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Liu WL, Li F, Chen W, Liu L, Cheng HJ, He ZX, Ai R. "Liu-Liang-Chung" syndrome with multiple congenital anomalies and the distinctive craniofacial features caused by dominant ZEB2 gene gain mutation. BMC Pediatr 2023; 23:480. [PMID: 37735378 PMCID: PMC10512491 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-023-04314-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Contiguous gene gain syndrome including entire ZEB2 may be a novel syndrome. In the past, there were no easily distinct and recognizable features as a guide for precise clinical and genetic diagnosis of the syndrome. CASE PRESENTATION We report a novel case with the syndrome with a novel de novo 22.16 Mb duplication at 2q21.2-q24.1. The syndrome is characterized by multiple anomalies including the same typical craniofacial phenotype that is entirely different from Mowat-Wilson syndrome (MWS), and other quite similar features of MWS consisting of development delay, congenital heart disease, abdominal abnormalities, urogenital abnormalities, behavioral problems and so on, in which the distinctive craniofacial features can be more easily recognized. CONCLUSIONS Contiguous gene gain syndrome including entire ZEB2 characterized with similar multiple congenital anomalies of MWS and the distinctive craniofacial features is mainly caused by large 2q22 repeats including ZEB2 leading to dominant singe ZEB2 gene gain mutation, which is recommended to be named "Liu-Liang-Chung" syndrome. We diagnose this novel syndrome to distinguish it from MWS. Some variable additional features in the syndrome including remarkable growth and development retardation and protruding ears were recognized for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Liang Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China.
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China
| | - Hai-Jian Cheng
- Beijing Kangso Medical Laboratory Co., Ltd, Beijing, 100195, China
| | - Zhi-Xu He
- Department of Pediatrics, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China
| | - Rong Ai
- Department of Pediatrics, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, 550004, China
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2
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Favarolo MB, Revinski DR, Garavaglia MJ, López SL. Nodal and churchill1 position the expression of a notch ligand during Xenopus germ layer segregation. Life Sci Alliance 2022; 5:5/12/e202201693. [PMID: 36180230 PMCID: PMC9604498 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Churchill and Nodal signaling, which participate in vertebrates’ germ layer induction, position a domain of Delta/Notch activity, which refines germ layer boundaries during frog gastrulation. In vertebrates, Nodal signaling plays a major role in endomesoderm induction, but germ layer delimitation is poorly understood. In avian embryos, the neural/mesoderm boundary is controlled by the transcription factor CHURCHILL1, presumably through the repressor ZEB2, but there is scarce knowledge about its role in other vertebrates. During amphibian gastrulation, Delta/Notch signaling refines germ layer boundaries in the marginal zone, but it is unknown the place this pathway occupies in the network comprising Churchill1 and Nodal. Here, we show that Xenopus churchill1 is expressed in the presumptive neuroectoderm at mid-blastula transition and during gastrulation, upregulates zeb2, prevents dll1 expression in the neuroectoderm, and favors neuroectoderm over endomesoderm development. Nodal signaling prevents dll1 expression in the endoderm but induces it in the presumptive mesoderm, from where it activates Notch1 and its target gene hes4 in the non-involuting marginal zone. We propose a model where Nodal and Churchill1 position Dll1/Notch1/Hes4 domains in the marginal zone, ensuring the delimitation between mesoderm and neuroectoderm.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Belén Favarolo
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología/1° U.A. Departamento de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), Laboratorio de Embriología Molecular "Prof. Dr. Andrés E. Carrasco", Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego R Revinski
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología/1° U.A. Departamento de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), Laboratorio de Embriología Molecular "Prof. Dr. Andrés E. Carrasco", Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Matías J Garavaglia
- Laboratorio de Bioinsumos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional de Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvia L López
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología/1° U.A. Departamento de Histología, Embriología, Biología Celular y Genética, Buenos Aires, Argentina .,CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia "Prof. E. De Robertis" (IBCN), Laboratorio de Embriología Molecular "Prof. Dr. Andrés E. Carrasco", Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Zhao R, Trainor PA. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition during mammalian neural crest cell delamination. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 138:54-67. [PMID: 35277330 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a well-defined cellular process that was discovered in chicken embryos and described as "epithelial to mesenchymal transformation" [1]. During EMT, epithelial cells lose their epithelial features and acquire mesenchymal character with migratory potential. EMT has subsequently been shown to be essential for both developmental and pathological processes including embryo morphogenesis, wound healing, tissue fibrosis and cancer [2]. During the past 5 years, interest and study of EMT especially in cancer biology have increased exponentially due to the implied role of EMT in multiple aspects of malignancy such as cell invasion, survival, stemness, metastasis, therapeutic resistance and tumor heterogeneity [3]. Since the process of EMT in embryogenesis and cancer progression shares similar phenotypic changes, core transcription factors and molecular mechanisms, it has been proposed that the initiation and development of carcinoma could be attributed to abnormal activation of EMT factors usually required for normal embryo development. Therefore, developmental EMT mechanisms, whose timing, location, and tissue origin are strictly regulated, could prove useful for uncovering new insights into the phenotypic changes and corresponding gene regulatory control of EMT under pathological conditions. In this review, we initially provide an overview of the phenotypic and molecular mechanisms involved in EMT and discuss the newly emerging concept of epithelial to mesenchymal plasticity (EMP). Then we focus on our current knowledge of a classic developmental EMT event, neural crest cell (NCC) delamination, highlighting key differences in our understanding of NCC EMT between mammalian and non-mammalian species. Lastly, we highlight available tools and future directions to advance our understanding of mammalian NCC EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruonan Zhao
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Paul A Trainor
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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Birkhoff JC, Huylebroeck D, Conidi A. ZEB2, the Mowat-Wilson Syndrome Transcription Factor: Confirmations, Novel Functions, and Continuing Surprises. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:1037. [PMID: 34356053 PMCID: PMC8304685 DOI: 10.3390/genes12071037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
After its publication in 1999 as a DNA-binding and SMAD-binding transcription factor (TF) that co-determines cell fate in amphibian embryos, ZEB2 was from 2003 studied by embryologists mainly by documenting the consequences of conditional, cell-type specific Zeb2 knockout (cKO) in mice. In between, it was further identified as causal gene causing Mowat-Wilson Syndrome (MOWS) and novel regulator of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). ZEB2's functions and action mechanisms in mouse embryos were first addressed in its main sites of expression, with focus on those that helped to explain neurodevelopmental and neural crest defects seen in MOWS patients. By doing so, ZEB2 was identified in the forebrain as the first TF that determined timing of neuro-/gliogenesis, and thereby also the extent of different layers of the cortex, in a cell non-autonomous fashion, i.e., by its cell-intrinsic control within neurons of neuron-to-progenitor paracrine signaling. Transcriptomics-based phenotyping of Zeb2 mutant mouse cells have identified large sets of intact-ZEB2 dependent genes, and the cKO approaches also moved to post-natal brain development and diverse other systems in adult mice, including hematopoiesis and various cell types of the immune system. These new studies start to highlight the important adult roles of ZEB2 in cell-cell communication, including after challenge, e.g., in the infarcted heart and fibrotic liver. Such studies may further evolve towards those documenting the roles of ZEB2 in cell-based repair of injured tissue and organs, downstream of actions of diverse growth factors, which recapitulate developmental signaling principles in the injured sites. Evident questions are about ZEB2's direct target genes, its various partners, and ZEB2 as a candidate modifier gene, e.g., in other (neuro)developmental disorders, but also the accurate transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of its mRNA expression sites and levels. Other questions start to address ZEB2's function as a niche-controlling regulatory TF of also other cell types, in part by its modulation of growth factor responses (e.g., TGFβ/BMP, Wnt, Notch). Furthermore, growing numbers of mapped missense as well as protein non-coding mutations in MOWS patients are becoming available and inspire the design of new animal model and pluripotent stem cell-based systems. This review attempts to summarize in detail, albeit without discussing ZEB2's role in cancer, hematopoiesis, and its emerging roles in the immune system, how intense ZEB2 research has arrived at this exciting intersection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith C. Birkhoff
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (J.C.B.); (D.H.)
| | - Danny Huylebroeck
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (J.C.B.); (D.H.)
- Department of Development and Regeneration, Unit Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Biomedical Sciences Group, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andrea Conidi
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (J.C.B.); (D.H.)
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Benito-Kwiecinski S, Giandomenico SL, Sutcliffe M, Riis ES, Freire-Pritchett P, Kelava I, Wunderlich S, Martin U, Wray GA, McDole K, Lancaster MA. An early cell shape transition drives evolutionary expansion of the human forebrain. Cell 2021; 184:2084-2102.e19. [PMID: 33765444 PMCID: PMC8054913 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The human brain has undergone rapid expansion since humans diverged from other great apes, but the mechanism of this human-specific enlargement is still unknown. Here, we use cerebral organoids derived from human, gorilla, and chimpanzee cells to study developmental mechanisms driving evolutionary brain expansion. We find that neuroepithelial differentiation is a protracted process in apes, involving a previously unrecognized transition state characterized by a change in cell shape. Furthermore, we show that human organoids are larger due to a delay in this transition, associated with differences in interkinetic nuclear migration and cell cycle length. Comparative RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) reveals differences in expression dynamics of cell morphogenesis factors, including ZEB2, a known epithelial-mesenchymal transition regulator. We show that ZEB2 promotes neuroepithelial transition, and its manipulation and downstream signaling leads to acquisition of nonhuman ape architecture in the human context and vice versa, establishing an important role for neuroepithelial cell shape in human brain expansion. Human brain organoids are expanded relative to nonhuman apes prior to neurogenesis Ape neural progenitors go through a newly identified transition morphotype state Delayed morphological transition with shorter cell cycles underlie human expansion ZEB2 is as an evolutionary regulator of this transition
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Benito-Kwiecinski
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Stefano L Giandomenico
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Magdalena Sutcliffe
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Erlend S Riis
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK
| | - Paula Freire-Pritchett
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Iva Kelava
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Stephanie Wunderlich
- Leibniz Research Laboratories for Biotechnology and Artificial Organs (LEBAO), REBIRTH-Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease (BREATH), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ulrich Martin
- Leibniz Research Laboratories for Biotechnology and Artificial Organs (LEBAO), REBIRTH-Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease (BREATH), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Gregory A Wray
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Biological Sciences Building, 124 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Kate McDole
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Madeline A Lancaster
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK.
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6
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Yang S, Toledo EM, Rosmaninho P, Peng C, Uhlén P, Castro DS, Arenas E. A Zeb2-miR-200c loop controls midbrain dopaminergic neuron neurogenesis and migration. Commun Biol 2018; 1:75. [PMID: 30271956 PMCID: PMC6123725 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-018-0080-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeb2 is a homeodomain transcription factor that plays pleiotropic functions during embryogenesis, but its role for midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neuron development is unknown. Here we report that Zeb2 is highly expressed in progenitor cells in the ventricular zone of the midbrain floor plate and downregulated in postmitotic neuroblasts. Functional experiments show that Zeb2 expression in the embryonic ventral midbrain is dynamically regulated by a negative feedback loop that involves miR-200c. We also find that Zeb2 overexpression reduces the levels of CXCR4, NR4A2, and PITX3 in the developing ventral midbrain in vivo, resulting in migration and mDA differentiation defects. This phenotype was recapitulated by miR-200c knockdown, suggesting that the Zeb2-miR-200c loop prevents the premature differentiation of mDA progenitors into postmitotic cells and their migration. Together, our study establishes Zeb2 and miR-200c as critical regulators that maintain the balance between mDA progenitor proliferation and neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanzheng Yang
- Laboratory for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Enrique M Toledo
- Laboratory for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pedro Rosmaninho
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Changgeng Peng
- Laboratory for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Per Uhlén
- Laboratory for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Diogo S Castro
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ernest Arenas
- Laboratory for Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 9, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden.
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7
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Yuan H, Zhang L, Chen M, Zhu J, Meng Z, Liang L. A de novo triplication on 2q22.3 including the entire ZEB2 gene associated with global developmental delay, multiple congenital anomalies and behavioral abnormalities. Mol Cytogenet 2015; 8:99. [PMID: 26705424 PMCID: PMC4690300 DOI: 10.1186/s13039-015-0206-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mowat-Wilson syndrome (MWS) is a genetic condition characterized by distinctive facial features, moderate to severe intellectual disability, developmental delay and multiple congenital anomalies. MWS is caused by heterozygous mutations or deletions of the ZEB2 gene located on chromosome 2q22.3. At present, over 190 cases with mutations and deletions involving the ZEB2 gene have been reported, but triplication or duplication of reciprocal region of Mowat-Wilson syndrome has never been reported. CASE PRESENTATION Here we report a 2-year-2-month-old boy carrying a de novo 2.9 Mb complex copy number gain at 2q22.3 involving triplication of ZEB2 gene. The boy is characterized by intrauterine growth retardation, hypotonia, cognitive impairment, multiple congenital anomalies and behavioral abnormalities. CONCLUSION This case provides evidence that triplication of ZEB2 gene may be clinical significance and ZEB2 gene is likely to be a dosage sensitive gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiming Yuan
- Guangzhou kingmed center for clinical laboratory Co., Ltd, Guangzhou, 510330, Guangdong China ; KingMed School of Laboratory Medicine Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510330, Guangdong China
| | - Lina Zhang
- Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, Guangdong China
| | - Mengfan Chen
- Guangzhou kingmed center for clinical laboratory Co., Ltd, Guangzhou, 510330, Guangdong China
| | - Junping Zhu
- Guangzhou kingmed center for clinical laboratory Co., Ltd, Guangzhou, 510330, Guangdong China
| | - Zhe Meng
- Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, Guangdong China
| | - Liyang Liang
- Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, Guangdong China
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8
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Hegarty SV, Sullivan AM, O'Keeffe GW. Zeb2: A multifunctional regulator of nervous system development. Prog Neurobiol 2015; 132:81-95. [PMID: 26193487 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Zinc finger E-box binding homeobox (Zeb) 2 is a transcription factor, identified due its ability to bind Smad proteins, and consists of multiple functional domains which interact with a variety of transcriptional co-effectors. The complex nature of the Zeb2, both at its genetic and protein levels, underlie its multifunctional properties, with Zeb2 capable of acting individually or as part of a transcriptional complex to repress, and occasionally activate, target gene expression. This review introduces Zeb2 as an essential regulator of nervous system development. Zeb2 is expressed in the nervous system throughout its development, indicating its importance in neurogenic and gliogenic processes. Indeed, mutation of Zeb2 has dramatic neurological consequences both in animal models, and in humans with Mowat-Wilson syndrome, which results from heterozygous ZEB2 mutations. The mechanisms by which Zeb2 regulates the induction of the neuroectoderm (CNS primordium) and the neural crest (PNS primordium) are reviewed herein. We then describe how Zeb2 acts to direct the formation, delamination, migration and specification of neural crest cells. Zeb2 regulation of the development of a number of cerebral regions, including the neocortex and hippocampus, are then described. The diverse molecular mechanisms mediating Zeb2-directed development of various neuronal and glial populations are reviewed. The role of Zeb2 in spinal cord and enteric nervous system development is outlined, while its essential function in CNS myelination is also described. Finally, this review discusses how the neurodevelopmental defects of Zeb2 mutant mice delineate the developmental dysfunctions underpinning the multiple neurological defects observed in Mowat-Wilson syndrome patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane V Hegarty
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Aideen M Sullivan
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Gerard W O'Keeffe
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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9
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Lee HK, Lee HS, Moody SA. Neural transcription factors: from embryos to neural stem cells. Mol Cells 2014; 37:705-12. [PMID: 25234468 PMCID: PMC4213760 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2014.0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The early steps of neural development in the vertebrate embryo are regulated by sets of transcription factors that control the induction of proliferative, pluripotent neural precursors, the expansion of neural plate stem cells, and their transition to differentiating neural progenitors. These early events are critical for producing a pool of multipotent cells capable of giving rise to the multitude of neurons and glia that form the central nervous system. In this review we summarize findings from gain- and loss-of-function studies in embryos that detail the gene regulatory network responsible for these early events. We discuss whether this information is likely to be similar in mammalian embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells that are cultured according to protocols designed to produce neurons. The similarities and differences between the embryo and stem cells may provide important guidance to stem cell protocols designed to create immature neural cells for therapeutic uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Kyung Lee
- ABRC, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioReserach Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-702,
Korea
| | - Hyun-Shik Lee
- ABRC, School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioReserach Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-702,
Korea
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10
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Rogers CD, Saxena A, Bronner ME. Sip1 mediates an E-cadherin-to-N-cadherin switch during cranial neural crest EMT. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 203:835-47. [PMID: 24297751 PMCID: PMC3857483 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201305050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Sip1 promotes the mesenchymalization stage of the neural crest epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition by inducing a transcriptional switch in cells from expression of E-cadherin to N-cadherin. The neural crest, an embryonic stem cell population, initially resides within the dorsal neural tube but subsequently undergoes an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to commence migration. Although neural crest and cancer EMTs are morphologically similar, little is known regarding conservation of their underlying molecular mechanisms. We report that Sip1, which is involved in cancer EMT, plays a critical role in promoting the neural crest cell transition to a mesenchymal state. Sip1 transcripts are expressed in premigratory/migrating crest cells. After Sip1 loss, the neural crest specifier gene FoxD3 was abnormally retained in the dorsal neuroepithelium, whereas Sox10, which is normally required for emigration, was diminished. Subsequently, clumps of adherent neural crest cells remained adjacent to the neural tube and aberrantly expressed E-cadherin while lacking N-cadherin. These findings demonstrate two distinct phases of neural crest EMT, detachment and mesenchymalization, with the latter involving a novel requirement for Sip1 in regulation of cadherin expression during completion of neural crest EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal D Rogers
- Division of Biology 139-74, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125
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11
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Conidi A, van den Berghe V, Leslie K, Stryjewska A, Xue H, Chen YG, Seuntjens E, Huylebroeck D. Four amino acids within a tandem QxVx repeat in a predicted extended α-helix of the Smad-binding domain of Sip1 are necessary for binding to activated Smad proteins. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76733. [PMID: 24146916 PMCID: PMC3795639 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The zinc finger transcription factor Smad-interacting protein-1 (Sip1; Zeb2, Zfhx1b) plays an important role during vertebrate embryogenesis in various tissues and differentiating cell types, and during tumorigenesis. Previous biochemical analysis suggests that interactions with several partner proteins, including TGFβ family receptor-activated Smads, regulate the activities of Sip1 in the nucleus both as a DNA-binding transcriptional repressor and activator. Using a peptide aptamer approach we mapped in Sip1 its Smad-binding domain (SBD), initially defined as a segment of 51 amino acids, to a shorter stretch of 14 amino acids within this SBD. Modelling suggests that this short SBD stretch is part of an extended α-helix that may fit the binding to a hydrophobic corridor within the MH2 domain of activated Smads. Four amino acids (two polar Q residues and two non-polar V residues) that form the tandem repeat (QxVx)2 in this 14-residue stretch were found to be crucial for binding to both TGFβ/Nodal/Activin-Smads and BMP-Smads. A full-length Sip1 with collective mutation of these Q and V residues (to A) no longer binds to Smads, while it retains its binding activity to its cognate bipartite target DNA sequence. This missense mutant Sip1(AxAx)2 provides a new molecular tool to identify SBD (in)dependent target genes in Sip1-controlled TGFβ and/or BMP (de)regulated cellular, developmental and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Conidi
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), Department of Development and Regeneration, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Veronique van den Berghe
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), Department of Development and Regeneration, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kris Leslie
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Agata Stryjewska
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), Department of Development and Regeneration, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hua Xue
- The State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Tsinghua-Beijing Centre for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Ye-Guang Chen
- The State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Tsinghua-Beijing Centre for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Eve Seuntjens
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), Department of Development and Regeneration, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Danny Huylebroeck
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), Department of Development and Regeneration, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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12
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Chalazonitis A, Kessler JA. Pleiotropic effects of the bone morphogenetic proteins on development of the enteric nervous system. Dev Neurobiol 2012; 72:843-56. [PMID: 22213745 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Formation of the enteric nervous system (ENS) from migratory neural crest-derived cells that colonize the primordial gut involves a complex interplay among different signaling molecules. The bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), specifically BMP2 and BMP4, play a particularly important role in virtually every stage of gut and ENS development. BMP signaling helps to pattern both the anterior-posterior axis and the radial axis of the gut prior to colonization by migratory crest progenitor cells. BMP signaling then helps regulate the migration of enteric neural crest-derived precursors as they colonize the fetal gut and form ganglia. BMP2 and -4 promote differentiation of enteric neurons in early fetal ENS development and glia at later stages. A major role for BMP signaling in the ENS is regulation of responses to other growth factors. Thus BMP signaling first regulates neurogenesis by modulating responses to GDNF and later gliogenesis through its effects on GGF-2 responses. Furthermore, BMPs promote growth factor dependency for survival of ENS neurons (on NT-3) and glia (on GGF-2) by inducing TrkC (neurons) and ErbB3 (glia). BMP signaling limits total neuron numbers, favoring the differentiation of later born neuronal phenotypes at the expense of earlier born ones thus influencing the neuronal composition of the ENS and the glia/neuron ratio. BMP2 and -4 also promote gangliogenesis via modification of neural cell adhesion molecules and promote differentiation of the circular and then longitudinal smooth muscles. Disruption of BMP signaling leads to defects in the gut and in ENS function commensurate with these complex developmental roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alcmène Chalazonitis
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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13
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Dady A, Blavet C, Duband JL. Timing and kinetics of E- to N-cadherin switch during neurulation in the avian embryo. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:1333-49. [PMID: 22684994 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND During embryonic development, cadherin switches are correlated with tissue remodelings, such as epithelium-to-mesenchyme transition (EMT). An E- to N-cadherin switch also occurs during neurogenesis, but this is not accompanied with EMT. The biological significance of this switch is currently unknown. RESULTS We analyzed the timing and kinetics of the E- to N-cadherin switch during early neural induction and neurulation in the chick embryo, in relation to the patterns of their transcriptional regulators. We found that deployment of the E- to N-cadherin switch program varies considerably along the embryonic axis. Rostrally in regions of primary neurulation, it occurs progressively both in time and space in a manner that appears neither in connection with morphological transformation of neural epithelial cells nor in synchrony with movements of neurulation. Caudally, in regions of secondary neurulation, neurogenesis was not associated with cadherin switch as N-cadherin pre-existed before formation of the neural tube. We also found that, during neural development, cadherin switch is orchestrated by a set of transcriptional regulators distinct from those involved in EMT. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that cadherin switch correlates with the partition of the neurectoderm into its three main populations: ectoderm, neural crest, and neural tube.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alwyn Dady
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement, Paris, France
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Lander R, Nordin K, LaBonne C. The F-box protein Ppa is a common regulator of core EMT factors Twist, Snail, Slug, and Sip1. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 194:17-25. [PMID: 21727196 PMCID: PMC3135407 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201012085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The core EMT regulatory factors Twist, Snail, Slug, and Sip1, while structurally diverse, are coordinately regulated by a common E3 ubiquiting ligase, Ppa. A small group of core transcription factors, including Twist, Snail, Slug, and Sip1, control epithelial–mesenchymal transitions (EMTs) during both embryonic development and tumor metastasis. However, little is known about how these factors are coordinately regulated to mediate the requisite behavioral and fate changes. It was recently shown that a key mechanism for regulating Snail proteins is by modulating their stability. In this paper, we report that the stability of Twist is also regulated by the ubiquitin–proteasome system. We found that the same E3 ubiquitin ligase known to regulate Snail family proteins, Partner of paired (Ppa), also controlled Twist stability and did so in a manner dependent on the Twist WR-rich domain. Surprisingly, Ppa could also target the third core EMT regulatory factor Sip1 for proteasomal degradation. Together, these results indicate that despite the structural diversity of the core transcriptional regulatory factors implicated in EMT, a common mechanism has evolved for controlling their stability and therefore their function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Lander
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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Katunuma N. Structure-based development of specific inhibitors for individual cathepsins and their medical applications. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2011; 87:29-39. [PMID: 21321479 PMCID: PMC3043741 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.87.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/21/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Specific inhibitors for individual cathepsins have been developed based on their tertiary structures of X-ray crystallography. Cathepsin B-specific inhibitors, CA-074 and CA-030, and cathepsin L specific inhibitors, CLIK-148 and CLIK-195, were designed as the epoxysuccinate derivatives. Cathepsin S inhibitor, CLIK-060, and cathepsin K inhibitor, CLIK-166, were synthesized. These inhibitors can use in vitro and also in vivo, and show no toxicity for experimental animals by the amounts used as the cathepsin inhibitor. Various cathepsins are used in the processing of antigenic proteins. The CLIK-060 treatment to the autoimmune disease, Sjögren model mice, led to strongly suppress the expression of the pathological symptoms. Cathepsins L or K participates to the degradation of bone collagen. The CLIK-148 protects osteoporosis in animals and also protects the bone metastasis of cancer cells. Cathepsin L also enhances insulin-induced glucose uptake into 3T3-L1 adipocytes, suggesting cathepsin L plays the roles in adipogenesis and glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhiko Katunuma
- Institute for Health Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima, Japan.
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16
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FGF dependent regulation of Zfhx1b gene expression promotes the formation of definitive neural stem cells in the mouse anterior neurectoderm. Neural Dev 2010; 5:13. [PMID: 20459606 PMCID: PMC2883982 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8104-5-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mouse definitive neural stem cells (NSCs) are derived from a population of LIF-responsive primitive neural stem cells (pNSCs) within the neurectoderm, yet details on the early signaling and transcriptional mechanisms that control this lineage transition are lacking. Here we tested whether FGF and Wnt signaling pathways can regulate Zfhx1b expression to control early neural stem cell development. Results By microinjecting FGF8b into the pro-amniotic cavity ex vivo at 7.0 days post-coitum (dpc) and culturing whole embryos, we demonstrate that neurectoderm-specific gene expression (for example, Sox2, Nestin, Zfhx1b) is increased, whereas Wnt3a represses neurectoderm gene expression. To determine whether FGF signaling also mediates the lineage transition from a pNSC to a NSC, 7.0-dpc embryos were microinjected with either FGF8b or inhibitors of the FGF receptor-MAP kinase signaling pathway ex vivo, cultured as whole embryos to approximately 8.5 dpc and assayed for clonal NSC colony formation. We show that pre-activation of FGF signaling in the anterior neurectoderm causes an increase in the number of colony forming NSCs derived later from the anterior neural plate, whereas inhibition of FGF signaling significantly reduces the number of NSC colonies. Interestingly, inhibition of FGF signaling causes the persistence of LIF-responsive pNSCs within the anterior neural plate and over-expression of Zfhx1b in these cells is sufficient to rescue the transition from a LIF-responsive pNSC to an FGF-responsive NSC. Conclusion Our data suggest that definitive NSC fate specification in the mouse neurectoderm is facilitated by FGF activation of Zfhx1b.
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Stanchina L, Van de Putte T, Goossens M, Huylebroeck D, Bondurand N. Genetic interaction between Sox10 and Zfhx1b during enteric nervous system development. Dev Biol 2010; 341:416-28. [PMID: 20206619 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Revised: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The involvement of SOX10 and ZFHX1B in Waardenburg-Hirschsprung disease (hypopigmentation, deafness, and absence of enteric ganglia) and Mowat-Wilson syndrome (mental retardation, facial dysmorphy and variable congenital malformations including Hirschsprung disease) respectively, highlighted the importance of both transcription factors during enteric nervous system (ENS) development. The expression and function of SOX10 are now well established, but those of ZFHX1B remain elusive. Here we describe the expression profile of Zfhx1b and its genetic interactions with Sox10 during mouse ENS development. Through phenotype analysis of Sox10;Zfhx1b double mutants, we show that a coordinated and balanced interaction between these two genes is required for normal ENS development. Double mutants present with more severe ENS defects due to decreased proliferation of enteric progenitors and increased neuronal differentiation from E11.5 onwards. Thus, joint activity between these two transcription factors is crucial for proper ENS development and our results contribute to the understanding of the molecular basis of ENS defects observed both in mutant mouse models and in patients carrying SOX10 and ZFHX1B mutations.
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18
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LaVaute TM, Yoo YD, Pankratz MT, Weick JP, Gerstner JR, Zhang SC. Regulation of neural specification from human embryonic stem cells by BMP and FGF. Stem Cells 2010; 27:1741-9. [PMID: 19544434 DOI: 10.1002/stem.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is required for vertebrate neural induction, and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) may affect neural induction through phosphorylation at the linker region of Smad1, thus regulating BMP signaling. Here we show that human embryonic stem cells efficiently convert to neuroepithelial cells in the absence of BMP antagonists, or even when exposed to high concentrations of exogenous BMP4. Molecular and functional analyses revealed multiple levels of endogenous BMP signaling inhibition that may account for the efficient neural differentiation. Blocking FGF signaling inhibited neural induction, but did not alter the phosphorylation of the linker region of Smad1, suggesting that FGF enhances human neural specification independently of BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M LaVaute
- Neuroscience Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA
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19
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Targeted inhibition of Snail family zinc finger transcription factors by oligonucleotide-Co(III) Schiff base conjugate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:13667-72. [PMID: 19666616 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0906423106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A transition metal complex targeted for the inhibition of a subset of zinc finger transcription factors has been synthesized and tested in Xenopus laevis. A Co(III) Schiff base complex modified with a 17-bp DNA sequence is designed to selectively inhibit Snail family transcription factors. The oligonucleotide-conjugated Co(III) complex prevents Slug, Snail, and Sip1 from binding their DNA targets whereas other transcription factors are still able to interact with their target DNA. The attachment of the oligonucleotide to the Co(III) complex increases specificity 150-fold over the unconjugated complex. Studies demonstrate that neither the oligo, or the Co(III) Schiff base complex alone, are sufficient for inactivation of Slug at concentrations that the conjugated complex mediates inhibition. Slug, Snail, and Sip1 have been implicated in the regulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in development and cancer. A complex targeted to inactivate their transcriptional activity could prove valuable as an experimental tool and a cancer therapeutic.
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20
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Delalande JM, Guyote ME, Smith CM, Shepherd IT. Zebrafish sip1a and sip1b are essential for normal axial and neural patterning. Dev Dyn 2008; 237:1060-9. [PMID: 18351671 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Smad-interacting protein-1 (SIP1) has been implicated in the development of Mowat-Wilson syndrome whose patients exhibit Hirschsprung disease, an aganglionosis of the large intestine, as well as other phenotypes. We have identified and cloned two sip1 orthologues in zebrafish. Both sip1 orthologues are expressed maternally and have dynamic zygotic expression patterns that are temporally and spatially distinct. We have investigated the function of both orthologues using translation and splice-blocking morpholino antisense oligonucleotides. Knockdown of the orthologues causes axial and neural patterning defects consistent with the previously described function of SIP1 as an inhibitor of BMP signaling. In addition, knockdown of both genes leads to a significant reduction/loss of the post-otic cranial neural crest. This results in a subsequent absence of neural crest precursors in the posterior pharyngeal arches and a loss of enteric precursors in the intestine.
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Engenheiro E, Møller RS, Pinto M, Soares G, Nikanorova M, Carreira IM, Ullmann R, Tommerup N, Tümer Z. Mowat-Wilson syndrome: an underdiagnosed syndrome? Clin Genet 2008; 73:579-84. [PMID: 18445050 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2008.00997.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mowat-Wilson syndrome (MWS) is an autosomal dominant developmental disorder with mental retardation and variable multiple congenital abnormalities due to mutations of the ZEB2 (ZFHX1B) gene at 2q22. MWS was first described in 1998 and the causative gene was delineated in 2001. Since then, 115 different mutations of ZEB2 have been published in association with this syndrome in 161 individuals. However, recent reports suggest that due to the variability of the congenital abnormalities, this syndrome may still be underdiagnosed. We report two unrelated patients with MWS where the clinical diagnosis was established only after finding of disruption of the ZEB2 gene by a balanced translocation breakpoint and an interstitial microdeletion, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Engenheiro
- Wilhelm Johannsen Centre for Functional Genome Research, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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22
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van Grunsven LA, Taelman V, Michiels C, Opdecamp K, Huylebroeck D, Bellefroid EJ. deltaEF1 and SIP1 are differentially expressed and have overlapping activities during Xenopus embryogenesis. Dev Dyn 2007; 235:1491-500. [PMID: 16518800 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The zinc finger/homeo-domain transcription factor (zfh x 1) family in vertebrates consists of two members, deltaEF1 and SIP1. They have been proposed to display antagonistic activities in the interpretation of Smad-dependent TGFbeta signaling during mesoderm formation. We cloned Xenopus deltaEF1 cDNA, analyzed the expression profile of the gene, and compared the inducing and interacting properties of the protein to that of XSIP1. Whereas XSIP1 RNA is selectively expressed in the early developing nervous system, we show that XdeltaEF1 gene transcription is only activated during neurulation and that its expression is restricted to the paraxial mesoderm. From early tail bud stage, XdeltaEF1 and XSIP1 are coexpressed in migratory cranial neural crest, in the retina, and in the neural tube. Overproduction of XdeltaEF1 in RNA-injected embryos, like that of XSIP1, reduced the expression of BMP-dependent genes but only XSIP1 has the ability to induce neural markers. We find that XdeltaEF1 and XSIP1 can both form complexes, although with different efficiency, with Smad3, with the coactivators p300 and pCAF, and with the corepressor CtBP1. Together, these results indicate that deltaEF1 and SIP1 do not function as antagonists during Xenopus early embryogenesis but do display different repression efficiencies and interaction properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo A van Grunsven
- Department of Developmental Biology (VIB7), Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology (VIB) and Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), University of Leuven, Campus Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
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23
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Linder B, Mentele E, Mansperger K, Straub T, Kremmer E, Rupp RA. CHD4/Mi-2beta activity is required for the positioning of the mesoderm/neuroectoderm boundary in Xenopus. Genes Dev 2007; 21:973-83. [PMID: 17438000 PMCID: PMC1847714 DOI: 10.1101/gad.409507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Accepted: 02/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Experiments in Xenopus have illustrated the importance of extracellular morphogens for embryonic gene regulation in vertebrates. Much less is known about how induction leads to the correct positioning of boundaries; for example, between germ layers. Here we report that the neuroectoderm/mesoderm boundary is controlled by the chromatin remodeling ATPase CHD4/Mi-2beta. Gain and loss of CHD4 function experiments shifted this boundary along the animal-vegetal axis at gastrulation, leading to excess mesoderm formation at the expense of neuroectoderm, or vice versa. This phenotype results from specific alterations in gene transcription, notably of the neural-promoting gene Sip1 and the mesodermal regulatory gene Xbra. We show that CHD4 suppresses Sip1 transcription by direct binding to the 5' end of the Sip1 gene body. Furthermore, we demonstrate that CHD4 and Sip1 expression levels determine the "ON" threshold for Nodal-dependent but not for eFGF-dependent induction of Xbra transcription. The CHD4/Sip1 epistasis thus constitutes a regulatory module, which balances mesoderm and neuroectoderm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Linder
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Institut für Molekularbiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Edith Mentele
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Institut für Molekularbiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Katrin Mansperger
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Institut für Molekularbiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Tobias Straub
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Institut für Molekularbiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 München, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Kremmer
- GSF-Forschungszentrum, Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, 81377 München, Germany
| | - Ralph A.W. Rupp
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institut, Institut für Molekularbiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 80336 München, Germany
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24
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van Grunsven LA, Taelman V, Michiels C, Verstappen G, Souopgui J, Nichane M, Moens E, Opdecamp K, Vanhomwegen J, Kricha S, Huylebroeck D, Bellefroid EJ. XSip1 neuralizing activity involves the co-repressor CtBP and occurs through BMP dependent and independent mechanisms. Dev Biol 2007; 306:34-49. [PMID: 17442301 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.02.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2006] [Revised: 02/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/16/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The DNA-binding transcription factor Smad-interacting protein-1 (Sip1) (also named Zfhx1b/ZEB2) plays essential roles in vertebrate embryogenesis. In Xenopus, XSip1 is essential at the gastrula stage for neural tissue formation, but the precise molecular mechanisms that underlie this process have not been fully identified yet. Here we show that XSip1 functions as a transcriptional repressor during neural induction. We observed that constitutive activation of BMP signaling prevents neural induction by XSip1 but not the inhibition of several epidermal genes. We provide evidence that XSip1 binds directly to the BMP4 proximal promoter and modulates its activity. Finally, by deletion and mutational analysis, we show that XSip1 possesses multiple repression domains and that CtBPs contribute to its repression activity. Consistent with this, interference with XCtBP function reduced XSip1 neuralizing activity. These results suggest that Sip1 acts in neural tissue formation through direct repression of BMP4 but that BMP-independent mechanisms are involved as well. Our data also provide the first demonstration of the importance of CtBP binding in Sip1 transcriptional activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo A van Grunsven
- Department of Developmental Biology, Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Celgen, Division of Molecular and Developmental Genetics, K.U. Leuven VIB, Leuven, Belgium
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25
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Okabayashi K, Asashima M. In Vitro organogenesis using amphibian pluripotent cells. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2006; 82:197-207. [PMID: 25792783 PMCID: PMC4343058 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.82.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2006] [Accepted: 09/12/2006] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Mesoderm induction as a result of the interaction between endoderm and ectoderm is one of the most crucial events in vertebrate development. We identified activin as a strong mesoderm-inducing factor in an animal cap assay, an in vitro assay system using amphibian pluripotential cell mass. Activin induces mesodermal tisswes including most dorsal mesodermal tissue, notochord (which has important roles in neural induction, somite segmentation, and endodermal organogenesis), and its effects are concentration-dependent. Animal cap cells treated with high concentrations of activin differentiate into anterior endoderm, which can act as an organizer, or center of body patterning. We have established an in vitro induction system for 22 different organs and tissues using animal cap cells, and have isolated many organ-specific genes. With these useful methods, and analysis of newly isolated tissue- and organ-specific genes, the molecular biological "road map" for organogenesis is being established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Okabayashi
- ICORP, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo,
Japan
| | - Makoto Asashima
- ICORP, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo,
Japan
- Department of Life Sciences (Biology), Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo,
Japan
- Recipient of Imperial Prize and Japan Academy Prize in 2001
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26
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Snir M, Ofir R, Elias S, Frank D. Xenopus laevis POU91 protein, an Oct3/4 homologue, regulates competence transitions from mesoderm to neural cell fates. EMBO J 2006; 25:3664-74. [PMID: 16858397 PMCID: PMC1538554 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2005] [Accepted: 06/20/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular competence is defined as a cell's ability to respond to signaling cues as a function of time. In Xenopus laevis, cellular responsiveness to fibroblast growth factor (FGF) changes during development. At blastula stages, FGF induces mesoderm, but at gastrula stages FGF regulates neuroectoderm formation. A Xenopus Oct3/4 homologue gene, XLPOU91, regulates mesoderm to neuroectoderm transitions. Ectopic XLPOU91 expression in Xenopus embryos inhibits FGF induction of Brachyury (Xbra), eliminating mesoderm, whereas neural induction is unaffected. XLPOU91 knockdown induces high levels of Xbra expression, with blastopore closure being delayed to later neurula stages. In morphant ectoderm explants, mesoderm responsiveness to FGF is extended from blastula to gastrula stages. The initial expression of mesoderm and endoderm markers is normal, but neural induction is abolished. Churchill (chch) and Sip1, two genes regulating neural competence, are not expressed in XLPOU91 morphant embryos. Ectopic Sip1 or chch expression rescues the morphant phenotype. Thus, XLPOU91 epistatically lies upstream of chch/Sip1 gene expression, regulating the competence transition that is critical for neural induction. In the absence of XLPOU91 activity, the cues driving proper embryonic cell fates are lost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirit Snir
- Department of Biochemistry, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Rachel Ofir
- Department of Biochemistry, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Sarah Elias
- Department of Biochemistry, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dale Frank
- Department of Biochemistry, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Biochemistry, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel. Tel.: +972 48 295286; Fax: +972 48 553299; E-mail:
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27
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Bindels S, Mestdagt M, Vandewalle C, Jacobs N, Volders L, Noël A, van Roy F, Berx G, Foidart JM, Gilles C. Regulation of vimentin by SIP1 in human epithelial breast tumor cells. Oncogene 2006; 25:4975-85. [PMID: 16568083 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The expression of Smad interacting protein-1 (SIP1; ZEB2) and the de novo expression of vimentin are frequently involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs) under both normal and pathological conditions. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of SIP1 in the regulation of vimentin during the EMT associated with breast tumor cell migration and invasion. Examining several breast tumor cell lines displaying various degrees of invasiveness, we found SIP1 and vimentin expression only in invasive cell lines. Also, using a model of cell migration with human mammary MCF10A cells, we showed that SIP1 is induced specifically in vimentin-positive migratory cells. Furthermore, transfection of SIP1 cDNA in MCF10A cells increased their vimentin expression both at the mRNA and protein levels and enhanced their migratory abilities in Boyden Chamber assays. Inversely, inhibition of SIP1 expression by RNAi strategies in BT-549 cells and MCF10A cells decreased vimentin expression. We also showed that SIP1 transfection did not activate the TOP-FLASH reporter system, suggesting that the beta-catenin/TCF pathway is not implicated in the regulation of vimentin by SIP1. Our results therefore implicate SIP1 in the regulation of vimentin observed in the EMT associated with breast tumor cell migration, a pathway that may contribute to the metastatic progression of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bindels
- Laboratory of Tumor and Developmental Biology, Center for Biomedical Integrated Genoproteomics, University of Liège, CHU Sart-Tilman, Liège, Belgium
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Vandewalle C, Comijn J, De Craene B, Vermassen P, Bruyneel E, Andersen H, Tulchinsky E, Van Roy F, Berx G. SIP1/ZEB2 induces EMT by repressing genes of different epithelial cell-cell junctions. Nucleic Acids Res 2005; 33:6566-78. [PMID: 16314317 PMCID: PMC1298926 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gki965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
SIP1/ZEB2 is a member of the deltaEF-1 family of two-handed zinc finger nuclear factors. The expression of these transcription factors is associated with epithelial mesenchymal transitions (EMT) during development. SIP1 is also expressed in some breast cancer cell lines and was detected in intestinal gastric carcinomas, where its expression is inversely correlated with that of E-cadherin. Here, we show that expression of SIP1 in human epithelial cells results in a clear morphological change from an epithelial to a mesenchymal phenotype. Induction of this epithelial dedifferentiation was accompanied by repression of several cell junctional proteins, with concomitant repression of their mRNA levels. Besides E-cadherin, other genes coding for crucial proteins of tight junctions, desmosomes and gap junctions were found to be transcriptionally regulated by the transcriptional repressor SIP1. Moreover, study of the promoter regions of selected genes by luciferase reporter assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation shows that repression is directly mediated by SIP1. These data indicate that, during epithelial dedifferentiation, SIP1 represses in a coordinated manner the transcription of genes coding for junctional proteins contributing to the dedifferentiated state; this repression occurs by a general mechanism mediated by Smad Interacting Protein 1 (SIP1)-binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Erik Bruyneel
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancerology, Department of Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Ghent UniversityBelgium
| | | | - Eugene Tulchinsky
- Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, University of LeicesterUK
| | - Frans Van Roy
- Molecular Cell Biology Unit, Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, VIB-Ghent UniversityBelgium
| | - Geert Berx
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, VIB-Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium. Tel: +32.0 9.3313740; Fax: +32.0 9.3313609;
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29
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Abstract
Congenital colobomata of the eye are important causes of childhood visual impairment and blindness. Ocular coloboma can be seen in isolation and in an impressive number of multisystem syndromes, where the eye phenotype is often seen in association with severe neurological or craniofacial anomalies or other systemic developmental defects. Several studies have shown that, in addition to inheritance, environmental influences may be causative factors. Through work to identify genes underlying inherited coloboma, significant inroads are being made into understanding the molecular events controlling closure of the optic fissure. In general, severity of disease can be linked to the temporal expression of the gene, but this is modified by factors such as tissue specificity of gene expression and genetic redundancy.
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30
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Yoshimoto A, Saigou Y, Higashi Y, Kondoh H. Regulation of ocular lens development by Smad-interacting protein 1 involving Foxe3 activation. Development 2005; 132:4437-48. [PMID: 16162653 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sip1, a Smad-binding zinc-finger homeodomain transcription factor, has essential functions in embryonic development, but its role in individual tissues and the significance of its interaction with Smad proteins have not been fully characterized. In the lens lineage, Sip1 expression is activated after lens placode induction, and as the lens develops, the expression is localized in the lens epithelium and bow region where immature lens fibers reside. The lens-lineage-specific inactivation of the Sip1 gene was performed using mice homozygous for floxed Sip1 that carry a lens-specific Cre recombinase gene. This caused the development of a small hollow lens connected to the surface ectoderm, identifying two Sip1-dependent steps in lens development. The persistence of the lens stalk resembles a defect in Foxe3 mutant mice, and Sip1-defective lenses lose Foxe3 expression, placing Foxe3 downstream of Sip1. In the Sip1-defective lens, β-crystallin-expressing immature lens fiber cells were produced, but γ-crystallin-expressing mature fiber cells were absent, indicating the requirement for Sip1 activity in lens fiber maturation. A 6.2 kb Foxe3 promoter region controlled lacZ transgene expression in the developing lens, where major and minor lens elements were identified upstream of -1.26 kb. Using transfection assays, the Foxe3promoter was activated by Sip1 and this activation is further augmented by Smad8 in the manner dependent on the Smad-binding domain of Sip1. This Sip1-dependent activation and its augmentation by Smad8 occur using the proximal 1.26 kb promoter, and are separate from lens-specific regulation. This is the first demonstration of the significance of Smad interaction in modulating Sip1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Yoshimoto
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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31
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Suri C, Haremaki T, Weinstein DC. Xema, a foxi-class gene expressed in the gastrula stage Xenopus ectoderm, is required for the suppression of mesendoderm. Development 2005; 132:2733-42. [PMID: 15901660 PMCID: PMC3525708 DOI: 10.1242/dev.01865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The molecular basis of vertebrate germ layer formation has been the focus of intense scrutiny for decades, and the inductive interactions underlying this process are well defined. Only recently, however, have studies demonstrated that the regulated inhibition of ectopic germ layer formation is also crucial for patterning the early vertebrate embryo. We report here the characterization of Xema (Xenopus Ectodermally-expressed Mesendoderm Antagonist), a novel member of the Foxi-subclass of winged-helix transcription factors that is involved in the suppression of ectopic germ layer formation in the frog, Xenopus laevis. Xema transcripts are restricted to the animal pole ectoderm during early Xenopus development. Ectopic expression of Xema RNA inhibits mesoderm induction, both by growth factors and in the marginal zone, in vivo. Conversely, introduction of antisense morpholino oligonucleotides directed against the Xema transcript stimulates the expression of a broad range of mesodermal and endodermal marker genes in the animal pole. Our studies demonstrate that Xema is both necessary and sufficient for the inhibition of ectopic mesendoderm in the cells of the presumptive ectoderm, and support a model in which Fox proteins function in part to restrict inappropriate germ layer development throughout the vertebrate embryo.
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32
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Gregory-Evans CY, Vieira H, Dalton R, Adams GGW, Salt A, Gregory-Evans K. Ocular coloboma and high myopia with Hirschsprung disease associated with a novel ZFHX1B missense mutation and trisomy 21. Am J Med Genet A 2005; 131:86-90. [PMID: 15384097 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.30312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Syndromic Hirschsprung disease has been associated with mutations in ZFHX1B, a Smad-interacting transcriptional repressor protein. Tissue in situ hybridization has demonstrated strong expression of ZFHX1B in the developing eye, suggesting that some mutations in this gene may cause visual loss. However, none of the reported mutations have been associated with an ocular phenotype. We describe a patient with Down syndrome and Hirschsprung disease with high myopia and ocular coloboma affecting the iris and retina. In addition to trisomy 21, a novel, de novo heterozygous A to G transition in exon 8 of the ZFHX1B gene was identified, which results in a R953G amino acid substitution. This abnormality was not seen in a screen of 200 chromosomes from ethnically matched, normal controls. The arginine residue at position 953 is an extremely conserved amino acid throughout evolution. This is the first report associating Hirschsprung disease and severe eye defects with a specific genetic mutation and is the first report of a mutation in ZFHX1B causing a developmental ocular anomaly.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Y Gregory-Evans
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, United Kingdom.
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33
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Nitta KR, Tanegashima K, Takahashi S, Asashima M. XSIP1 is essential for early neural gene expression and neural differentiation by suppression of BMP signaling. Dev Biol 2004; 275:258-67. [PMID: 15464588 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2004] [Revised: 08/07/2004] [Accepted: 08/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Neural differentiation is induced by inhibition of BMP signaling. Secreted inhibitors of BMP such as Chordin from the Spemann organizer contribute to the initial step of neural induction. Xenopus Smad-interacting protein-1 gene (XSIP1) is expressed in neuroectoderm from the early gastrula stage through to the neurula stage. XSIP1 is able to inhibit BMP signaling and overexpression of XSIP1 induces neural differentiation. To clarify the function of XSIP1 in neural differentiation, we performed a loss-of-function study of XSIP1. Knockdown of XSIP1 inhibited SoxD expression and neural differentiation. These results indicate that XSIP1 is essential for neural induction. Furthermore, loss-of-function experiments showed that SoxD is essential for XSIP1 transcription and for neural differentiation. However, inhibition of XSIP1 translation prevented neural differentiation induced by SoxD; thus, SoxD was not sufficient to mediate neural differentiation. Expression of XSIP1 was also required for inhibition of BMP signaling. Together, these results suggest that XSIP1 and SoxD interdependently function to maintain neural differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro R Nitta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
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34
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Bassez G, Camand OJA, Cacheux V, Kobetz A, Dastot-Le Moal F, Marchant D, Catala M, Abitbol M, Goossens M. Pleiotropic and diverse expression of ZFHX1B gene transcripts during mouse and human development supports the various clinical manifestations of the "Mowat-Wilson" syndrome. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 15:240-50. [PMID: 15006694 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2003.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2003] [Revised: 09/30/2003] [Accepted: 10/10/2003] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
ZFHX1B encodes Smad-interacting protein 1, a transcriptional corepressor involved in the transforming growth factors beta (TGFbeta) signaling pathway. ZFHX1B mutations cause a complex developmental phenotype characterized by severe mental retardation (MR) and multiple congenital defects. We compared the distribution of ZFHX1B transcripts during mouse and human embryogenesis as well as in adult mice and humans. This showed that this gene is strongly transcribed at an early stage in the developing peripheral and central nervous systems of both mice and humans, in all neuronal regions of the brains of 25-week human fetuses and adult mice, and at varying levels in numerous nonneural tissues. Northern blot analysis suggested that ZFHX1B undergoes tissue-specific alternative splicing in both species. These results strongly suggest that ZFHX1B determines the transcriptional levels of target genes in various tissues through the combinatorial interactions of its isoforms with different Smad proteins. Thus, as well as causing neural defects, ZFHX1B mutations may also cause other malformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Bassez
- INSERM U468 et Service de Biochimie et Génétique, AP-HP, Hôpital Henri Mondor, Créteil, France
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35
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Nelles L, Van de Putte T, van Grunsven L, Huylebroeck D, Verschueren K. Organization of the mouse Zfhx1b gene encoding the two-handed zinc finger repressor Smad-interacting protein-1. Genomics 2004; 82:460-9. [PMID: 13679026 DOI: 10.1016/s0888-7543(03)00169-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
SIP1, a member of the deltaEF1 family of two-handed zinc finger transcriptional repressors, has been identified as a Smad-binding protein. Recently, mutations in the human SIP1 gene (ZFHX1B) have been implicated in Hirschsprung disease. Here we document extensively the structure and transcriptional pattern of the mouse SIP1 gene (Zfhx1b) and compare it to homologues from other species. The overall structure of Zfhx1b is highly similar to that of the deltaEF1 gene (Zfhx1a), confirming their close evolutionary relationship. In contrast to Zfhx1a, the 5' untranslated region of the SIP1-encoding mouse gene is very complex and includes several alternative exons. The corresponding 5'-UTR splicing pattern seems to be conserved between species and suggests a role in its transcriptional and/or translational regulation. The gene also codes for an antisense transcript that is highly conserved between human and mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Nelles
- Department of Developmental Biology (VIB7), Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), University of Leuven, B-3000 Louvain, Belgium.
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36
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Sheng G, dos Reis M, Stern CD. Churchill, a zinc finger transcriptional activator, regulates the transition between gastrulation and neurulation. Cell 2004; 115:603-13. [PMID: 14651851 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(03)00927-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Gastrulation generates mesoderm and endoderm from embryonic epiblast; soon after, the neural plate is established within the epiblast-both events require FGF signaling. We describe a zinc finger transcriptional activator, Churchill (ChCh), which acts as a switch between different roles of FGF. FGF induces ChCh slowly; this activates Smad-interacting-protein-1 (Sip1), which blocks further induction of the mesoderm markers brachyury and Tbx6L by FGF. ChCh is first expressed as cells stop migrating through the primitive streak, and we show that it regulates cell ingression. We propose a simple mechanism by which FGF sensitizes cells to BMP signals. These results reveal that neural induction requires cessation of mesoderm formation at the midline in addition to the decision between epidermis and neural plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guojun Sheng
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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37
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van Grunsven LA, Michiels C, Van de Putte T, Nelles L, Wuytens G, Verschueren K, Huylebroeck D. Interaction between Smad-interacting protein-1 and the corepressor C-terminal binding protein is dispensable for transcriptional repression of E-cadherin. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:26135-45. [PMID: 12714599 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m300597200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
deltaEF1 and SIP1 (or Zfhx1a and Zfhx1b, respectively) are the only known members of the vertebrate Zfh1 family of homeodomain/zinc finger-containing proteins. Similar to other transcription factors, both Smad-interacting protein-1 (SIP1) and deltaEF1 are capable of repressing E-cadherin transcription through binding to the E2 boxes located in its promoter. In the case of deltaEF1, this repression has been proposed to occur via interaction with the corepressor C-terminal binding protein (CtBP). In this study, we show by coimmunoprecipitation that SIP1 and CtBP interact in vivo and that an isolated CtBP-binding SIP1 fragment depends on CtBP for transcriptional repression. However, and most importantly, full-length SIP1 and deltaEF1 proteins do not depend on their interaction with CtBP to repress transcription from the E-cadherin promoter. Furthermore, in E-cadherin-positive kidney epithelial cells, the conditional synthesis of mutant SIP1 that cannot bind to CtBP abrogates endogenous E-cadherin expression in a similar way as wild-type SIP1. Our results indicate that full-length SIP1 can repress E-cadherin in a CtBP-independent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo A van Grunsven
- Department of Developmental Biology (VIB7), Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology (VIB) and Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Celgen), University of Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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38
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Postigo AA. Opposing functions of ZEB proteins in the regulation of the TGFbeta/BMP signaling pathway. EMBO J 2003; 22:2443-52. [PMID: 12743038 PMCID: PMC155983 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdg225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Binding of TGFbeta/BMP factors to their receptors leads to translocation of Smad proteins to the nucleus where they activate transcription of target genes. The two-handed zinc finger proteins encoded by Zfhx1a and Zfhx1b, ZEB-1/deltaEF1 and ZEB-2/SIP1, respectively, regulate gene expression and differentiation programs in a number of tissues. Here I demonstrate that ZEB proteins are also crucial regulators of TGFbeta/BMP signaling with opposing effects on this pathway. Both ZEB proteins bind to Smads, but while ZEB-1/deltaEF1 synergizes with Smad proteins to activate transcription, promote osteoblastic differentiation and induce cell growth arrest, the highly related ZEB-2/SIP1 protein has the opposite effect. Finally, the ability of TGFbeta to mediate transcription of TGFbeta-dependent genes and induce growth arrest depends on the presence of endogenous ZEB-1/deltaEF1 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio A Postigo
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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39
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Postigo AA, Depp JL, Taylor JJ, Kroll KL. Regulation of Smad signaling through a differential recruitment of coactivators and corepressors by ZEB proteins. EMBO J 2003; 22:2453-62. [PMID: 12743039 PMCID: PMC155984 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdg226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2002] [Revised: 03/18/2003] [Accepted: 03/18/2003] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Balancing signals derived from the TGFbeta family is crucial for regulating cell proliferation and differentiation, and in establishing the embryonic axis during development. TGFbeta/BMP signaling leads to the activation and nuclear translocation of Smad proteins, which activate transcription of specific target genes by recruiting P/CAF and p300. The two members of the ZEB family of zinc finger factors (ZEB-1/deltaEF1 and ZEB-2/SIP1) regulate TGFbeta/BMP signaling in opposite ways: ZEB-1/deltaEF1 synergizes with Smad-mediated transcriptional activation, while ZEB-2/SIP1 represses it. Here we report that these antagonistic effects by the ZEB proteins arise from the differential recruitment of transcriptional coactivators (p300 and P/CAF) and corepressors (CtBP) to the Smads. Thus, while ZEB-1/deltaEF1 binds to p300 and promotes the formation of a p300-Smad transcriptional complex, ZEB-2/SIP1 acts as a repressor by recruiting CtBP. This model of regulation by ZEB proteins also functions in vivo, where they have opposing effects on the regulation of TGFbeta family-dependent genes during Xenopus development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio A Postigo
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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40
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Osada SI, Ohmori SY, Taira M. XMAN1, an inner nuclear membrane protein, antagonizes BMP signaling by interacting with Smad1 in Xenopus embryos. Development 2003; 130:1783-94. [PMID: 12642484 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A family of inner nuclear membrane proteins is implicated in gene regulation by interacting with chromatin, nuclear lamina and intranuclear proteins; however, the physiological functions of these proteins are largely unknown. Using a Xenopus expression screening approach with an anterior neuroectoderm cDNA library, we have identified an inner nuclear membrane protein, XMAN1, as a novel neuralizing factor that is encoded by the Xenopus ortholog of human MAN1. XMAN1 mRNA is expressed maternally, and appears to be restricted to the entire ectoderm at the early gastrula stage, then to the anterior neuroectoderm at the neurula stage. XMAN1 induces anterior neural markers without mesoderm induction in ectodermal explants, and a partial secondary axis when expressed ventrally by dorsalizing the ventral mesoderm. Importantly, XMAN1 antagonizes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling downstream of its receptor Alk3, as judged by animal cap assays, in which XMAN1 blocks expression of downstream targets of BMP signaling (Xhox3 and Msx1), and by luciferase reporter assays, in which XMAN1 suppresses BMP-dependent activation of the Xvent2 promoter. Deletion mutant analyses reveal that the neuralizing and BMP-antagonizing activities of XMAN1 reside in the C-terminal region, and that the C-terminal region binds to Smad1, Smad5 and Smad8, which are intracellular mediators of the BMP pathway. Interference with endogenous XMAN1 functions with antisense morpholino oligos leads to the reduction of anterior neuroectoderm. These results provide the first evidence that the nuclear envelope protein XMAN1 acts as a Smad-interacting protein to antagonize BMP signaling during Xenopus embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ichi Osada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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41
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Abstract
MWS is a multiple congenital anomaly syndrome, first clinically delineated by Mowat et al in 1998. Over 45 cases have now been reported. All patients have typical dysmorphic features in association with severe intellectual disability, and nearly all have microcephaly and seizures. Congenital anomalies, including Hirschsprung disease (HSCR), congenital heart disease, hypospadias, genitourinary anomalies, agenesis of the corpus callosum, and short stature are common. The syndrome is the result of heterozygous deletions or truncating mutations of the ZFHX1B (SIP1) gene on chromosome 2q22.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Mowat
- Department of Medical Genetics, The Sydney Children's Hospital, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia.
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42
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Nagaya M, Kato J, Niimi N, Tanaka S, Wakamatsu N. Clinical features of a form of Hirschsprung's disease caused by a novel genetic abnormality. J Pediatr Surg 2002; 37:1117-22. [PMID: 12149685 DOI: 10.1053/jpsu.2002.34455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/PURPOSE The aim of this report is to describe the pattern of similarities among the patients, exemplifying a newly recognized form of Hirschsprung's disease (HSCR) caused by mutations of ZFHX1B encoding Smad interacting protein-1. METHODS Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using several cDNAs and RP11-BAC clones and mutation gene scanning using direct nucleotide sequencing analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were conducted. Personal records of the patients also were analyzed retrospectively to confirm the clinical features. RESULTS All the patients represented isolated cases without any familial tendency. Aganglionic segments were limited to the recto-sigmoid colon in 3 cases and the rectum in one. Chromosomal screening found normal karyotypes in all cases except one, in whom a translocation between chromosomes 2 and 13 was detected. In addition to HSCR, characteristic facial appearance (hypertelorism with strabismus and wide nasal bridge), microcephaly with epilepsy, and severe physical and mental disabilities were found in all the patients. FISH for the patient having the chromosomal abnormality showed that about a 5-Mb cytogenetic deletion flanked at the 2q22 translocation breakpoint. Among 3 genes mapping to this deleted region, 2 nonsense mutations and a 4-base pair deletion were detected in ZFHX1B. CONCLUSIONS The clinical features of the patients have surprising resemblance and constitute a wide spectrum of neurocristopathies. These findings suggest that the ZFHX1B may be a very important gene for normal embryonic neural crest development. These also indicate that the HSCR can be regarded as a congenital malformation with a background of a multigenetic neurocristopathy. It is of great interest that mutations were located at the same spot (exon 8) of ZFHX1B in 3 of 4 cases, probably accounting for the unique clinical features of this newly recognized form of HSCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Nagaya
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, the Central Hospital, Aichi Prefectural Colony, Kasugai, Japan
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43
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Satow R, Chan TC, Asashima M. Molecular cloning and characterization of dullard: a novel gene required for neural development. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 295:85-91. [PMID: 12083771 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)00641-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In a screen for genes expressed in neural tissues and pronephroi, we isolated a novel gene, named dullard. Dullard protein contains the C-terminal conserved domain of NLI-IF (Nuclear LIM Interactor-Interacting Factor), a protein whose function is not yet characterized. Dullard mRNA was maternally derived and localized to the animal hemisphere. At neurula stages, the expression was in neural regions and subsequently localized to neural tissues, branchial arches, and pronephroi. Using antisense morpholino oligonucleotide-mediated inhibition, we showed that dullard was required for neural development. The translational knock-down of dullard resulted in failure of neural tube development and the embryos consequently showed a reduction of head development. Expression of neural marker genes in dullard-inhibited embryos was also suppressed. These results suggest that dullard is necessary for neural development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiko Satow
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
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44
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Espinosa-Parrilla Y, Amiel J, Augé J, Encha-Razavi F, Munnich A, Lyonnet S, Vekemans M, Attié-Bitach T. Expression of the SMADIP1 gene during early human development. Mech Dev 2002; 114:187-91. [PMID: 12175509 DOI: 10.1016/s0925-4773(02)00062-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The smad binding protein 1 gene (SMADIP1, MIM 605802) has been recently identified as a disease causing gene in a polytopic embryonic defect (MIM 235730) including midline anomalies, facial dysmorphic features and enteric nervous system malformation (Hirschsprung disease). To confirm the pleiotropic role of SMADIP1 during embryogenesis and investigate its role in neural crest cell derivatives differentiation, we performed RNA in situ hybridization at early stages of human development. According to the spectrum of malformations observed in patients, expression of SMADIP1 is observed in neural crest derived cells (peripheric nervous system, enteric nervous system, facial neurectoderm and cranial nerve ganglia), central nervous system, genital tubercle, muscles and kidneys. Surprisingly, SMADIP1 expression is also found in limbs and developing eye. Although congenital heart defects are frequently observed in patients with either a SMADIP1 large scale deletion or truncating mutation, no SMADIP1 expression could be detected in the developing heart at the stages studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanda Espinosa-Parrilla
- Département de Génétique et Unité INSERM U-393, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, 149, rue de Sèvres, 75743 Paris Cedex 15, France
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45
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Zweier C, Albrecht B, Mitulla B, Behrens R, Beese M, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Rott HD, Rauch A. ?Mowat-Wilson? syndrome with and without Hirschsprung disease is a distinct, recognizable multiple congenital anomalies-mental retardation syndrome caused by mutations in the zinc finger homeo box 1B gene. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.10226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Papin C, van Grunsven LA, Verschueren K, Huylebroeck D, Smith JC. Dynamic regulation of Brachyury expression in the amphibian embryo by XSIP1. Mech Dev 2002; 111:37-46. [PMID: 11804777 DOI: 10.1016/s0925-4773(01)00599-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Xenopus Brachyury (Xbra) plays a key role in mesoderm formation during early development. One factor thought to be involved in the regulation of Xbra is XSIP1, a zinc finger/homeodomain-like DNA-binding protein that belongs to the deltaEF1 family of transcriptional repressors. We show here that Xbra and XSIP1 are co-expressed at the onset of gastrulation, but that expression subsequently refines such that Xbra is expressed in prospective mesoderm and XSIP1 in anterior neurectoderm. This refinement of the expression patterns of the two genes is due in part to the ability of XSIP1 to repress expression of Xbra. This repression is highly specific, in the sense that XSIP1 does not repress the expression of other regionally expressed genes in the early embryo, and that other members of the family to which XSIP1 belongs, such as deltaEF1 and its Xenopus homologue ZEB, cannot regulate Xbra expression. The function of XSIP1 was studied further by making an interfering construct comprising the open reading frame of XSIP1 fused to the VP16 transactivation domain. Experiments using this chimeric protein suggest that XSIP1 is required for normal gastrulation movements to occur and for the development of the anterior neural plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Papin
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, NW7 1AA, London, UK
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Higashi Y, Maruhashi M, Nelles L, Van de Putte T, Verschueren K, Miyoshi T, Yoshimoto A, Kondoh H, Huylebroeck D. Generation of the floxed allele of the SIP1 (Smad-interacting protein 1) gene for Cre-mediated conditional knockout in the mouse. Genesis 2002; 32:82-4. [PMID: 11857784 DOI: 10.1002/gene.10048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yujiro Higashi
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
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Amiel J, Espinosa-Parrilla Y, Steffann J, Gosset P, Pelet A, Prieur M, Boute O, Choiset A, Lacombe D, Philip N, Le Merrer M, Tanaka H, Till M, Touraine R, Toutain A, Vekemans M, Munnich A, Lyonnet S. Large-scale deletions and SMADIP1 truncating mutations in syndromic Hirschsprung disease with involvement of midline structures. Am J Hum Genet 2001; 69:1370-7. [PMID: 11595972 PMCID: PMC1235547 DOI: 10.1086/324342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2001] [Accepted: 08/28/2001] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Hirschsprung disease (HSCR) is a common malformation of neural-crest-derived enteric neurons that is frequently associated with other congenital abnormalities. The SMADIP1 gene recently has been recognized as disease causing in some patients with 2q22 chromosomal rearrangement, resulting in syndromic HSCR with mental retardation, with microcephaly, and with facial dysmorphism. We screened 19 patients with HSCR and mental retardation and eventually identified large-scale SMADIP1 deletions or truncating mutations in 8 of 19 patients. These results allow further delineation of the spectrum of malformations ascribed to SMADIP1 haploinsufficiency, which includes frequent features such as hypospadias and agenesis of the corpus callosum. Thus, SMADIP1, which encodes a transcriptional corepressor of Smad target genes, may play a role not only in the patterning of neural-crest-derived cells and of CNS but also in the development of midline structures in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Amiel
- Département de Génétique, et Unité INSERM U-393, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Paris, France
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Abstract
Over the past decade, several molecules have been identified that influence neural cell fate in vertebrate embryos during gastrulation. The first neural inducers studied were proteins produced by dorsal mesoderm (the Spemann organizer); most of these proteins act by directly binding to and antagonizing the function of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). Recent experiments have suggested that other secreted signals, such as Wnt and FGF, may neuralize ectoderm before organizer function by a different mechanism. Neural effector genes that mediate the response of ectoderm to secreted neuralizing signals have also been discovered. Interestingly, most of these newly identified neuralizing pathways continue the theme of BMP antagonism, but rather than antagonizing BMP protein function, they may neuralize tissue by suppressing Bmp expression. Down-regulation of Bmp expression in the prospective neural plate during gastrulation seems to be a shared feature of neural induction in vertebrate embryos. However, the signals used to accomplish this task seem to vary among vertebrates. Here, we will discuss the role of the recently identified secreted signals and neural effector genes in vertebrate neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Bainter
- Department of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Tiedemann H, Asashima M, Grunz H, Knöchel W. Pluripotent cells (stem cells) and their determination and differentiation in early vertebrate embryogenesis. Dev Growth Differ 2001; 43:469-502. [PMID: 11576166 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-169x.2001.00599.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian embryonic stem cells can be obtained from the inner cell mass of blastocysts or from primordial germ cells. These stem cells are pluripotent and can develop into all three germ cell layers of the embryo. Somatic mammalian stem cells, derived from adult or fetal tissues, are more restricted in their developmental potency. Amphibian ectodermal and endodermal cells lose their pluripotency at the early gastrula stage. The dorsal mesoderm of the marginal zone is determined before the mid-blastula transition by factors located after cortical rotation in the marginal zone, without induction by the endoderm. Secreted maternal factors (BMP, FGF and activins), maternal receptors and maternal nuclear factors (beta-catenin, Smad and Fast proteins), which form multiprotein transcriptional complexes, act together to initiate pattern formation. Following mid-blastula transition in Xenopus laevis (Daudin) embryos, secreted nodal-related (Xnr) factors become important for endoderm and mesoderm differentiation to maintain and enhance mesoderm induction. Endoderm can be induced by high concentrations of activin (vegetalizing factor) or nodal-related factors, especially Xnr5 and Xnr6, which depend on Wnt/beta-catenin signaling and on VegT, a vegetal maternal transcription factor. Together, these and other factors regulate the equilibrium between endoderm and mesoderm development. Many genes are activated and/or repressed by more than one signaling pathway and by regulatory loops to refine the tuning of gene expression. The nodal related factors, BMP, activins and Vg1 belong to the TGF-beta superfamily. The homeogenetic neural induction by the neural plate probably reinforces neural induction and differentiation. Medical and ethical problems of future stem cell therapy are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tiedemann
- Institut für Molekularbiologie und Biochemie der Freien Universtität Berlin, Arnimallee 22, D-14195 Berlin, Germany.
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