Voluntary exposure of some western-hemisphere snake and lizard species to ultraviolet-B radiation in the field: how much ultraviolet-B should a lizard or snake receive in captivity?

UVB-emitting LEDs for reptile lighting: Identifying the risks of nonsolar UV spectra

UVB lamps are used to provide reptiles housed indoors with the UV radiation necessary to synthesize vitamin D3 in their skin. Since 2019, UVB-LED lamps have been on sale for use in reptile husbandry. We performed spectral analysis and mapped the UV irradiance for 18 of these lamps. The positive benefits of UVB-LED lamps over traditional products include greater energy efficiency, freedom from mercury and easy installation without external ballasts. However, the spectra of all the UVB-LED lamps tested had little similarity to the solar UV spectrum. Some lamps emitted short-wavelength, non-terrestrial, radiation known to cause acute photo-kerato-conjunctivitis; we report one case. All lamps were lacking significant output in the range 315-335 nm, essential for natural self-regulation of cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis, preventing overproduction. We describe a possible risk of serious hypervitaminosis D based on our spectral analysis. We call for long-term animal studies to assess this risk, in which the reptiles under these lamps are exposed to species-appropriate UV index levels according to their Ferguson Zone allocation and serum levels of vitamin D3 and 25(OH)D3 monitored. Spectral modifications of the lamps to make the spectrum more like sunlight may be an essential way of mitigating this risk.

UV irradiance effects on komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) vitamin D3, egg production, and behavior: A case study

Modifications to UV irradiance for indoor housed herpetofauna can affect behavior and physiology. Low ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiance can result in vitamin D3 deficiency resulting in calcium metabolism disorders including metabolic bone disease and immune suppression. High UVB can result in skin and eye issues, which can be severe enough to cause shock and death. Using tools available for the assessment of UV light, including Ferguson zones and the UV working tool designed by the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquaria, we redesigned lighting in our indoor komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) habitat to better suit the UV requirements of this species, while studying changes in behavior and physiology. We measured serum vitamin 25-hydroxy D3 values in one male and one female komodo dragon before and after they were housed in indoor and outdoor habitats. We also measured behavior changes in our male komodo as he moved from an outdoor habitat, to an indoor habitat with changing UV irradiance. Our female komodo showed a 98% increase in vitamin D3 values after being moved outdoors, and laid her first clutch of eggs. Our male dragon's vitamin D3 remained consistent 200 days after moving inside. He did show increased activity when higher UV irradiance was available. Importantly, we found the UV lamps we used stopped producing desired UV irradiance within 3.5 months of regular use. We suggest all animal care facilities develop UV monitoring programs to research output and longevity of UVB lamps used in indoor herpetofauna habitats.

Acclimation of thermal physiology to new basking regimes in a widespread Australian skink

Changes in thermal environments are a challenge for many ectotherms, as they would have to acclimate their physiology to new thermal environments to maintain high-levels of performance. Time spent basking is key for many ectothermic animals to keep their body temperature within optimal thermal ranges. However, little is known about the impact of changes in basking time on the thermal physiology of ectothermic animals. We investigated how different basking regimes (low intensity vs high intensity) affected key thermal physiological traits of a widespread Australian skink (Lampropholis delicata). We quantified thermal performance curves and thermal preferences of skinks subjected to low and high intensity basking regimes over a 12-week period. We found that skinks acclimated their thermal performance breadth in both basking regimes, with the skinks from the low-intensity basking regime showing narrower performance breadths. Although maximum velocity and optimum temperatures increased after the acclimation period, these traits did not differ between basking regimes. Similarly, no variation was detected for thermal preference. These results provide insight into mechanisms that allow these skinks to successfully overcome environmental constraints in the field. Acclimation of thermal performance curves seems to be key for widespread species to colonise new environments, and can buffer ectothermic animals in novel climatic scenarios.

Mobile Zoos and Other Itinerant Animal Handling Events: Current Status and Recommendations for Future Policies

Mobile zoos are events in which non-domesticated (exotic) and domesticated species are transported to venues such as schools, hospitals, parties, and community centres, for the purposes of education, entertainment, or social and therapeutic assistance. We conducted literature searches and surveyed related government agencies regarding existing provisions within laws and policies, number of mobile zoos, and formal guidance issued concerning operation of such events in 74 countries or regions. We also examined governmental and non-governmental guidance standards for mobile zoos, as well as websites for mobile zoo operations, assessed promotional or educational materials for scientific accuracy, and recorded the diversity of species in use. We used the EMODE (Easy, Moderate, Difficult, or Extreme) algorithm, to evaluate identified species associated with mobile zoos for their suitability for keeping. We recorded 14 areas of concern regarding animal biology and public health and safety, and 8 areas of false and misleading content in promotional or educational materials. We identified at least 341 species used for mobile zoos. Mobile zoos are largely unregulated, unmonitored, and uncontrolled, and appear to be increasing. Issues regarding poor animal welfare, public health and safety, and education raise several serious concerns. Using the precautionary principle when empirical evidence was not available, we advise that exotic species should not be used for mobile zoos and similar itinerant events.

Pet Reptiles-Are We Meeting Their Needs?

Simple Summary

Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to meet the needs of their pet animals. In this study, 220 pet reptile owners in Portugal reported their knowledge of reptile behaviors and the provision of essential husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge). Although two-thirds of respondents scored very good to excellent in terms of interpreting their pet reptile’s behaviors, 85% failed to provide at least one of the four husbandry needs. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by some respondents. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their lives. Despite this, none of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and a single respondent reported it as poor. We suggest that poor welfare and abnormal behaviors in pet reptiles have become accepted as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted. In particular, the predominant view, propelled by the exotic pet industry, that reptiles are low-maintenance pets needs to be actively refuted.

Abstract

The ability to meet the needs of each species in captivity is at the heart of the ethical debate on the acceptability of keeping reptiles and other animals as pets. Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to understand their pets’ behavior and to meet their welfare requirements. In this study, we surveyed pet reptile owners in Portugal (N = 220) to assess their behavioral knowledge and the provision of essential husbandry needs. Although two-thirds of respondents (68%) scored very good to excellent in terms of knowledge of their pet reptile’s behaviors, only 15% of respondents met four essential reptile husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge) and 43% met two or less. None of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and only a single respondent reported it as poor. Logistic regression model showed that while snake owners had fourteen times higher odds of reporting adequate husbandry provision, lizard owners had the highest odds of reporting good or very good welfare despite providing less of their animals’ basic husbandry needs. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their captive lives. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by up to one quarter of respondents. We suggest that the frequency of these behaviors in pet reptiles has led to their acceptance as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted.

Managing the Health of Captive Groups of Reptiles and Amphibians

Managing the health of reptile and amphibian collections is centered on providing appropriate environmental parameters, husbandry conditions, and nutrition as well as maintaining good welfare and careful collection planning. Disease transmission is reduced through quarantine, appropriate diagnostic testing, and annual veterinary health assessment."

Is the natural UV zone important for successful captive propagation of the Panther Chameleon (Furcifer pardalis); are different UVB irradiance exposures that generate a similar dose equally successful?

While we generally understand the optimal ultraviolet B (UVB) environment for the growth and reproduction of female Panther Chameleons Furcifer pardalis, we do not know the relative importance of UVB irradiance and dose for optimal husbandry outcomes. Accordingly, we experimented with Panther Chameleon females to test the hypothesis that UVB dose (irradiance × exposure duration) determines the outcome, regardless of the combination of UVB irradiance and exposure duration generating the dose. We varied UVB irradiance and exposure duration across treatment groups while keeping dose similar and within a range previously documented to result in reproductive success. The growth rate, age of maturity, and measurable vitamin D status were not significantly different among the treatment groups. Individuals in all groups produced viable eggs that successfully hatched. Thus, we found some support for the hypothesis that the UVB dose determines the outcome regardless of UVB irradiance. However, mean egg vitamin D₃ concentration and percent hatching were higher in the highest UVB irradiance group, despite similar doses among the three groups. Preliminary field data reveal that this species occupies UV irradiance Zone 4 in Madagascar, the highest zone for reptiles recorded. Only the irradiance of the high UVB irradiance group in our experiment approached this zone and resulted in the best reproductive success. Biosynthesis of vitamin D₃ and provisioning to eggs is more efficient when exposure to UVB irradiance is similar to that in their natural environment. Establishing an optimal UVB environment, based on knowledge of the natural UVB environment, is important for the propagation of Panther Chameleons in captivity.

Technological Advances in Herpetoculture

Technology plays a vital role in herpetoculture because ectothermic animals rely on their environment to carry out basic physiologic functions. Controlling the environment appropriately ensures the health and welfare of captive reptiles and amphibians. This article summarizes some of the technological advances and products currently available, including lighting, climate control, and recordkeeping.

Defense potential of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants under UV-B stress

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation has, for many decades now, been widely studied with respect to its consequences on plant and animal health. Though according to NASA, the ozone hole is on its way to recovery, it will still be a considerable time before UV-B levels reach pre-industrial limits. Thus, for the present, excessive UV-B reaching the Earth is a cause for concern, and UV-B related human ailments are on the rise. Plants produce various secondary metabolites as one of the defense strategies under UV-B. They provide photoprotection via their UV-B screening effects and by quenching the reactive oxygen- and nitrogen species produced under UV-B influence. These properties of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) are being increasingly recognized and made use of in sunscreens and cosmetics, and pharma- and nutraceuticals are gradually becoming a part of the regular diet. Secondary metabolites derived from medicinal plants (alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics) are a source of pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, as well as more rigorously tested and regulated drugs. These metabolites have been implicated in providing protection not only to plants under the influence of UV-B, but also to animals/animal cell lines, when the innate defenses in the latter are not adequate under UV-B-induced damage. The present review focuses on the defense potential of secondary metabolites derived from medicinal plants in both plants and animals. In plants, the concentrations of the alkaloids, terpenes/terpenoids, and phenolics have been discussed under UV-B irradiation as well as the fate of the genes and enzymes involved in their biosynthetic pathways. Their role in providing protection to animal models subjected to UV-B has been subsequently elucidated. Finally, we discuss the possible futuristic scenarios and implications for plant, animal, and human health pertaining to the defense potential of these secondary metabolites under UV-B radiation-mediated damages.

Guidelines for Inspection of Companion and Commercial Animal Establishments

Various establishments exist in which animals are held for a variety of reasons. Historically, the management and inspection of animals in commerce and in private keeping have involved a considerable degree of arbitrary evaluation based on the personal experience of the vendor, keeper, advisor, or inspector. Accordingly, relevant protocols and standards are subject to considerable variation. Relatedly, diversity of traded and privately kept species generates significant challenges for those responsible for facility management and inspection alike. Animal welfare and public health and safety are constant and major concerns that require objective methodologies to monitor and control. This report focuses on establishments concerned with the boarding, breeding, storage, vending or handover of animals intended for human “companions” or “pets”, and aims to provide universal objective information for essential husbandry, inspection protocols and an allied inspection assessment tool for scoring establishments.

Evidence-Based Reptile Housing and Nutrition

The provision of a good light source is important for reptiles. For instance, ultraviolet light is used in social interactions and used for vitamin D synthesis. With respect to housing, most reptilians are best kept pairwise or individually. Environmental enrichment can be effective but depends on the form and the species to which it is applied. Temperature gradients around preferred body temperatures allow accurate thermoregulation, which is essential for reptiles. Natural distributions indicate suitable ambient temperatures, but microclimatic conditions are at least as important. Because the nutrient requirements of reptiles are largely unknown, facilitating self-selection from various dietary items is preferable.

Reptile wellness management

Proper care and husbandry are the most important factors in keeping captive reptiles healthy. Improper nutrition, supplementation, caging, lighting, substrate, temperature, and humidity can all lead to stress and development of disease. Presented here are current recommendations for keeping captive reptiles. Care has moved away from sterile, spartan enclosures to larger, more naturalistic habitats. These habitats provide more space and choices for the reptile, leading to higher activity levels, reduced stress, and more opportunities to exhibit natural behaviors. Reptiles benefit from enrichment and are amenable to training in order to reduce stress and allow easier handling and veterinary care.