The impact of polystyrene microplastics on cardiomyocytes pyroptosis through NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway and oxidative stress in Wistar rats

Screening of optimal cleaning methods to reduce microplastic residues on strawberry surfaces: Characterization of microplastics in strawberry wash water

Microplastics are widespread in facility strawberry greenhouses and can be deposited on the surface of strawberries through air currents. Investigating effective cleaning methods represents a viable strategy to reduce human ingestion of MPs. Therefore, different cleaning methods were compared: ultrasonic cleaning for 30 min, deionized water rinsing once, deionized water immersion for 30 min, and fruit immersion in washing salt for 30 min. The MPs in strawberry washing water were analyzed and compared using laser direct infrared imaging to investigate their characteristics and the optimal reduction of MPs on the surface of strawberries. The quality of the cleaning results was in the following order: water immersion > washing salt immersion > water rinsing > ultrasound. Water immersion was 1.3-2 times more effective in removing microplastics than other treatments. Furthermore, 21 polymer types were detected in the samples. Most MPs were less than 50 µm in size. The main polymers in this size range were polyamide, chlorinated polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate, and they mainly existed as fragments, fibers, and beads. This study provides a valuable reference for reducing human intake of microplastics through fresh fruits and vegetables.

Micro/nano-plastics impacts in cardiovascular systems across species

The widespread presence of microplastics and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) in the environment has become a critical public health issue due to their potential to infiltrate and affect various biological systems. Our review is crucial as it consolidates current data and provides a comprehensive analysis of the cardiovascular impacts of MPs/NPs across species, highlighting significant implications for human health. By synthesizing findings from studies on aquatic and terrestrial organisms, including humans, this review offers insights into the ubiquity of MPs/NPs and their pathophysiological roles in cardiovascular systems. We demonstrated that exposure to MPs/NPs is linked to various cardiovascular ailments such as thrombogenesis, vascular damage, and cardiac impairments in model organisms, which likely extrapolate to humans. Our review critically evaluated methods for detecting MPs/NPs in biological tissues, assessing their toxicity, and understanding their behaviour within the vasculature. These findings emphasise the urgent need for targeted public health strategies and enhanced regulatory measures to mitigate the impacts of MP/NP pollution. Furthermore, the review underlined the necessity of advancing research methodologies to explore long-term effects and potential intergenerational consequences of MP/NP exposure. By mapping out the intricate links between environmental exposure and cardiovascular risks, our work served as a pivotal reference for future research and policymaking aimed at curbing the burgeoning threat of plastic pollution.

Exposure to polystyrene microplastics during lactational period alters immune status in both male mice and their offspring

The widespread use of microplastics and their harmful effects on the environment have emerged as serious concerns. However, the effect of microplastics on the immune system of mammals, particularly their offspring, has received little attention. In this study, polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) were orally administered to male mice during lactation. Flow cytometry was used to assess the immune cells in the spleens of both adult male mice and their offspring. The results showed that mice exposed to PS-MPs exhibited an increase in spleen weight and an elevated number of B and regulatory T cells (Tregs), irrespective of dosage. Furthermore, the F1 male offspring of the PS-MPs-exposed group had enlarged spleens; an increased number of B cells, T helper cells (Th cells), and Tregs; and an elevated ratio of T helper cells 17 (Th17 cells) to Tregs and T helper cells 1 (Th1 cells) to T helper cells 2 (Th2 cells). These results suggested a pro-inflammatory state in the spleen. In contrast, in the F1 female offspring exposed to PS-MPs, the changes in splenic immune cells were less pronounced. In the F2 generation of mice with exposed to PS-MPs, minimal alterations were observed in spleen immune cells and morphology. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that exposure to real human doses of PS-MPs during lactation in male mice altered the immune status, which can be passed on to F1 offspring but is not inherited across generations.

Plastic particle impacts on the cardiovascular system and angiogenesis potential

The extensive application of plastics in different sectors such as packaging, building, textiles, consumer products, and several industries has increased in recent years. Emerging data have confirmed that plastic wastes and segregates are problematic issues in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The decomposition of plastic particles (PPs) leads to the release of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) into the surrounding environment and entry of these particles will be problematic in unicellular and multicellular creatures. It was suggested that PPs can easily cross all biological barriers and reach different organs, especially the cardiovascular system, with the potential to modulate several molecular pathways. It is postulated that the direct interaction of PPs with cellular and subcellular components induces genotoxicity and cytotoxicity within the cardiovascular system. Meanwhile, being inert carriers, PPs can intensify the toxicity of other contaminants inside the cardiovascular system. Here, in this review article, several underlying mechanisms related to PP toxicity in the cardiovascular system were discussed in detail.

The alarming link between environmental microplastics and health hazards with special emphasis on cancer

Microplastic contamination is a burgeoning environmental issue that poses serious threats to animal and human health. Microplastics enter the human body through nasal, dermal, and oral routes to contaminate multiple organs. Studies have advocated the existence of microplastics in human breast milk, sputum, faeces, and blood. Microplastics can find their ways to the sub-cellular moiety via active and passive approaches. At cellular level, microplastics follow clathrin and caveolae-dependent pathways to invade the sub-cellular environment. These environmental contaminants modulate the epigenetic control of gene expression, status of inflammatory mediators, redox homeostasis, cell-cycle proteins, and mimic the endocrine mediators like estrogen and androgen to fuel carcinogenesis. Furthermore, epidemiological studies have suggested potential links between the exposure to microplastics and the onset of various chronic diseases. Microplastics trigger uncontrolled cell proliferation and ensue tissue growth leading to various cancers affecting the lungs, blood, breasts, prostate, and ovaries. Additionally, such contamination can potentially affect sub-cellular signaling and injure multiple organs. In essence, numerous reports have claimed microplastic-induced toxicity and tumorigenesis in human and model animals. Nonetheless, the underlying molecular mechanism is still elusive and warrants further investigations. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of microplastics, covering their sources, chemistry, human exposure routes, toxicity, and carcinogenic potential at the molecular level.

Polystyrene Microplastics Induce Injury to the Vascular Endothelial Through NLRP3-Mediated Pyroptosis

The health risks associated with microplastics have attracted widespread attention. Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) can induce damage to cardiac tissue, while pyroptosis-mediated injury to the vascular endothelial plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. The study intended to explore the role and mechanism of NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) mediated pyroptosis in PS-MPs causing the injury of vascular endothelial cells. In vivo, Wistar rats were exposed to 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/kg/d 0.5 μm PS-MPs. In vitro, the human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) were used for mechanistic studies. siRNA was used for silencing the NILRP3 gene. H&E staining and flow cytometry were performed to examine the vascular injury and cell membrane damage. The oxidative stress was detected by flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and corresponding kits. ELISA were used to measure the levels of inflammatory factors. Real-time PCR and western blot were used to measure the expression of pyroptosis signaling pathway. In rats, PS-MPs could cause vascular damage, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response, and activated the pyroptosis signaling pathway. HUVECs exposure to PS-MPs, the vitality decreased in a dose-dependent manner, ROS and MDA were significantly increased while SOD was decreased. PS-MPs induced the onset of pyroptosis signaling pathway in HUVECs. Cell membrane damage and the levels of IL-Iβ and IL-18 in HUVECs significantly increased, those are symbols for the development of pyroptosis. Inhibition of NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis effectively protected HUVECs from PS-MPs-induced damage. Pyroptosis played a vital role in controlling the vascular endothelial injury caused by PS-MPs.

The size-dependence and reversibility of polystyrene nanoplastics-induced hepatic pyroptosis in mice through TXNIP/NLRP3/GSDMD pathway

As emerging environmental contaminants, nanoplastics (NPs) are progressively accumulating in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems worldwide, posing a potential threat to human health. The liver is considered as one of the primary organs targeted by NPs accumulation in living organisms. However, there remains a large knowledge gap concerning NPs-induced hepatotoxicity. In this study, we examined the impact of chronic exposure to environmentally relevant doses of polystyrene (PS) NPs on hepatic pyroptosis in mice. The results demonstrated that both particle sizes of PS-NPs (100 nm and 500 nm) significantly triggered pyroptosis in the mouse liver, as evidenced by the upregulation of GSDMD-N protein levels; moreover, this pyroptotic effect induced by 100 nm PS-NPs was more pronounced compared to that of 500 nm PS-NPs. Mechanistically, exposure to 100 nm and 500 nm PS-NPs resulted in an upregulation of TXNIP protein expression, thereby activating NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequently inducing inflammatory responses and pyroptosis. Notably, following the termination of PS-NPs exposure and a subsequent recovery period of 50 days, PS-NPs-mediated inflammation and pyroptosis via TXNIP/NLRP3 pathway were effectively ameliorated, even returning to levels close to the baseline. Collectively, our findings provide novel evidence for the size-dependence and reversibility of NPs-induced hepatic pyroptosis through TXNIP/NLRP3/GSDMD pathway in vivo.

Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics Generated from Disposable Water Bottles Induce Interferon Signaling Pathways in Mouse Lung Epithelial Cells

Microplastics (MPs) are present in ambient air in a respirable size fraction; however, their potential impact on human health via inhalation routes is not well documented. In the present study, methods for a lab-scale generation of MPs from regularly used and littered plastic articles were optimized. The toxicity of 11 different types of MPs, both commercially purchased and in-lab prepared MPs, was investigated in lung epithelial cells using cell viability, immune and inflammatory response, and genotoxicity endpoints. The underlying mechanisms were identified by microarray analysis. Although laborious, the laboratory-scale methods generated a sufficient quantity of well characterized MPs for toxicity testing. Of the 11 MPs tested, the small sized polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) MPs prepared from disposable water bottles induced the maximum toxicity. Specifically, the smaller size PETE MPs induced a robust activation of the interferon signaling pathway, implying that PETE MPs are perceived by cells by similar mechanisms as those employed to recognize pathogens. The PETE MPs of heterogenous size and shapes induced cell injury, triggering cell death, inflammatory cascade, and DNA damage, hallmark in vitro events indicative of potential in vivo tissue injury. The study establishes toxicity of specific types of plastic materials in micron and nano size.

Analysis of Biodistribution and in vivo Toxicity of Varying Sized Polystyrene Micro and Nanoplastics in Mice

Introduction

Studies have shown that microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) could accumulate in the human body and pose a potential threat to human health. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the biodistribution and toxicity of MPs/NPs with different particle sizes comprehensively and thoroughly.

Methods

The purpose of this study was to investigate the biodistribution and in vivo toxicity of polystyrene (PS) MPs/NPs with different sizes (50 nm, 100 nm, and 500 nm). The BALB/c mice were given 100 μL of PS50, PS100 and PS500 at the dosage of 1 mg/kg BW or 10 mg/kg BW, respectively, by gavage once a day. After 28 consecutive days of treatment, the biodistribution of differently sized PS MPs/NPs was determined through cryosection fluorescence microscopy and fluorescent microplate reader analysis, and the subsequent effects of differently sized PS MPs/NPs on histopathology, hematology and blood biochemistry were also evaluated.

Results

The results showed that the three different sizes of PS MPs/NPs were distributed in the organs of mice, mainly in the liver, spleen, and intestine. At the same time, the smaller the particle size, the more they accumulate in the body and more easily penetrate the tissue. During the whole observation period, no abnormal behavior and weight change were observed. The results of H&E staining showed that no severe histopathological abnormalities were observed in the main organs in the low-dose exposure group, while. Exposure of three sizes of PS MPs/NPs could cause some changes in hematological parameters or biochemical parameters related to heart, liver, and kidney function; meanwhile, there were size- and dose-dependencies.

Conclusion

The biological distribution and toxicity of plastic particles in mice were more obvious with the decrease of particle size and the increase of concentration of plastic particles. Compared with MPs, NPs were easier to enter the tissues and produce changes in liver, kidney, and heart functions. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the toxicity of NPs.

Polystyrene nanoplastics induce intestinal and hepatic inflammation through activation of NF-κB/NLRP3 pathways and related gut-liver axis in mice

Nanoplastics (NPs) present in food and water poses a genuine risk of their accumulation in humans through the diet. Preferential contact between ingested NPs and the intestine as well as the liver has the potential to induce enteritis and hepatitis. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the inter-organ crosstalk between the intestine and liver when exposed to NPs, as well as the underlying signaling pathways involved. In this study, we employed a 21-day mice exposure model to investigate the accumulation profile of PS-NPs and elucidate the mechanism of intestinal and hepatic inflammation induced by NPs. After exposure, notable fluorescent signals originating from PS-NPs were detected not only in the stomach and intestine but also in other organs such as liver, lung, kidney, brain, and testes. Histopathological analysis along with routine blood tests both revealed an acute inflammatory reaction in mice. Further mechanistic investigations demonstrated that PS-NPs activated inflammatory NF-κB/NLRP3 pathways and induced the expression of cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 in the intestine, which recruited macrophages and neutrophils into the intestine. Concurrently, a significant decrease in the expression levels of intestinal tight junction proteins (Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1) was observed, resulting in an increase in intestinal permeability and elevated endotoxin (LPS) levels. The high levels of LPS further activated TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3/GSDMD pathways in the liver, inducing liver inflammation and hepatocyte pyroptosis. The impairment of liver function was positively correlated with intestinal inflammation and barrier disruption. These findings underscore that exposure to NPs can instigate enteritis and hepatitis while emphasizing the crucial role played by the indirect gut-liver axis in elucidating the potential mechanism underlying NP-induced liver pathogenesis.

The Interplay between Endogenous and Foodborne Pro-Oxidants and Antioxidants in Shaping Redox Homeostasis

Oxidative stress has been known about in biological sciences for several decades; however, the understanding of this concept has evolved greatly since its foundation. Over the past years, reactive oxygen species, once viewed as solely deleterious, have become recognized as intrinsic components of life. In contrast, antioxidants, initially believed to be cure-all remedies, have failed to prove their efficacy in clinical trials. Fortunately, research on the health-promoting properties of antioxidants has been ongoing. Subsequent years showed that the former assumption that all antioxidants acted similarly was greatly oversimplified. Redox-active compounds differ in their chemical structures, electrochemical properties, mechanisms of action, and bioavailability; therefore, their efficacy in protecting against oxidative stress also varies. In this review, we discuss the changing perception of oxidative stress and its sources, emphasizing everyday-life exposures, particularly those of dietary origin. Finally, we posit that a better understanding of the physicochemical properties and biological outcomes of antioxidants is crucial to fully utilize their beneficial impact on health.

Impact of polystyrene nanoplastics on apoptosis and inflammation in zebrafish larvae: Insights from reactive oxygen species perspective

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on the toxicity and mortality induced by nanoplastics (NPs) in aquatic organisms. However, studies investigating mechanisms underlying oxidative stress (OS), apoptosis, and inflammation induced by NPs in fish remain limited. This study observed that polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs) were accumulated into zebrafish larvae and zebrafish embryonic fibroblast (ZF4 cells), accompanied by the occurrence of pathological damage both at the cellular and tissue-organ level. Additionally, the transcriptional up-regulation of NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and subsequent excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulted in notable changes in the relative mRNA and protein expression levels associated with antioxidant oxidase systems in larvae. Furthermore, the study identified the impact of NPs on mitochondrial ultrastructural, resulting in mitochondrial depolarization and downregulation of mRNA expression related to the electron transport chain due to excessive ROS generation. Short-term exposure to NPs also triggered apoptosis and inflammation in zebrafish larvae, evident from significant up-regulation in mRNA expressions of proapoptotic factors and NF-κB proinflammatory signaling pathway, as well as increased transcription and protein levels of pro-inflammatory factors in larvae. Inhibition of intracellular excessive ROS effectively reduced the induction of apoptosis, NF-κB P65 nuclear migration levels, and cytokine secretion, underscoring OS as a pivotal factor throughout the process of apoptosis and inflammatory responses induced by NPs. This research significantly advances our comprehension of biological effects and underlying mechanisms of NPs in freshwater fish.

Research Progress on Micro(nano)plastic-Induced Programmed Cell Death Associated with Disease Risks

Due to their robust migration capabilities, slow degradation, and propensity for adsorbing environmental pollutants, micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) are pervasive across diverse ecosystems. They infiltrate various organisms within different food chains through multiple pathways including inhalation and dermal contact, and pose a significant environmental challenge in the 21st century. Research indicates that MNPs pose health threats to a broad range of organisms, including humans. Currently, extensive detection data and studies using experimental animals and in vitro cell culture indicate that MNPs can trigger various forms of programmed cell death (PCD) and can induce various diseases. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of different MNP-induced PCD processes, including pyroptosis, ferroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, and apoptosis, based on recent research findings and focuses on elucidating the links between PCD and diseases. Additionally, targeted therapeutic interventions for these diseases are described. This review provides original insights into the opportunities and challenges posed by current research findings. This review evaluates ways to mitigate various diseases resulting from cell death patterns. Moreover, this paper enhances the understanding of the biohazards associated with MNPs by providing a systematic reference for subsequent toxicological research and health risk mitigation efforts.

Adverse effects and potential mechanisms of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on the blood-testis barrier

Microplastics (MPs) are defined as plastic particles or fragments with a diameter of less than 5 mm. These particles have been identified as causing male reproductive toxicity, although the precise mechanism behind this association is yet to be fully understood. Recent research has found that exposure to polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) can disrupt spermatogenesis by impacting the integrity of the blood-testis barrier (BTB), a formidable barrier within mammalian blood tissues. The BTB safeguards germ cells from harmful substances and infiltration by immune cells. However, the disruption of the BTB leads to the entry of environmental pollutants and immune cells into the seminiferous tubules, resulting in adverse reproductive effects. Additionally, PS-MPs induce reproductive damage by generating oxidative stress, inflammation, autophagy, and alterations in the composition of intestinal flora. Despite these findings, the precise mechanism by which PS-MPs disrupt the BTB remains inconclusive, necessitating further investigation into the underlying processes. This review aims to enhance our understanding of the pernicious effects of PS-MP exposure on the BTB and explore potential mechanisms to offer novel perspectives on BTB damage caused by PS-MPs.

The cardiovascular toxicity of polystyrene microplastics in rats: based on untargeted metabolomics analysis

Background

Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) exhibit multi-target, multi-dimensional, chronic, and low toxicity to the cardiovascular system. They enter the bloodstream through the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system, altering blood parameters and conditions, inducing thrombotic diseases, and damaging myocardial tissue through the promotion of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in myocardial cells. However, many of the links and mechanisms remain unclear.

Methods

In this study, 48 wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups and exposed to different concentrations of PS-MPs: control group (0 mg/kg/d), low dose group (0.5 mg/kg/d), middle dose group (5 mg/kg/d) and high dose group (50 mg/kg/d), with 12 rats in each group. After 90 consecutive days of intragastric administration of PS-MPs, biochemical markers in myocardium, aorta and blood were detected, and HE staining was performed to observe the toxic effects of PS-mps on cardiovascular system. Furthermore, non-targeted metabolomics methods were used to analyze the effect of PS-MPs exposure on the metabolism of cardiovascular system in rats, and to explore its potential molecular mechanism.

Results

The results revealed no pathological changes in the heart and aorta following PS-MPs exposure. However, the myocardial enzyme levels in the high dose PS-MPs group of rats showed a significant increase. Moreover, exposure to polystyrene microplastics caused a disorder in lipid metabolism in rats, and led to an increase in indicators of inflammation and oxidative stress in myocardial and aortic tissues, but resulted in a decrease in the level of IL-6. Untargeted metabolomics results showed that metabolites with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, including equol and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, were significantly upregulated.

Conclusion

These results suggest that long-term exposure to high concentrations of PS-MPs may lead to abnormal lipid metabolism and cardiovascular system damage. The mechanism may be related to oxidative stress and inflammatory response. Exogenous antioxidants and changes in own metabolites may have a protective effect on the injury. Therefore, understanding the toxicological mechanism of PS-MPs not only helps to elucidate its pathogenesis, but also provides new ideas for the treatment of chronic diseases.

Microplastics and Oxidative Stress-Current Problems and Prospects

Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles between 0.1 and 5000 µm in size that have attracted considerable attention from the scientific community and the general public, as they threaten the environment. Microplastics contribute to various harmful effects, including lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, cell membrane breakages, mitochondrial dysfunction, lysosomal defects, inflammation, and apoptosis. They affect cells, tissues, organs, and overall health, potentially contributing to conditions like cancer and cardiovascular disease. They pose a significant danger due to their widespread occurrence in food. In recent years, information has emerged indicating that MPs can cause oxidative stress (OS), a known factor in accelerating the aging of organisms. This comprehensive evaluation exposed notable variability in the reported connection between MPs and OS. This work aims to provide a critical review of whether the harmfulness of plastic particles that constitute environmental contaminants may result from OS through a comprehensive analysis of recent research and existing scientific literature, as well as an assessment of the characteristics of MPs causing OS. Additionally, the article covers the analytical methodology used in this field. The conclusions of this review point to the necessity for further research into the effects of MPs on OS.

Effects of micro/nanoplastics on oxidative damage and serum biochemical parameters in rats and mice: a meta-analysis

Micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging as environmental pollutants with potential threats to human health. The accumulation of MNPs in the body can cause oxidative stress and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). With the aim to systematically evaluate the extent of MNPs-induced oxidative damage and serum biochemical parameters in rats and mice, a total of 36 eligible articles were included in this meta-analysis study. The results reported that MNPs can significantly increase the levels of oxidants such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (P < 0.05), and resulted in notable increase in serum biochemical parameters including aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (P < 0.05). Conversely, MNPs significantly reduced levels of antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) (P < 0.05). Subgroup analysis revealed that smaller MNPs with oral administration and prolonged treatment, were associated with more pronounced oxidative stress and enhanced serum biochemical parameters alteration. In addition, after affected by MNPs, the levels of ALT and AST in liver group (SMD = 2.26, 95% CI = [1.59, 2.94] and SMD = 3.10, 95% CI = [1.25, 4.94]) were higher than those in other organs. These comprehensive results provide a scientific foundation for devising strategies to prevent MNPs-induced damage, contributing to solution of this environmental and health challenge.

Micro(nano)-plastics exposure induced programmed cell death and corresponding influence factors

Plastic products have played an indispensable role in our daily lives for several decades, primarily due to their cost-effectiveness and unmatched convenience. Nevertheless, recent developments in nanotechnology have propelled our attention toward a distinct category of plastic fine particulates known as micro(nano)-plastics (MPs/NPs). The investigation of the cytotoxic effects of MPs/NPs has emerged as a central and burgeoning area of research in environmental toxicology and cell biology. In the scope of this comprehensive review, we have meticulously synthesized recent scientific inquiries to delve into the intricate interplay between MPs/NPs and programmed cell death mechanisms, which encompass a range of highly regulated processes. First, the signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms of different programmed death modalities induced by MPs/NPs were elaborated, including apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. The causes of different programmed deaths induced by MPs/NPs, such as size, surface potential, functional group modification, aging, biological crown, and co-exposure of MPs/NPs are further analyzed. In contrast, the various cellular programmed death modes induced by MPs/NPs are not alone most of the time, and lastly, the connections between different cellular programmed death modes induced by MPs/NPs, such as interconversion, mutual promotion, and mutual inhibition, are explained. Our primary objective is to unveil the multifaceted toxicological implications of MPs/NPs on the intricate web of cellular fate and biological homeostasis. This endeavor not only broadens our understanding of the potential risks associated with MPs/NPs exposure but also underscores the urgent need for comprehensive risk assessments and regulatory measures in the context of environmental health.

Polystyrene nanoplastics and cadmium co-exposure aggravated cardiomyocyte damage in mice by regulating PANoptosis pathway

Micro/nanoplastics (M/NPs) are the novel contaminants ubiquitous in the environment. Cadmium (Cd), a kind of heavy metal pollutant widely distributed, could potentially co-exist with PS-NPs in the environment. However, their combined effects on cardiomyocyte and its molecular mechanism in mammals remained ambiguous. Here, we examined whether PANoptosis, an emerging and complicated kind of programmed cell death, was involved in PS-NPs and Cd co-exposure-elicited cardiac injury. In this study, 60 male mice were orally subjected to environmentally relevant concentrations of PS-NPs (1 mg/kg) and/or CdCl2 (1.5 mg/kg) for 35 days. As we speculated, PS-NPs and Cd co-exposure affected the expression of pyroptosis(Caspase-1, Cleaved-Caspase-1, GSDMD, N-GSDMD, AIM2, Pyrin, NLRP3, IL-18, IL-1β)-, apoptosis(Caspase-3, Cleaved-Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Cleaved-Caspase-8, Caspase-7, BAX)- and necroptosis (t-RIPK3, p-RIPK3, t-RIPK1, p-RIPK1, t-MLKL, p-MLKL, ZBP1)-related genes and protein, resulting in growth restriction and damaged myocardial microstructure in mice. Notably, the combined effects on Cd and PS-NPs even predominantly aggravated the toxic damage. Intriguingly, we fortuitously discovered PS-NPs and/or Cd exposure facilitated linear ubiquitination of certain proteins in mice myocardium. In summation, this study shed light toward the effects of Cd and PS-NPs on cardiotoxicity, advanced the understanding of myocardial PANoptosis and provided a scientific foundation for further exploration of the combined toxicological effects of PS-NPs and heavy metals.

Polystyrene microplastics mediate cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy in the G2/M phase through ROS in grass carp kidney cells

Microplastics (MPs) have attracted widespread worldwide attention as a new pollutant. However, the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell cycle in nephrotoxicity induced by different concentrations of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) is unknown. This study used grass carp kidney cells (CIK) treated with different concentrations of PS-MPs (0, 0.012, 0.0625, and 0.5 mg L-1 ) as subjects. With the increase of PS-MPs concentration, the levels of ROS and malonaldehyde increased, while the level of total antioxidant capacity, superoxide Dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH) activity decreased. The expression of BUB1 mitotic checkpoint serine/threonine kinase (BUB1), cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK1), CDK2, CyclinB1, cell division cycle 20 homolog (CDC20), and B-cell lymphoma-2, sequestosome 1 decreased significantly. Nevertheless, the expression of Caspase 3, Cleave-Caspase 3, cytochrome c (Cytc), BCL2-associated X, apoptosis regulator, poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP), Cleave-PARP, Caspase 9, autophagy immunoblot kit (LC3), and Beclin1 increased. Our research shows that PS-MPs can trigger oxidative stress and induce cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy in CIK cells by regulating ROS. This work provides a theoretical basis for cellular biology and toxicology mechanisms and new insights into the potential risks to animals from MPs exposure in the environment.

The possible impacts of nano and microplastics on human health: lessons from experimental models across multiple organs

The widespread production and use of plastics have resulted in accumulation of plastic debris in the environment, gradually breaking down into smaller particles over time. Nano-plastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs), defined as particles smaller than 100 nanometers and 5 millimeters, respectively, raise concerns due to their ability to enter the human body through various pathways including ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. Various investigators demonstrated that these particles may produce physical and chemical damage to human cells, tissues, and organs, disrupting cellular processes, triggering inflammation and oxidative stress, and impacting hormone and neurotransmitter balance. In addition, micro- and nano-plastics (MNPLs) may carry toxic chemicals and pathogens, exacerbating adverse effects on human health. The magnitude and nature of these effects are not yet fully understood, requiring further research for a comprehensive risk assessment. Nevertheless, evidence available suggests that accumulation of these particles in the environment and potential human uptake are causes for concern. Urgent measures to reduce plastic pollution and limit human exposure to MNPLs are necessary to safeguard human health and the environment. In this review, current knowledge regarding the influence of MNPLs on human health is summarized, including toxicity mechanisms, exposure pathways, and health outcomes across multiple organs. The critical need for additional research is also emphasized to comprehensively assess potential risks posed by degradation of MNPLs on human health and inform strategies for addressing this emerging environmental health challenge. Finally, new research directions are proposed including evaluation of gene regulation associated with MNPLs exposure.

Potential Effects of Orally Ingesting Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics on the Mouse Heart

Polyethylene terephthalate microplastics (PET MPs) are widespread in natural environment, and can enter organisms and accumulate in the body, but its toxicity has not been well studied. Therefore, in order to investigate the toxic effects of PET microplastics on mammals, this study investigated the toxic effects of PET MPs on ICR mice and H9C2 cells by different treatment groups. The results indicated the cardiac tissue of mice in the PET-H (50 µg/mL) group showed significant capillary congestion, myocardial fiber breakage, and even significant fibrosis compared to the PET-C (control) group (P < 0.01). Results of the TUNEL assay demonstrated significant apoptosis in myocardial tissue in the PET-H and PET-M (5 µg/mL) groups (P < 0.01). Meanwhile, Western blotting showed increased expression of the apoptosis-related protein Bax and decreased expression of PARP, caspase-3, and Bcl-2 proteins in both myocardial tissues and H9C2 cells. In addition, flow cytometry confirmed that PET MPs decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential and apoptosis in H9C2 cells; however, this trend was reversed by N-acetylcysteamine application. Moreover, PET MP treatment induced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in H9C2 cells, while the MDA level in the myocardial tissue was elevated, and the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) were decreased (P < 0.01), indicating a change in the redox environment. In conclusion, PET MPs promoted cardiomyocyte apoptosis by inducing oxidative stress and activating mitochondria-mediated apoptotic processes, ultimately leading to myocardial fibrosis. This study provides ideas for the prevention of PET MP toxicity and promotes thinking about enhancing plastic pollution control.

The potential toxicity of microplastics on human health

Microplastics are plastic particles, films, and fibers with a diameter of < 5 mm. Given their long-standing existence in the environment and terrible increase in annual emissions, concerns were raised about the potential health risk of microplastics on human beings. In particular, the increased consumption of masks during the COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically increased human contact with microplastics. To date, the emergence of microplastics in the human body, such as feces, blood, placenta, lower airway, and lungs, has been reported. Related toxicological investigations of microplastics were gradually increased. To comprehensively illuminate the interplay of microplastic exposure and human health, we systematically reviewed the updated toxicological data of microplastics and summarized their mode of action, adverse effects, and toxic mechanisms. The emerging critical issues in the current toxicological investigations were proposed and discussed. Our work would facilitate a better understanding of MPs-induced health hazards for toxicological evaluation and provide helpful information for regulatory decisions.

An Emerging Role of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Vascular Diseases

Vascular diseases are the leading causes of death worldwide, and they are attributable to multiple pathologies, such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Exposure to various environmental contaminants is associated with the development of various diseases, including vascular diseases. Among environmental contaminants, micro- and nanoplastics have gained attention as global environmental risk factors that threaten human health. Recently, extensive research has been conducted on the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on various human diseases, including vascular diseases. In this review, we highlight the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on vascular diseases.

Polystyrene nanoplastics exposure causes inflammation and death of esophageal cell

Nanoplastics (NPs) are widely detected in food and drinking water, and human exposure to NPs is ubiquitous. The digestive tract is the main route of exposure to NPs in humans, and the esophagus is one of the main target organs for NPs exposure. However, the toxicological effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on the esophagus are not fully understood. Here, we used two esophageal cell lines as models to explore the effects of NPs exposure on esophageal cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Western blot analysis, indirect immunofluorescence assay, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed that NPs exposure caused inflammatory responses and cell death. Mechanistic investigations showed that PS-NPs exposure induced iron overload in esophageal cells, leading to the accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and promoting inflammatory responses and cell death. Additionally, PS-NPs treatment suppressed mitochondrial autophagy, which exacerbated NP-induced cell inflammation and death. Collectively, our experimental findings provide new evidence for the toxicological effects of PS-NPs and offer new insights and avenues for future research.

The potential impacts of micro-and-nano plastics on various organ systems in humans

Humans are exposed to micro-and-nano plastics (MNPs) through various routes, but the adverse health effects of MNPs on different organ systems are not yet fully understood. This review aims to provide an overview of the potential impacts of MNPs on various organ systems and identify knowledge gaps in current research. The summarized results suggest that exposure to MNPs can lead to health effects through oxidative stress, inflammation, immune dysfunction, altered biochemical and energy metabolism, impaired cell proliferation, disrupted microbial metabolic pathways, abnormal organ development, and carcinogenicity. There is limited human data on the health effects of MNPs, despite evidence from animal and cellular studies. Most of the published research has focused on specific types of MNPs to assess their toxicity, while other types of plastic particles commonly found in the environment remain unstudied. Future studies should investigate MNPs exposure by considering realistic concentrations, dose-dependent effects, individual susceptibility, and confounding factors.

Toxic vascular effects of polystyrene microplastic exposure

Polystyrene microplastics (PSMPs) are some of the most common microplastic components, and the resulting pollution has become a global problem. Extensive studies have been conducted on the toxic effects of PSMPs on the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, nerves, intestines and other tissues. However, the impact of PSMPs on vascular toxicity is poorly understood at present. The aim of this study was to reveal the vascular toxicity of microplastics (MPs). Patients were assigned to a calcification group (25 patients) or a non-calcification group (22 patients) based on the presence or absence of calcification in the thoracic aorta wall. We detected 7 polymer types in human feces. Patients with vascular calcification (VC) had higher levels of total MPs, polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) in feces than patients without VC. The thoracic aortic calcification score was significantly positively correlated with the total MP abundance (Spearman r = 0.8109, p < 0.0001), PP (Spearman r = 0.7211, p = 0.0160) and PS (Spearman r = 0.6523, p = 0.0471) in feces. We then explored the effects of PSMP exposure on normal and vitamin D3 + nicotine (VDN)-treated rats. PSMP exposure induced mild VC in normal rats and aggravated VC in VDN-treated rats. PSMP exposure disturbed the gut microbiota, causing Proteobacteria and Escherichia_Shigella to be the dominant phylum and genus, respectively. It also induced intestinal inflammatory responses in normal rats, aggravated intestinal inflammation in VDN-treated rats, impaired the intestinal mucosal barrier, and increased intestinal permeability. This study provides a theoretical basis for the risk assessment of MP-induced cardiovascular disease.

Recent progress of microplastic toxicity on human exposure base on in vitro and in vivo studies

Microplastics are widely distributed in the environment, including the atmosphere, soil and water bodies. They have been found to have toxic effects on organisms. The impact on human health is also receiving considerable attention. Microplastics can be found in drinking water, food, air and plastic products, and they can enter human body through the pathways such as ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. After exposure to microplastics, they can induce cellular toxicity and produce toxic effects on multiple organs and systems, including the digestive, respiratory, nervous, reproductive and cardiovascular systems. This paper presents a comprehensive review and analysis on the recent progress of human exposure studies, in vitro experiments, rodent experiments, and other model experiments in microplastic human toxicity research. It comprehensively analyzes the potential human toxic effects of microplastics, providing a theoretical basis for further research on microplastic human toxicity and its mechanisms. Furthermore, this paper highlights the knowledge gaps and provides the recommendations for future research on human toxicity of microplastics.

Microplastics as an emerging contaminant of concern to our environment: a brief overview of the sources and implications

Over the years, it has become evident that microplastics are one of the most important contaminants of concern requiring significant attention. The large abundance of microplastics that are currently in the environment poses potential toxicity risks to all organisms that are exposed to them. Microplastics have been found to affect the physiological and biological processes in marine and terrestrial organisms. As well as being a contaminant of concern in itself, microplastics also have the ability to act as vectors for other contaminants. The potential for microplastics to carry pollutants and transfer them to other organisms has been documented in the literature. Microplastics have also been linked to hosting antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes which poses a significant risk to the current health system. There has been a significant increase in research published surrounding the topic of microplastics over the last 5 years. As such, it is difficult to determine and find up to date and relevant information. This overview paper aims to provide a snapshot of the current and emerging sources of microplastics, how microplastics can act as a contaminant and have toxic effects on a range of organisms and also be a vector for a large variety of other contaminants of concern. The aim of this paper is to act as a tool for future research to reference relevant and recent literature in this field.

Environmental pollutants induce NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis: Roles and mechanisms in various diseases

Environmental pollution is changing with economic development. Most environmental pollutants are characterized by stable chemical properties, strong migration, potential toxicity, and multiple exposure routes. Harmful substances are discharged excessively, and large quantities of unknown new compounds are emerging, being transmitted and amplifying in the food chain. The increasingly severe problems of environmental pollution have forced people to re-examine the relationship between environmental pollution and health. Pyroptosis and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome are critical in maintaining the immune balance and regulating the inflammatory process. Numerous diseases caused by environmental pollutants are closely related to NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis. We intend to systematically explain the steps and important events that are common in life but easily overlooked by which environmental pollutants activate the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis pathways. This comprehensive review also discusses the interaction network between environmental pollutants, the NLRP3 inflammasome, pyroptosis, and diseases. Thus, research progress on the impact of decreasing oxidative stress levels to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis, thereby repairing homeostasis and reshaping health, is systematically examined. This review aims to deepen the understanding of the impact of environmental pollutants on life and health and provide a theoretical basis and potential programs for the development of corresponding treatment strategies.

Research progress on the cellular toxicity caused by microplastics and nanoplastics

Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles of a diameter of less than 5 mm and a major carrier of pollution. In accordance with its diameter range, MPs can be divided into microplastics (100-5 mm) and nanoplastics (<100 nm). In recent years, in addition to the impact of MPs on the environment, the ways in which MPs affect the body has also attracted continuous attention. However, relevant studies on the cytotoxicity of MPs are not comprehensive. Based on the current research, this paper summarizes four main cytotoxic mechanisms of MPs, inducing oxidative stress, damaging cell membrane organelles, inducing immune response, and genotoxicity. Generally, MPs cause cytotoxicity such as oxidative stress, damage to cell membranes and organelles, activation of immune responses, and genotoxicity through mechanical damage or induction of cells to produce reactive oxygen species. Understanding these toxic mechanisms is helpful for the evaluation and prevention of human toxicity of MPs. This paper also analyzes the limitations of current research and prospects for future research into cellular MPs, with the aim of providing a scientific basis and reference for further research into the toxic mechanism of MPs.

Nanoplastics induced oxidative stress and VEGF production in aortic endothelial cells

Plastic is an important environmental issue and a more critical aspect concerns plastic fragments, mainly in term of nanoplastics (NPs). We demonstrated that NPs interfere with reproductive and adipose stromal cells. Since several research underlined an increased cardiovascular risk due to NPs, present study was undertaken to investigate their effect on aortic endothelial cells (AOC). We explored the specificity of their interaction with endothelial cells, quantifying their load in treated cells. Then, NPs effect was assessed on cell growth, generation of free radicals and antioxidant defence. Our data demonstrate that NPs colocalize with AOC. We found a significant (p < 0.01) increase both in metabolic activity and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) production (p < 0.01). Redox status appeared to be disrupted (p < 0.05) by NPs. Taken together, the normal function of cultured AOC appeared negatively affected by AOC. Since NPs have been detected in blood, our present data appear of particular interest.

LncRNA Miat knockdown protects against pirarubicin-induced cardiotoxicity by targeting miRNA-129-1-3p

Pirarubicin (THP) is a widely used antitumor drug in clinical practice, but its cardiotoxicity limits its use. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect and mechanism of knockdown of lncRNA Miat in THP-induced cardiotoxicity. The extent of damage to immortalized cardiomyocytes in mice was assessed by CCK8, TUNEL, ROS, Ca2+ , RT-qPCR, and Western blot. The relative levels of Miat in THP-treated cardiomyocytes (HL-1) were measured. The protective effect of Miat on THP-treated HL-1 was assessed. The binding relationship between lncRNA Miat and mmu-miRNA-129-1-3p was verified by a dual luciferase reporter gene assay. The protective role of Miat/miRNA-129-1-3p in THP-induced HL-1 was explored by performing a rescue assay. THP reduced cell viability, induced apoptosis, triggered oxidative stress and calcium overload. Expression of Miat in HL-1 was significantly elevated after THP treatment. Miat knockdown significantly alleviated the cardiotoxicity of THP. MiR-129-1-3p is a direct target of Miat. Knockdown of miR-129-1-3p reversed the protective effect of Miat knockdown on HL-1. Miat knockdown can alleviate THP-induced cardiomyocyte injury by regulating miR-129-1-3p.

The emerging role of microplastics in systemic toxicity: Involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Plastic pollution is one of the most pressing environmental threats the world is facing currently. The degradation of macroplastics into smaller forms viz. microplastics (MPs) or Nanoplastics (NPs) is a potential threat to both terrestrial and marine ecosystems and also to human health by directly affecting the organs and activating a plethora of intracellular signaling, that may lead to cell death. There is accumulating evidence that supports the serious toxicity caused by MP/NPs at all levels of biological complexities (biomolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems) and the involvement of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in this process. Studies indicate that MPs or NPs can accumulate in mitochondria and further disrupt the mitochondrial electron transport chain, cause mitochondrial membrane damage, and perturb the mitochondrial membrane potential or depolarization of the mitochondria. These events eventually lead to the generation of different types of reactive free radicals, which can induce DNA damage, protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, and compromization of the antioxidant defense pool. Furthermore, MP-induced ROS was found to trigger a plethora of signaling cascades, such as the p53 signaling pathway, Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway including the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), p38 kinase, and extracellular signal related kinases (ERK1/2) signaling cascades, Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-pathway, Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases (PI3Ks)/Akt signaling pathway, and Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) pathways, to name a few. As a consequence of oxidative stress caused by the MPs/NPs, different types of organ damage are observed in living species, including humans, such as pulmonary toxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, etc. Although presently, a good amount of research is going on to access the detrimental effects of MPs/NPs on human health, there is a lack of proper model systems, multi-omics approaches, interdisciplinary research, and mitigation strategies.

Nano- and micro-polystyrene plastics interfered the gut barrier function mediated by exosomal miRNAs in rats

Microplastics (MPs) are widely distributed in the global environment, entering and accumulating in organisms in various ways and posing health threats. MPs can damage intestine; however, the mechanism by which MPs cause intestinal damage in rats is unclear. Here, rats were exposed to 50 nm PS-NPs or 5 μm PS-MPs for 4 weeks to evaluate the possible effects on intestinal barrier function and exosomal miRNAs expressions. The results showed that PS-NPs or PS-MPs disrupted the gut microbiota and affected gut barrier function at the biological level. In addition, PS-NPs and PS-MPs altered the composition of exosomal miRNAs in the intestinal and serum. Both PS-NPs and PS-MPs decreased the expression of miR-126a-3p in the intestinal and serum exosomes, which is an important signalling molecule involved in MPs induced gut barrier function disorder. More importantly, both in vitro and in vivo experiments indicated that miR-126a-3p was closely related to oxidative damage of intestinal cells through the PI3K-Akt pathway and eventually promote cell apoptosis by regulating the target gene of PIK3R2. Our study suggested that PS-NPs and PS-MPs could affect rat intestinal barrier function through an exosomal miRNA mediated pathway.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) and their potential toxicological outcomes: State of science, knowledge gaps and research needs

Plastic waste has been produced at a rapidly growing rate over the past several decades. The environmental impacts of plastic waste on marine and terrestrial ecosystems have been recognized for years. Recently, researchers found that micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), micron (100 nm - 5 mm) and nanometer (1 - 100 nm) scale particles and fibers produced by degradation and fragmentation of plastic waste in the environment, have become an important emerging environmental and food chain contaminant with uncertain consequences for human health. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent findings from studies of potential toxicity and adverse health impacts of MNPs in terrestrial mammals, including studies in both in vitro cellular and in vivo mammalian models. Also reviewed here are recently released biomonitoring studies that have characterized the bioaccumulation, biodistribution, and excretion of MNPs in humans. The majority MNPs in the environment to which humans are most likely to be exposed, are of irregular shapes, varied sizes, and mixed compositions, and are defined as secondary MNPs. However, the MNPs used in most toxicity studies to date were commercially available primary MNPs of polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and other polymers. The emerging in vitro and in vivo evidence reviewed here suggests that MNP toxicity and bioactivity are largely determined by MNP particle physico-chemical characteristics, including size, shape, polymer type, and surface properties. For human exposure, MNPs have been identified in human blood, urine, feces, and placenta, which pose potential health risks. The evidence to date suggests that the mechanisms underlying MNP toxicity at the cellular level are primarily driven by oxidative stress. Nonetheless, large knowledge gaps in our understanding of MNP toxicity and the potential health impacts of MNP exposures still exist and much further study is needed to bridge those gaps. This includes human population exposure studies to determine the environmentally relevant MNP polymers and exposure concentrations and durations for toxicity studies, as well as toxicity studies employing environmentally relevant MNPs, with surface chemistries and other physico-chemical properties consistent with MNP particles in the environment. It is especially important to obtain comprehensive toxicological data for these MNPs to understand the range and extent of potential adverse impacts of microplastic pollutants on humans and other organisms.

Low-dose of polystyrene microplastics induce cardiotoxicity in mice and human-originated cardiac organoids

Microplastic particles (MP) are prevalent in both industrial production and the natural environment, posing a significant concern for human health. Daily diet, air inhalation, and skin contact are major routines of MP intake in human. The main injury target systems of MPs include the digestive system, respiratory system, and cardiovascular system. However, the study on MPs' adverse effects on the heart is less than other target organs. Previous in vivo studies have demonstrated that MPs can induce heart injuries, including abnormal heart rate, apoptosis of cardiomyocytes, mitochondrial membrane potential change, and fibrin overexpression. To address animal welfare concerns and overcome inter-species variations, this study employed a human pluripotent stem cell-derived in vitro three-dimensional cardiac organoid (CO) model to investigate the adverse effects of MPs on the human heart. The distinct cavities of COs allowed for the observation of MPs' aggregation and spatial distribution following polystyrene-MP (PS) exposure in a dynamic exposure system. After exposure to various concentrations of PS (0.025, 0.25 and 2.5 µg/mL, with the lowest concentration equivalent to human internal exposure levels), the COs exhibited increased oxidative stress, inflammatory response, apoptosis, and collagen accumulation. These findings were consistent with in vivo observations, in terms of increases in the interventricular septal thickness. The expression of hypertrophic-related genes of COs (MYH7B/ANP/BNP/COL1A1) changed noticeably and the cardiac-specific markers MYL2/MYL4/CX43 were also markedly elevated. Our findings revealed the PS could induced cardiac hypertrophy in vivo and in vitro, indicating that MP may be an under-recognized risk factor for cardiovascular system.

The bio-distribution, clearance pathways, and toxicity mechanisms of ambient ultrafine particles

Ambient particles severely threaten human health worldwide. Compared to larger particles, ultrafine particles (UFPs) are highly concentrated in ambient environments, have a larger specific surface area, and are retained for a longer time in the lung. Recent studies have found that they can be transported into various extra-pulmonary organs by crossing the air-blood barrier (ABB). Therefore, to understand the adverse effects of UFPs, it is crucial to thoroughly investigate their bio-distribution and clearance pathways in vivo after inhalation, as well as their toxicological mechanisms. This review highlights emerging evidence on the bio-distribution of UFPs in pulmonary and extra-pulmonary organs. It explores how UFPs penetrate the ABB, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and the placental barrier (PB) and subsequently undergo clearance by the liver, kidney, or intestine. In addition, the potential underlying toxicological mechanisms of UFPs are summarized, providing fundamental insights into how UFPs induce adverse health effects.

Influence of Microplastics on Morphological Manifestations of Experimental Acute Colitis

Microplastic pollution poses a threat to human health. It is possible that the increase in the incidence of inflammatory bowel disease is associated with exposure to microplastics. We investigated the effect of the consumption of polystyrene microparticles with a diameter of 5 μm at a dose of 2.3 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks on morphological changes in the colons of healthy male C57BL/6 mice and of mice with acute colitis induced by a 1% dextran sulfate sodium solution (DSS). In healthy mice, microplastics caused an increase in the number of endocrine cells, an increase in the content of highly sulfated mucins in goblet cells, an increase in the number of cells in the lamina propria, and a decrease in the volume fraction of macrophages. Microplastic consumption caused more severe acute colitis, which is characterized by a greater prevalence of ulcers and inflammation and a decrease in the content of neutral mucins in goblet cells.

Species-specific effects of microplastics on juvenile fishes

Microplastics contamination have been extensively reported in aquatic ecosystem and organisms. It is wildly acknowledged that the ingestion, accumulation and elimination of microplastics in fishes are species-specific, which mainly depending on the feeding behavior. This study aimed to investigate the effects of microplastics on the morphology and inflammatory response in intestines of fishes with different feeding types. Largemouth bass (carnivorous fish), grass carp (herbivorous fish) and Jian carp (omnivorous fish) were used as organism model. The contributing concentration and size of microplastics were explored as well as the response time and legacy effect in fishes. Two different sizes of polystyrene microplastics (80 nm and 8 μm) were set at three concentrations. And samples were analyzed at different exposure times and depuration times. Histological analysis indicated that multiple abnormalities in intestines were presented in three species fishes after acute exposure microplastics. The mRNA abundance of immune-related genes in the intestine tissues of fishes were significantly fluctuant. There were differential expressions of genes coping with differential sizes and concentrations of microplastics exposure in different fishes. The reason for the difference effects of microplastics on fishes was still unclear but could be due to the difference in the structure and function of the digestive system. These results provided a theoretical basis to further analysis of the mechanism of fish intestinal pathology caused by microplastics.

The detrimental effects of micro-and nano-plastics on digestive system: An overview of oxidative stress-related adverse outcome pathway

With the massive manufacture and use of plastics, plastic pollution-related environmental impacts have raised great concern in recent years. As byproducts of plastic fragmentation and degradation, microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have been identified as novel pollutants that posed a threat to the ecosystem and humans. Since MPs/NPs could be transported via the food chain and retained in the water, the digestive system should be one of the major targets of MPs/NPs-related toxicity. Although considerable evidence has supported the digestive toxicity of MPs/NPs, the proposed mechanisms remained ambiguous due to the variety of study types, models, and endpoints. This review provided a mechanism-based perspective on MPs/NPs-induced digestive effects by adopting the adverse outcome pathway framework as a promising tool. The overproduction of reactive oxygen species was identified as the molecular initiating event in MPs/NPs-mediated injury to the digestive system. A series of detrimental effects including oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation, dysbiosis, and metabolic disorders were summarized as key events. Finally, the occurrence of these effects eventually led to an adverse outcome, suggesting a possible increase in the incidence of digestive morbidity and mortality.

Characterization of airborne microplastics at different workplaces of the poly(ethylene:propylene:diene) (EPDM) rubber industry

Microplastics (MPs) as an emerging air pollutant have received widespread attention, but research on airborne MPs at occupational sites is still limited, especially in the rubber industry. Hence, indoor air samples were collected from three production workshops and an office of a rubber factory producing automotive parts to analyze the characteristics of airborne MPs in different workplaces of this industry. We found MP contamination in all air samples from the rubber industry, and the airborne MPs at all sites mainly showed small-sized (< 100 μm) and fragmented characteristics. The abundance and source of MPs at various locations is primarily related to the manufacturing process and raw materials of the workshop. The abundance of MPs in the air was higher in workplaces where production activities are involved than in office (360 ± 61 n/m³), of which the highest abundance of airborne MPs was in the post-processing workshop (559 ± 184 n/m³). In terms of types, a total of 40 polymer types were identified. The post-processing workshop has the largest proportion of injection-molded plastic ABS, the extrusion workshop has a greater proportion of EPDM rubber than the other locations, and the refining workshop has more MPs used as adhesives, such as aromatic hydrocarbon resin (AHCR).

Research advances of microplastics and potential health risks of microplastics on terrestrial higher mammals: a bibliometric analysis and literature review

Microplastics (MPs) have become increasingly serious global problems due to their wide distribution and complicated impacts on living organisms. To obtain a comprehensive overview of the latest research progress on MPs, we conducted a bibliometric analysis combined with a literature review. The results showed that the number of studies on MPs has grown exponentially since 2010. Recently, the hotspot on MPs has shifted to terrestrial ecosystems and biological health risks, including human health risks. In addition, the toxic effects, identification and quantification of MPs are relatively new research hotspots. We subsequently provide a review of MPs studies related to health risks to terrestrial higher mammals and, in particular, to humans, including detection methods and potential toxicities based on current studies. Currently, MPs have been found existing in human feces, blood, colon, placenta and lung, but it is still unclear whether this is associated with related systemic diseases. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that MPs cause intestinal toxicity, metabolic disruption, reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity through oxidative stress, apoptosis and specific pathways, etc. Notably, in terms of combined effects with pollutants and neurotoxicity, the effects of MPs are still controversial. Future attention should be paid to the detection and quantification of MPs in human tissues, exploring the combined effects and related mechanisms of MPs with other pollutants and clarifying the association between MPs and the development of pre-existing diseases. Our work enhances further understanding of the potential health risks of MPs to terrestrial higher mammals.

Sema3A alleviates viral myocarditis by modulating SIRT1 to regulate cardiomyocyte mitophagy

Viral myocarditis (VMC) is a common myocardial inflammatory disease characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration and cardiomyocyte necrosis. Sema3A was reported to reduce cardiac inflammation and improve cardiac function after myocardial infarction, but its role in VMC remains to be explored. Here, a VMC mouse model was established by infection with CVB3, and Sema3A was overexpressed in vivo by intraventricular injection of an adenovirus-mediated Sema3A expression vector (Ad-Sema3A). We found that Sema3A overexpression attenuated CVB3-induced cardiac dysfunction and tissue inflammation. And Sema3A also reduced macrophage accumulation and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the myocardium of VMC mice. In vitro, LPS was used to stimulate primary splenic macrophages to mimic the macrophage activation state in vivo. Activated macrophages were co-cultured with primary mouse cardiomyocytes to evaluate macrophage infiltration-induced cardiomyocyte damage. Ectopic expression of Sema3A in cardiomyocytes effectively protected cardiomyocytes from activated macrophage-induced inflammation, apoptosis, and ROS accumulation. Mechanistically, cardiomyocyte-expressed Sema3A mitigated macrophage infiltration-caused cardiomyocyte dysfunction by promoting cardiomyocyte mitophagy and hindering NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Furthermore, NAM (a SIRT1 inhibitor) reversed the protective effect of Sema3A against activated macrophage-induced cardiomyocyte dysfunction by suppressing cardiomyocyte mitophagy. In conclusion, Sema3A promoted cardiomyocyte mitophagy and suppressed inflammasome activation by regulating SIRT1, thereby attenuating macrophage infiltration-induced cardiomyocyte injury in VMC.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and microplastics cause necroptosis and apoptosis in hepatocytes of mice by inducing oxidative stress

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer and an endocrine disruptor. Microplastics (MPs) are pathogenic small plastic particles and abundant in the aqueous environment. The problem of residual hazards of plastic products is worthy of study, especially the joint exposure of a variety of plastic-related products to the toxic effect. We used 200 mg/kg DEHP and 10 mg/L MPs to establish exposure model in vivo and 2 mM DEHP and 200 μg/L MPs to establish AML12 cell exposure model in vitro. In vivo study results showed that compared with the control group (NC) group, DEHP and MPs significantly increased the contents of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide, and significantly decreased the contents of glutathione and the activity of superoxide dismutase, total antioxidant capacity, catalase and glutathione peroxidase. The level of oxidative stress was further aggravated after combined exposure. The reactive oxygen species level of AML12 exposed to DEHP and MPs in vitro was significantly higher than NC group, and the combined exposure was significantly higher than the single exposure. The in vivo and in vitro also confirmed that DEHP and MPs could significantly increase the mRNA and protein levels of apoptosis markers and necroptosis markers and there was an additive effect. After N-acetylcysteine treatment in vitro, the above-mentioned oxidative stress level and cell damage decreased significantly. This study provided a reference for advocating the reduction of the mixed use of plastic products, and provided a basis for preventing the harm of plastic products residues.

Toxicological effects of micro/nano-plastics on mouse/rat models: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Micro/nano-plastics (MNPs) are considered a heterogeneous class of environmental contaminants that cause multiple toxic effects on biological species. As the commonly used mammalian models to study the effects of MNPs with regard to their toxic effects, the mouse and rat models are making a great contribution to the disciplines of environmental toxicology and medical health. However, the toxic effects of MNPs have not been systematically summarized. Therefore, a systematic review and a meta-analysis of the toxic effects of MNPs on mouse/rat models were conducted. A total of seven main categories were established in this systematic review, and 24 subcategories were further divided according to the specific physiological significance of the endpoint or the classification of the physiological system, which covered all the selected pieces of literature. A total of 1,762 biological endpoints were found, and 52.78% of them were significantly affected. This fact indicates that there are relative factors, including the size, polymer type, concentration, and exposure time of MNPs and different sexes of mouse/rat models that could significantly affect the biological endpoints. These biological endpoints can be classified into various factors, such as the dose-response relationships between MNP concentration and physiological categories of the nervous system, growth, reproduction, digestive tract histopathology, and inflammatory cytokine level, among others. MNPs negatively affected the blood glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, and reproductive function in mice. The reproductive function in male mice is more sensitive to the toxic effects of MNPs. These findings also provide insights into and directions for exploring the evidence and mechanisms of the toxic effects of MNPs on human health. It is clear that more research is required on the pathological mechanisms at the molecular level and the long-term effects of tissue accumulation.

Microplastic sources, formation, toxicity and remediation: a review

Microplastic pollution is becoming a major issue for human health due to the recent discovery of microplastics in most ecosystems. Here, we review the sources, formation, occurrence, toxicity and remediation methods of microplastics. We distinguish ocean-based and land-based sources of microplastics. Microplastics have been found in biological samples such as faeces, sputum, saliva, blood and placenta. Cancer, intestinal, pulmonary, cardiovascular, infectious and inflammatory diseases are induced or mediated by microplastics. Microplastic exposure during pregnancy and maternal period is also discussed. Remediation methods include coagulation, membrane bioreactors, sand filtration, adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, electrocoagulation and magnetic separation. Control strategies comprise reducing plastic usage, behavioural change, and using biodegradable plastics. Global plastic production has risen dramatically over the past 70 years to reach 359 million tonnes. China is the world's top producer, contributing 17.5% to global production, while Turkey generates the most plastic waste in the Mediterranean region, at 144 tonnes per day. Microplastics comprise 75% of marine waste, with land-based sources responsible for 80-90% of pollution, while ocean-based sources account for only 10-20%. Microplastics induce toxic effects on humans and animals, such as cytotoxicity, immune response, oxidative stress, barrier attributes, and genotoxicity, even at minimal dosages of 10 μg/mL. Ingestion of microplastics by marine animals results in alterations in gastrointestinal tract physiology, immune system depression, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, differential gene expression, and growth inhibition. Furthermore, bioaccumulation of microplastics in the tissues of aquatic organisms can have adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem, with potential transmission of microplastics to humans and birds. Changing individual behaviours and governmental actions, such as implementing bans, taxes, or pricing on plastic carrier bags, has significantly reduced plastic consumption to 8-85% in various countries worldwide. The microplastic minimisation approach follows an upside-down pyramid, starting with prevention, followed by reducing, reusing, recycling, recovering, and ending with disposal as the least preferable option.

Enhancement of biological effects of oxidised nano- and microplastics in human professional phagocytes

Micro and nanoplastics are ubiquitous pollutants that can cause adverse health effects even in humans. Effects of virgin and oxidised (simulating the aging processes) polystyrene nano (nPS) and micro particles (mPS) with diameters of 0.1 and 1 µm were studied on human professional phagocytes (i.e., monocyte cells THP-1 and macrophage-like mTHP-1 cells). After characterization by ATR-FTIR, UV-Vis spectroscopy, SEM and dynamic light-scattering analyses, the particles were FITC functionalised to quantify cellular uptake. Changes in the cell compartments were studied by acrydine orange and the pro-oxidant, cytotoxic and genotoxic effects were assessed. Phagocytosis was dose- and time- dependent and at 24 h 52% of nPS and 58% of mPS were engulfed. Despite the high homeostasis of professional phagocytes, significant ROS increases and DNA damage were observed after exposure to oxidised particles. The results highlight that the environmental aging processes enhances the adverse health effects of micro and nanoplastics.

Pollutant-induced pyroptosis in humans and other animals

Pyroptosis is a form of lytic cell death with pro-inflammatory characteristics, induced upon the activation of certain inflammatory caspases by inflammasome complexes such as NLRP3 inflammasome. Gasdermin proteins as the mediators of pyroptosis form cell membrane pores upon activation, which release certain cellular contents into the extracellular space including inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18, and also damage the integrity of the cell membrane. Gasdermins have been implicated in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, infectious diseases, deafness and cancer. Mostly in the last 2 years, diverse pollutant types including particulate matter, cadmium and polystyrene microplastics were reported to induce pyroptotic cell death in diverse tissues from mammals to birds. In the present study, we review our current understanding of pollutant-induced pyroptosis as well as current knowledge of upstream events leading to pyroptotic cell death upon exposure to pollutants.

Polystyrene microplastic particles induce autophagic cell death in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells

The detection of high levels of microplastics in indoor and outdoor air has increased concerns regarding its toxic effects on the respiratory system. They are not easily degradable and can be deposited deep in the lungs. Although several studies have reported inhalation toxicities of microplastics, they are still controversial due to a lack of evidence. Herein, we evaluated the inhalation toxicities of three differently charged polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs), the most abundant microplastics in the air. Cytotoxicity and ROS generation were evaluated using WST-1 and DCF-DA assays, respectively. To evaluate the toxic effects on the lung, inflammatory responses were analyzed after repeated exposure to the PS-MPs through intratracheal instillation. To explore the mechanism of toxicity, autophagy and ER stress-associated proteins were analyzed. Only the positively charged PS-MPs (NH₂ -PS-MPs) showed cytotoxicity and increased ROS generation in BEAS-2B cells. Similarly, only NH₂ -PS-MPs significantly increased the expression and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-β in the animal experiments. The expression of ER stress proteins indicated that NH₂ -PS-MPs increased ER stress via PERK-EIF2α and ATF4-CHOP pathways. Moreover, accumulation of NH₂ -PS-MPs in lysosomes and deformity of the nucleus were observed in BEAS-2B cells with autophagy induction. Taken together, our results demonstrated that NH₂ -PS-MPs induced autophagic cell death in bronchial epithelial cells, leading to inflammatory responses in the lungs. These results suggest that repeated inhalation of microplastics can result in inflammatory responses in the lung through cellular damage of lung epithelial cells, and that inhalation microplastics should be monitored to reduce inhalation health risks.