reductions across all sectors, limiting global warming to 1.5 °C and thus mitigating climate change is beyond reach. In addition to the expansion of renewable energies and the increase in energy efficiency, the so-called Carbon Capture and Utilization technologies represent an innovative approach for closing the carbon cycle and establishing a circular economy. One option is to combine CO₂ capture with microbial C₁ fermentation. C₁-molecules, such as methanol or formate are considered as attractive alternative feedstock for biotechnological processes due to their sustainable production using only CO₂, water and renewable energy. Native methylotrophic microorganisms can utilize these feedstock for the production of value-added compounds. Currently, constraints exist regarding the understanding of methylotrophic metabolism and the available genetic engineering tools are limited. For this reason, the development of synthetic methylotrophic cell factories based on the integration of natural or artificial methanol assimilation pathways in biotechnologically relevant microorganisms is receiving special attention. Yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Yarrowia lipolytica are capable of producing important products from sugar-based feedstock and the switch to produce these in the future from methanol is important in order to realize a CO₂-based economy that is independent from land use. Here, we review historical biotechnological applications, the metabolism and the characteristics of methylotrophic yeasts. Various studies demonstrated the production of a broad set of promising products from fine chemicals to bulk chemicals by applying methylotrophic yeasts. Regarding synthetic methylotrophy, the deep understanding of the methylotrophic metabolism serves as the basis for microbial strain engineering and paves the way towards a CO₂-based circular bioeconomy. We highlight design aspects of synthetic methylotrophy and discuss the resulting chances and challenges using non-conventional yeasts as host organisms. We conclude that the road towards synthetic methylotrophic yeasts can only be achieved through a combination of methods (e.g., metabolic engineering and adaptive laboratory evolution). Furthermore, we presume that the installation of metabolic regeneration cycles such as supporting carbon re-entry towards the pentose phosphate pathway from C₁-metabolism is a pivotal target for synthetic methylotrophy.

Biocatalytic One-Carbon Transfer – A Review

This review provides an overview of different C1 building blocks as substrates of enzymes, or part of their cofactors, and the resulting­ functionalized products. There is an emphasis on the broad range of possibilities of biocatalytic one-carbon extensions with C1 sources of different oxidation states. The identification of uncommon biosynthetic strategies, many of which might serve as templates for synthetic or biotechnological applications, towards one-carbon extensions is supported by recent genomic and metabolomic progress and hence we refer principally to literature spanning from 2014 to 2020.

1 Introduction

2 Methane, Methanol, and Methylamine

3 Glycine

4 Nitromethane

5 SAM and SAM Ylide

6 Other C1 Building Blocks

7 Formaldehyde and Glyoxylate as Formaldehyde Equivalents

8 Cyanide

9 Formic Acid

10 Formyl-CoA and Oxalyl-CoA

11 Carbon Monoxide

12 Carbon Dioxide

13 Conclusions

Toward Methanol-Based Biomanufacturing: Emerging Strategies for Engineering Synthetic Methylotrophy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The global expansion of biomanufacturing is currently limited by the availability of sugar-based microbial feedstocks, which require farmland for cultivation and therefore cannot support large increases in production without impacting the human food supply. One-carbon feedstocks, such as methanol, present an enticing alternative to sugar because they can be produced independently of arable farmland from organic waste, atmospheric carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons such as biomethane, natural gas, and coal. The development of efficient industrial microorganisms that can convert one-carbon feedstocks into valuable products is an ongoing challenge. This review discusses progress in the field of synthetic methylotrophy with a focus on how it pertains to the important industrial yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Recent insights generated from engineering synthetic methylotrophic xylulose- and ribulose-monophosphate cycles, reductive glycine pathways, and adaptive laboratory evolution studies are critically assessed to generate novel strategies for the future engineering of methylotrophy in S. cerevisiae.

Comparative transcriptome and metabolome analyses reveal the methanol dissimilation pathway of Pichia pastoris

BACKGROUND

Pichia pastoris (Komagataella phaffii) is a model organism widely used for the recombinant expression of eukaryotic proteins, and it can metabolize methanol as its sole carbon and energy source. Methanol is oxidized to formaldehyde by alcohol oxidase (AOX). In the dissimilation pathway, formaldehyde is oxidized to CO2 by formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FLD), S-hydroxymethyl glutathione hydrolase (FGH) and formate dehydrogenase (FDH).

RESULTS

The transcriptome and metabolome of P. pastoris were determined under methanol cultivation when its dissimilation pathway cut off. Firstly, Δfld and Δfgh were significantly different compared to the wild type (GS115), with a 60.98% and 23.66% reduction in biomass, respectively. The differential metabolites between GS115 and Δfld were mainly enriched in ABC transporters, amino acid biosynthesis, and protein digestion and absorption. Secondly, comparative transcriptome between knockout and wild type strains showed that oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis and the TCA cycle were downregulated, while alcohol metabolism, proteasomes, autophagy and peroxisomes were upregulated. Interestingly, the down-regulation of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway was positively correlated with the gene order of dissimilation pathway knockdown. In addition, there were significant differences in amino acid metabolism and glutathione redox cycling that raised our concerns about formaldehyde sorption in cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first time that integrity of dissimilation pathway analysis based on transcriptomics and metabolomics was carried out in Pichia pastoris. The blockage of dissimilation pathway significantly down-regulates the level of oxidative phosphorylation and weakens the methanol assimilation pathway to the point where deficiencies in energy supply and carbon fixation result in inefficient biomass accumulation and genetic replication. In addition, transcriptional upregulation of the proteasome and autophagy may be a stress response to resolve formaldehyde-induced DNA-protein crosslinking.

Biogeochemical profiling and taxonomic characterization of municipal landfill site by metagenomic sequencing

Most of the discarded waste material paves their way to the utmost common dumping grounds, Landfills. Despite their widespread use, the landfill microbiomes are still not well characterized. Metagenomics approach provides insight into the identification of operational parameters influencing the microbiome composition and their biodegradation competencies. The metagenomic DNA was prepared to explore taxonomical community structure, phylogenetic relationships, and functional profile at the same time. A total of 100,021,052 high-quality filtered reads were acquired with a GC abundance of 62.59%. Taxonomical abundance revealed the dominance of phylum Proteobacteria and genes involved in biomolecules metabolism, aromatic compound degradation, stress tolerance, xenobiotic biodegradation etc. were revealed functionally. The intricate heterogeneous environment of landfill revealed well flourished biogeochemical metabolic profiles including nitrogen metabolism. This is the first study for the generated metagenome of Ghazipur landfill and the obtained results propose that microbial communities in landfill settings are far more intricate than expected. It remain mostly unexplored which demands the usage of multiple platforms for a better understanding.

Regulation of Peroxisome Homeostasis by Post-Translational Modification in the Methylotrophic Yeast Komagataella phaffii

The methylotrophic yeast Komagataella phaffii (synoym Pichia pastoris) can grow on methanol with an associated proliferation of peroxisomes, which are subsequently degraded by pexophagy upon depletion of methanol. Two cell wall integrity and stress response component (WSC) family proteins (Wsc1 and Wsc3) sense the extracellular methanol concentration and transmit the methanol signal to Rom2. This stimulates the activation of transcription factors (Mxr1, Trm1, and Mit1 etc.), leading to the induction of methanol-metabolizing enzymes (methanol-induced gene expression) and synthesis of huge peroxisomes. Methanol-induced gene expression is repressed by the addition of ethanol (ethanol repression). This repression is not conducted directly by ethanol but rather by acetyl-CoA synthesized from ethanol by sequential reactions, including alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases, and acetyl-CoA synthetase. During ethanol repression, Mxr1 is inactivated by phosphorylation. Peroxisomes are degraded by pexophagy on depletion of methanol and this event is triggered by phosphorylation of Atg30 located at the peroxisome membrane. In the presence of methanol, Wsc1 and Wsc3 repress pexophagy by transmitting the methanol signal via the MAPK cascade to the transcription factor Rlm1, which induces phosphatases involved in dephosphorylation of Atg30. Upon methanol consumption, repression of Atg30 phosphorylation is released, resulting in initiation of pexophagy. Physiological significance of these machineries involved in peroxisome homeostasis and their post-translational modification is also discussed in association with the lifestyle of methylotrophic yeast in the phyllosphere.

Characterization of an Aspergillus niger for Efficient Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester Synthesis in Aqueous Phase and the Molecular Mechanism

Fatty acid ethyl esters are important flavor chemicals in strong-flavor baijiu. Microorganisms are the main contributors to ester synthesis during baijiu manufacture. However, the ester synthesis was unstable between batches. This was owing to a limited knowledge of the mechanisms for ester synthesis by microorganisms. In this work, a fatty acid ethyl ester synthesizing Aspergillus niger strain CGMCC (China General Microbiological Culture Collection) 3.4309 was identified. The conversion ratios of ethyl valerate, ethyl caproate, ethyl caprylate, and ethyl caprate were 7.87, 29.20, 94.80, and 85.20%, respectively, under the optimized conditions. A comparison of transcriptomes under the initial and optimized ester synthetic conditions indicated that 23 genes were upregulated in transcription level and encoded enzymes with potential abilities for ester synthesis. Eleven of the enzymes were expressed, and three of them, numbered An605, An1097, and An3131, showed the ability to catalyze fatty acid ethyl ester synthesis under aqueous phase, with capric acid as the preferred substrate. The possible enzymatic catalytic mechanism was proposed based on homology modeling and molecular docking. This study reported for the first time that A. niger showed the ability to efficiently catalyze the synthesis of short- and medium-chain fatty acid ethyl esters in aqueous phase, identified the key enzymes, and analyzed the basic enzymatic properties. This is helpful to promote the application of related microorganisms and enzyme resources in the baijiu industry.

Molecular dissection of a dedicated formaldehyde dehydrogenase from Mycobacterium smegmatis

Accumulation of formaldehyde, a highly reactive molecule, in the cell is toxic, and requires detoxification for the organism's survival. Mycothiol-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase or S-nitrosomycothiol reductase (MscR) from Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis was previously known for detoxifying formaldehyde and protecting the cell against nitrosative stress. We here show that M. smegmatis MscR exhibits a mycothiol-independent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH) activity in vitro. Presence of zinc in the reaction enhances MscR activity, thus making it a zinc-dependent FDH. Interestingly, MscR utilizes only formaldehyde and no other primary aldehydes as its substrate in vitro, and M. smegmatis lacking mscR (ΔmscR) shows sensitivity exclusively toward formaldehyde. Bioinformatics analysis of MscRs from various bacteria reveals 10 positionally conserved cysteines, whose importance in structural stability and biological activity is not yet investigated. To explore the significance of these cysteines, we generated MscR single Cys variants by systematically replacing each cysteine with serine. All of the Cys variants except C39S and C309S are unable to show a complete rescue of ΔmscR on formaldehyde, show a significant loss of enzymatic activity in vitro, pronounced structural alterations as probed by circular dichroism, and loss of homotetramerization on size exclusion chromatography. Our data thus reveal the importance of intact cysteines in the structural stability and biological activity of MscR, which is a dedicated FDH in M. smegmatis, and shows ~84% identity with M. tuberculosis MscR. We believe that this knowledge will further help in the development of FDH as a potential drug target against M. tuberculosis infections.

ADH2/GSNOR1 is a key player in limiting genotoxic damage mediated by formaldehyde and UV-B in Arabidopsis

Maintenance of genome stability is an essential requirement for all living organisms. Formaldehyde and UV-B irradiation cause DNA damage and affect genome stability, growth and development, but the interplay between these two genotoxic factors is poorly understood in plants. We show that Arabidopsis adh2/gsnor1 mutant, which lacks alcohol dehydrogenase 2/S-nitrosoglutathione reductase 1 (ADH2/GSNOR1), are hypersensitive to low fluence UV-B irradiation or UV-B irradiation-mimetic chemicals. Although the ADH2/GSNOR1 enzyme can act on different substrates, notably on S-hydroxymethylglutathione (HMG) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), our study provides several lines of evidence that the sensitivity of gsnor1 to UV-B is caused mainly by UV-B-induced formaldehyde accumulation rather than other factors such as alteration of the GSNO concentration. Our results demonstrate an interplay between formaldehyde and UV-B that exacerbates genome instability, leading to severe DNA damage and impaired growth and development in Arabidopsis, and show that ADH2/GSNOR1 is a key player in combating these effects.

Phytoremediation of formaldehyde by the stems of Epipremnum aureum and Rohdea japonica

Decorative plants can efficiently purify formaldehyde and improve the quality of indoor air. The existing studies primarily revealed that the aerial and underground parts of plants' capacity to purify formaldehyde, while the performance of stems is unclear. A formaldehyde fumigation experiment was conducted on Epipremnum aureum and Rohdea japonica in a sealed chamber. Results showed the stems could remove formaldehyde. The efficiency of removal by the stems of each plant was 0.089 and 0.137 mg∙m^-3∙h^-1, respectively, the rate of purification was 40.0 and 61.6%, respectively. Both were related to plant species and the latter was affected by other factors like exposed area. To further explore the mechanism of phytoremediation, the correlation between the concentration of formaldehyde and CO₂ during the experiment was investigated. Results showed when leaves of plants were exposed to formaldehyde, the concentration of CO₂ increased with the decrease in concentration of formaldehyde, and the change in concentration of CO₂ could be used as an indicator of the degree of decontamination of formaldehyde by the plants.

Unravelling Formaldehyde Metabolism in Bacteria: Road towards Synthetic Methylotrophy

Formaldehyde metabolism is prevalent in all organisms, where the accumulation of formaldehyde can be prevented through the activity of dissimilation pathways. Furthermore, formaldehyde assimilatory pathways play a fundamental role in many methylotrophs, which are microorganisms able to build biomass and obtain energy from single- and multicarbon compounds with no carbon–carbon bonds. Here, we describe how formaldehyde is formed in the environment, the mechanisms of its toxicity to the cells, and the cell’s strategies to circumvent it. While their importance is unquestionable for cell survival in formaldehyde rich environments, we present examples of how the modification of native formaldehyde dissimilation pathways in nonmethylotrophic bacteria can be applied to redirect carbon flux toward heterologous, synthetic formaldehyde assimilation pathways introduced into their metabolism. Attempts to engineer methylotrophy into nonmethylotrophic hosts have gained interest in the past decade, with only limited successes leading to the creation of autonomous synthetic methylotrophy. Here, we discuss how native formaldehyde assimilation pathways can additionally be employed as a premise to achieving synthetic methylotrophy. Lastly, we discuss how emerging knowledge on regulation of formaldehyde metabolism can contribute to creating synthetic regulatory circuits applied in metabolic engineering strategies.

Metabolic engineering strategies to enable microbial utilization of C1 feedstocks

One-carbon (C1) substrates are preferred feedstocks for the biomanufacturing industry and have recently gained attention owing to their natural abundance, low production cost and availability as industrial by-products. However, native pathways to utilize these substrates are absent in most biotechnologically relevant microorganisms. Recent advances in synthetic biology, genome engineering and laboratory evolution are enabling the first steps towards the creation of synthetic C1-utilizing microorganisms. Here, we briefly review the native metabolism of methane, methanol, CO₂, CO and formate, and how these C1-utilizing pathways can be engineered into heterologous hosts. In addition, this review analyses the potential, the challenges and the perspectives of C1-based biomanufacturing.

Strategies and challenges with the microbial conversion of methanol to high-value chemicals

As alternatives to traditional fermentation substrates, methanol (CH₃ OH), carbon dioxide (CO₂ ) and methane (CH₄ ) represent promising one-carbon (C1) sources that are readily available at low-cost and share similar metabolic pathway. Of these C1 compounds, methanol is used as a carbon and energy source by native methylotrophs, and can be obtained from CO₂ and CH₄ by chemical catalysis. Therefore, constructing and rewiring methanol utilization pathways may enable the use of one-carbon sources for microbial fermentations. Recent bioengineering efforts have shown that both native and nonnative methylotrophic organisms can be engineered to convert methanol, together with other carbon sources, into biofuels and other commodity chemicals. However, many challenges remain and must be overcome before industrial-scale bioprocessing can be established using these engineered cell refineries. Here, we provide a comprehensive summary and comparison of methanol metabolic pathways from different methylotrophs, followed by a review of recent progress in engineering methanol metabolic pathways in vitro and in vivo to produce chemicals. We discuss the major challenges associated with establishing efficient methanol metabolic pathways in microbial cells, and propose improved designs for future engineering.

Synthetic Formatotrophs for One-Carbon Biorefinery

The use of CO2 as a carbon source in biorefinery is of great interest, but the low solubility of CO2 in water and the lack of efficient CO2 assimilation pathways are challenges to overcome. Formic acid (FA), which can be easily produced from CO2 and more conveniently stored and transported than CO2, is an attractive CO2-equivalent carbon source as it can be assimilated more efficiently than CO2 by microorganisms and also provides reducing power. Although there are native formatotrophs, they grow slowly and are difficult to metabolically engineer due to the lack of genetic manipulation tools. Thus, much effort is exerted to develop efficient FA assimilation pathways and synthetic microorganisms capable of growing solely on FA (and CO2). Several innovative strategies are suggested to develop synthetic formatotrophs through rational metabolic engineering involving new enzymes and reconstructed FA assimilation pathways, and/or adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE). In this paper, recent advances in development of synthetic formatotrophs are reviewed, focusing on biological FA and CO2 utilization pathways, enzymes involved and newly developed, and metabolic engineering and ALE strategies employed. Also, future challenges in cultivating formatotrophs to higher cell densities and producing chemicals from FA and CO2 are discussed.

Beyond alcohol oxidase: the methylotrophic yeast Komagataella phaffii utilizes methanol also with its native alcohol dehydrogenase Adh2

Methylotrophic yeasts are considered to use alcohol oxidases to assimilate methanol, different to bacteria which employ alcohol dehydrogenases with better energy conservation. The yeast Komagataella phaffii carries two genes coding for alcohol oxidase, AOX1 and AOX2. The deletion of the AOX1 leads to the Mut^S phenotype and the deletion of AOX1 and AOX2 to the Mut^– phenotype. The Mut^– phenotype is commonly regarded as unable to utilize methanol. In contrast to the literature, we found that the Mut^– strain can consume methanol. This ability was based on the promiscuous activity of alcohol dehydrogenase Adh2, an enzyme ubiquitously found in yeast and normally responsible for ethanol consumption and production. Using ¹³C labeled methanol as substrate we could show that to the largest part methanol is dissimilated to CO₂ and a small part is incorporated into metabolites, the biomass, and the secreted recombinant protein. Overexpression of the ADH2 gene in K. phaffii Mut^– increased both the specific methanol uptake rate and recombinant protein production, even though the strain was still unable to grow. These findings imply that thermodynamic and kinetic constraints of the dehydrogenase reaction facilitated the evolution towards alcohol oxidase-based methanol metabolism in yeast.

Comparative Gut Microbiome Differences between Ferric Citrate and Calcium Carbonate Phosphate Binders in Patients with End-Stage Kidney Disease

Gut dysbiosis in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) may induce chronic inflammation and increase morbidity. Phosphate-binding agents, generally used in patients with CKD, may potentially change the composition of the gut microbiota. This study aimed to compare the microbiota composition in hemodialysis patients treated with ferric citrate or calcium carbonate. The stool microbiota was investigated in hemodialysis patients treated with ferric citrate (n = 8) and calcium carbonate (n = 46) using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing profiling using linear discriminant analysis of effect size. Further predictive functional profiling of microbial communities was obtained with Tax4Fun in R. Hemodialysis patients treated with calcium carbonate had a significantly reduced microbial species diversity (Shannon index and Simpson index) and an increased microbial alteration ratio compared with patients treated with ferric citrate. A distinct microbial community structure was found in patients treated with ferric citrate, with an increased abundance of the Bacteroidetes phylum and a decreased abundance of the phylum Firmicutes. Members of the order Lactobacillales were enriched in patients treated with calcium carbonate, whereas taxa of the genera Ruminococcaceae UCG-004, Flavonifractor, and Cronobacter were enriched in patients treated with ferric citrate phosphate binder. In conclusion, Ferric citrate therapy results in a more diverse microbiome community compared to calcium carbonate therapy in hemodialysis patients with phosphate binder treatment. The gut microbiome reflects the phosphate binder choice in hemodialysis patients, further affecting the physiological environment in the gastrointestinal tract.

Lanthanide-Dependent Methanol and Formaldehyde Oxidation in Methylobacterium aquaticum Strain 22A

Lanthanides (Ln) are an essential cofactor for XoxF-type methanol dehydrogenases (MDHs) in Gram-negative methylotrophs. The Ln³⁺ dependency of XoxF has expanded knowledge and raised new questions in methylotrophy, including the differences in characteristics of XoxF-type MDHs, their regulation, and the methylotrophic metabolism including formaldehyde oxidation. In this study, we genetically identified one set of Ln³⁺- and Ca²⁺-dependent MDHs (XoxF1 and MxaFI), that are involved in methylotrophy, and an ExaF-type Ln³⁺-dependent ethanol dehydrogenase, among six MDH-like genes in Methylobacterium aquaticum strain 22A. We also identified the causative mutations in MxbD, a sensor kinase necessary for mxaF expression and xoxF1 repression, for suppressive phenotypes in xoxF1 mutants defective in methanol growth even in the absence of Ln³⁺. Furthermore, we examined the phenotypes of a series of formaldehyde oxidation-pathway mutants (fae1, fae2, mch in the tetrahydromethanopterin (H₄MPT) pathway and hgd in the glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (GSH) pathway). We found that MxaF produces formaldehyde to a toxic level in the absence of the formaldehyde oxidation pathways and that either XoxF1 or ExaF can oxidize formaldehyde to alleviate formaldehyde toxicity in vivo. Furthermore, the GSH pathway has a supportive role for the net formaldehyde oxidation in addition to the H₄MPT pathway that has primary importance. Studies on methylotrophy in Methylobacterium species have a long history, and this study provides further insights into genetic and physiological diversity and the differences in methylotrophy within the plant-colonizing methylotrophs.

Diversity and occurrence of methylotrophic yeasts used in genetic engineering

Methylotrophic yeasts have been used as the platform for expression of heterologous proteins since the 1980’s. They are highly productive and allow producing eukaryotic proteins with an acceptable glycosylation level. The first Pichia pastoris-based system for expression of recombinant protein was developed on the basis of the treeexudate- derived strain obtained in the US southwest. Being distributed free of charge for scientific purposes, this system has become popular around the world. As methylotrophic yeasts were classified in accordance with biomolecular markers, strains used for production of recombinant protein were reclassified as Komagataella phaffii. Although patent legislation suggests free access to these yeasts, they have been distributed on a contract basis. Whereas their status for commercial use is undetermined, the search for alternative stains for expression of recombinant protein continues. Strains of other species of methylotrophic yeasts have been adapted, among which the genus Ogataea representatives prevail. Despite the phylogenetic gap between the genus Ogataea and the genus Komagataella representatives, it turned out possible to use classic vectors and promoters for expression of recombinant protein in all cases. There exist expression systems based on other strains of the genus Komagataella as well as the genus Candida. The potential of these microorganisms for genetic engineering is far from exhausted. Both improvement of existing expression systems and development of new ones on the basis of strains obtained from nature are advantageous. Historically, strains obtained on the southwest of the USA were used as expression systems up to 2009. Currently, expression systems based on strains obtained in Thailand are gaining popularity. Since this group of microorganisms is widely represented around the world both in nature and in urban environments, it may reasonably be expected that new expression systems for recombinant proteins based on strains obtained in other regions of the globe will appear.

Genome-scale metabolic models of Microbacterium species isolated from a high altitude desert environment

The Atacama Desert is the most arid desert on Earth, focus of important research activities related to microbial biodiversity studies. In this context, metabolic characterization of arid soil bacteria is crucial to understand their survival strategies under extreme environmental stress. We investigated whether strain-specific features of two Microbacterium species were involved in the metabolic ability to tolerate/adapt to local variations within an extreme desert environment. Using an integrative systems biology approach we have carried out construction and comparison of genome-scale metabolic models (GEMs) of two Microbacterium sp., CGR1 and CGR2, previously isolated from physicochemically contrasting soil sites in the Atacama Desert. Despite CGR1 and CGR2 belong to different phylogenetic clades, metabolic pathways and attributes are highly conserved in both strains. However, comparison of the GEMs showed significant differences in the connectivity of specific metabolites related to pH tolerance and CO₂ production. The latter is most likely required to handle acidic stress through decarboxylation reactions. We observed greater GEM connectivity within Microbacterium sp. CGR1 compared to CGR2, which is correlated with the capacity of CGR1 to tolerate a wider pH tolerance range. Both metabolic models predict the synthesis of pigment metabolites (β-carotene), observation validated by HPLC experiments. Our study provides a valuable resource to further investigate global metabolic adaptations of bacterial species to grow in soils with different abiotic factors within an extreme environment.

A quantitative evaluation method for wastewater toxicity based on a microbial fuel cell

A microbial fuel cell (MFC) was successfully developed as a toxicity biomonitoring system to enable a quick response to wastewater with unknown toxicity in toxic events. The objective was to quantitatively assess the toxicity of wastewater by a rapid method. Different concentrations of formaldehyde were introduced into the anode chamber, which led to different stages of voltage change. A relationship between the linear slope of the voltage drop stage and the formaldehyde concentration was established through dose-response fitting results. This relationship makes it possible to convert an unknown toxicity of wastewater into the equivalent concentration of formaldehyde. The minimum detection limit in this study was 13 mg/L formaldehyde equivalents. As the toxicity of the wastewater increased, the test time could be reduced to as low as 921 s or even shorter, with a detection error of 3-12 mg/L. By using this evaluation method, oxidized tail gas scrubber wastewater was identified as the main toxic wastewater component in a phenol acetone production plant.

Development of a formaldehyde biosensor with application to synthetic methylotrophy

Formaldehyde is a prevalent environmental toxin and a key intermediate in single carbon metabolism. The ability to monitor formaldehyde concentration is, therefore, of interest for both environmental monitoring and for metabolic engineering of native and synthetic methylotrophs, but current methods suffer from low sensitivity, complex workflows, or require expensive analytical equipment. Here we develop a formaldehyde biosensor based on the FrmR repressor protein and cognate promoter of Escherichia coli. Optimization of the native repressor binding site and regulatory architecture enabled detection at levels as low as 1 µM. We then used the sensor to benchmark the in vivo activity of several NAD-dependent methanol dehydrogenase (Mdh) variants, the rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the first step of methanol assimilation. In order to use this biosensor to distinguish individuals in a mixed population of Mdh variants, we developed a strategy to prevent cross-talk by using glutathione as a formaldehyde sink to minimize intercellular formaldehyde diffusion. Finally, we applied this biosensor to balance expression of mdh and the formaldehyde assimilation enzymes hps and phi in an engineered E. coli strain to minimize formaldehyde build-up while also reducing the burden of heterologous expression. This biosensor offers a quick and simple method for sensitively detecting formaldehyde, and has the potential to be used as the basis for directed evolution of Mdh and dynamic formaldehyde control strategies for establishing synthetic methylotrophy.

Flux Balance Analysis Indicates that Methane Is the Lowest Cost Feedstock for Microbial Cell Factories

The low cost of natural gas has driven significant interest in using C₁ carbon sources (e.g. methane, methanol, CO, syngas) as feedstocks for producing liquid transportation fuels and commodity chemicals. Given the large contribution of sugar and lignocellulosic feedstocks to biorefinery operating costs, natural gas and other C₁ sources may provide an economic advantage. To assess the relative costs of these feedstocks, we performed flux balance analysis on genome-scale metabolic models to calculate the maximum theoretical yields of chemical products from methane, methanol, acetate, and glucose. Yield calculations were performed for every metabolite (as a proxy for desired products) in the genome-scale metabolic models of three organisms: Escherichia coli (bacterium), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast), and Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 (cyanobacterium). The calculated theoretical yields and current feedstock prices provided inputs to create comparative feedstock cost surfaces. Our analysis shows that, at current market prices, methane feedstock costs are consistently lower than glucose when used as a carbon and energy source for microbial chemical production. Conversely, methanol is costlier than glucose under almost all price scenarios. Acetate feedstock costs could be less than glucose given efficient acetate production from low-cost syngas using nascent biological gas to liquids (BIO-GTL) technologies. Our analysis suggests that research should focus on overcoming the technical challenges of methane assimilation and/or yield of acetate via BIO-GTL to take advantage of low-cost natural gas rather than using methanol as a feedstock.

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Review of C1 assimilation strategies is presented.

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Flux balance analysis used to create relative feedstock cost surfaces.

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Methane found to be the lowest cost feedstock for conversion of C1 compounds.

Novel function of Wsc proteins as a methanol-sensing machinery in the yeast Pichia pastoris

Wsc family proteins are plasma membrane spanning sensor proteins conserved from yeasts to mammalian cells. We studied the functional roles of Wsc family proteins in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris, and found that PpWsc1 and PpWsc3 function as methanol-sensors during growth on methanol. PpWsc1 responds to a lower range of methanol concentrations than PpWsc3. PpWsc1, but not PpWsc3, also functions during high temperature stress, but PpWsc1 senses methanol as a signal that is distinct from high-temperature stress. We also found that PpRom2, which is known to function downstream of the Wsc family proteins in the cell wall integrity pathway, was also involved in sensing methanol. Based on these results, these PpWsc family proteins were demonstrated to be involved in sensing methanol and transmitting the signal via their cytoplasmic tail to the nucleus via PpRom2, which plays a critical role in regulating expression of a subset of methanol-inducible genes to coordinate well-balanced methanol metabolism.

Methanol-enhanced removal and metabolic conversion of formaldehyde by a black soybean from formaldehyde solutions

Methanol regulation of some biochemical and physiological characteristics in plants has been documented in several references. This study showed that the pretreatment of methanol with an appropriate concentration could stimulate the HCHO uptake by black soybean (BS) plants. The process of methanol-stimulated HCHO uptake by BS plants was optimized using the Central Composite Design and response surface methodology for the three variables, methanol concentration, HCHO concentration, and treatment time. Under optimized conditions, the best stimulation effect of methanol on HCHO uptake was obtained. 13C-NMR analysis indicated that the H13CHO metabolism produced H13COOH, [2-13C]Gly, and [3-13C]Ser in BS plant roots. Methanol pretreatment enhanced the metabolic conversion of H13CHO in BS plant roots, which consequently increased HCHO uptake by BS plants. Therefore, methanol pretreatment might be used to increase HCHO uptake by plants in the phytoremediation of HCHO-polluted solutions.

Guidance for engineering of synthetic methylotrophy based on methanol metabolism in methylotrophy

Methanol represents an attractive non-food raw material in biotechnological processes from an economic and process point of view. It is vital to elucidate methanol metabolic pathways, which will help to genetically construct non-native methylotrophs.

Engineering the biological conversion of methanol to specialty chemicals in Escherichia coli

Methanol is an attractive substrate for biological production of chemicals and fuels. Engineering methylotrophic Escherichia coli as a platform organism for converting methanol to metabolites is desirable. Prior efforts to engineer methylotrophic E. coli were limited by methanol dehydrogenases (Mdhs) with unfavorable enzyme kinetics. We engineered E. coli to utilize methanol using a superior NAD-dependent Mdh from Bacillus stearothermophilus and ribulose monophosphate (RuMP) pathway enzymes from B. methanolicus. Using ¹³C-labeling, we demonstrate this E. coli strain converts methanol into biomass components. For example, the key TCA cycle intermediates, succinate and malate, exhibit labeling up to 39%, while the lower glycolytic intermediate, 3-phosphoglycerate, up to 53%. Multiple carbons are labeled for each compound, demonstrating a cycling RuMP pathway for methanol assimilation to support growth. By incorporating the pathway to synthesize the flavanone naringenin, we demonstrate the first example of in vivo conversion of methanol into a specialty chemical in E. coli.