Structure and activity of alpha-chymotrypsin and trypsin in aqueous organic media

Doxorubicin as a Drug Repurposing for Disruption of α-Chymotrypsinogen-A Aggregates

Protein conformation is affected by interaction of several small molecules resulting either stabilization or disruption depending on the nature of the molecules. In our earlier communication, Hg2+ was known to disrupt the native structure of α-Cgn A leading to aggregation (Ansari, N.K., Rais, A. & Naeem, A. Methotrexate for Drug Repurposing as an Anti-Aggregatory Agent to Mercuric Treated α-Chymotrypsinogen-A. Protein J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10930-024-10187-z ). Accumulation of β-rich aggregates in the living system is found to be linked with copious number of disorders. Here, we have investigated the effect of varying concentration of doxorubicin (DOX) i.e. 0-100 µM on the preformed aggregates of α-Cgn A upon incubation with 120 µM Hg2+. The decrease in the intrinsic fluorescence and enzyme activity with respect to increase in the Hg2+ concentration substantiate the formation of aggregates. The DOX showed the dose dependent decrease in the ThT fluorescence, turbidity and RLS measurements endorsing the dissolution of aggregates which were consistent with red shift in ANS, confirming the breakdown of aggregates. The α-Cgn A has 30% α-helical content which decreases to 3% in presence of Hg2+. DOX increased the α-helicity to 28% confirming its anti-aggregatory potential. The SEM validates the formation of aggregates with Hg2+ and their dissolution upon incubation with the DOX. Hemolysis assay checked the cytotoxicity of α-Cgn A aggregates. Docking revealed that the DOX interacted Lys203, Cys201, Cys136, Ser159, Leu10, Trp207, Val137 and Thr134 of α-Cgn A through hydrophobic interactions and Gly133, Thr135 and Lys202 forms hydrogen bonds.

Enhancing Enzyme Stability and Functionality: Covalent Immobilization of Trypsin on Magnetic Gum Arabic Modified Fe3O4 Nanoparticles

This study aimed to fabricate gum Arabic (GA)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles bearing numerous active aldehyde groups on their surface, followed by an assessment of their capability as a magnetic support for the covalent immobilization of the trypsin enzyme for the first time. FT-IR, XRD, TGA, and SEM results demonstrated the successful synthesis of GA-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles, along with the covalent immobilization of the enzyme onto the support. Immobilization enhanced the relative enzymatic activity across a range of aqueous solution pH levels (ranging from 4 to 11) and temperatures (ranging from 20 to 80 °C) without altering the optimum pH and temperature for trypsin activity. Kinetic studies using Michaelis-Menten plots revealed changes in kinetic parameters, including a lower Vmax and higher Km for immobilized trypsin compared to the free enzyme. The immobilization onto magnetic gum Arabic nanoparticles resulted in an improved stability of trypsin in the presence of various solvents, maintaining a stability order comparable to that of the free enzyme due to the stabilizing effect of the support. The reusability results showed that the immobilized enzyme can retain over 93% of its activity for up to 15 cycles.

A Multicomponent Mannich Reaction Catalyzed by Hydrolases Immobilized on Titanate Nanotubes

This study presents an innovative method for synthesizing β-amino carbonylated compounds, specifically 2-[phenyl(phenylamino)methyl] cyclohexanone, achieving high conversions and diastereomeric ratios. Using trypsin or α-chymotrypsin in both free and immobilized forms on titanate nanotubes (NtsTi), synthesized through alkaline hydrothermal methods, successful immobilization yields were attained. Notably, α-chymotrypsin, when free, displayed a diastereoselective synthesis of the anti-isomer with 97 % conversion and 16 : 84 (syn : anti) diastereomeric ratio, which slightly decreased upon immobilization on NtsTi. Trypsin, in its free form, exhibited diastereoselective recognition of the syn-isomer, while immobilization on NtsTi (trypsin/NtsTi) led to an inversion of diastereomeric ratio. Both trypsin/NtsTi and α-chymotrypsin/NtsTi demonstrated significant catalytic efficiency over five cycles. In conclusion, NtsTi serves as an effective support for trypsin and α-chymotrypsin immobilization, presenting promising prospects for diastereoselective synthesis and potential industrial applications. Furthermore, it offers promising prospects for the diastereoselective synthesis of 2-[phenyl(phenylamino)methyl] cyclohexanone through multicomponent Mannich reaction and future industrial application.

Methotrexate for Drug Repurposing as an Anti-Aggregatory Agent to Mercuric Treated α-Chymotrypsinogen-A

Protein aggregation is related to numerous pathological conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. In our study, we have shown that an already existing FDA-approved drug; methotrexate (MTX) can be reprofiled on preformed α-chymotrypsinogen A (α-Cgn A) aggregates. The zymogen showed formation of aggregates upon interaction with mercuric ions, with increasing concentration of Hg2Cl2 (0-150 µM). The hike in ThT and ANS fluorescence concomitant with blue shift, bathochromic shift and the hyperchromic effect in the CR absorbance, RLS and turbidity measurements, substantiate the zymogen β-rich aggregate formation. The secondary structural alterations of α- Cgn A as analyzed by CD measurements, FTIR and Raman spectra showed the transformation of native β-barrel conformation to β-inter-molecular rich aggregates. The native α- Cgn A have about 30% α-helical content which was found to be about 3% in presence of mercuric ions suggesting the formation of aggregates. The amorphous aggregates were visualized by SEM. On incubation of Hg2Cl2 treated α- Cgn A with increasing concentration of the MTX resulted in reversing aggregates to the native-like structure. These results were supported by remarkable decrease in ThT and ANS fluorescence intensities and CR absorbance and also consistent with CD, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy data. MTX was found to increase the α-helical content of the zymogen from 3 to 15% proposing that drug is efficient in disrupting the β-inter-molecular rich aggregates and reverting it to native like structure. The SEM images are in accordance with CD data showing the disintegration of aggregates. The most effective concentration of the drug was found to be 120 µM. Molecular docking analysis showed that MTX molecule was surrounded by the hydrophobic residues including Phe39, His40, Arg145, Tyr146, Thr151, Gly193, Ser195, and Gly216 and conventional hydrogen bonds, including Gln73 (bond length: 2.67Å), Gly142 (2.59Å), Thr144 (2.81Å), Asn150 (2.73Å), Asp153 (2.71Å), and Cys191 (2.53Å). This investigation will help to find the use of already existing drugs to cure protein misfolding-related abnormalities.

Mixed-mode column allows simple direct coupling with immobilized enzymatic reactor for on-line protein digestion

Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is widely used in the field of proteomic analysis after off-line protein digestion. On-line digestion with chromatographic column connected in a series with immobilized enzymatic reactor is not often used approach. In this work we investigated the impact of chromatographic conditions on the protein digestion efficiency. The investigation of trypsin reactor activity was performed by on-line digestion of N-α-benzoyl-L-arginine 4-nitroanilide hydrochloride (BAPNA), followed by separation of the digests on the mixed-mode column. Two trypsin column reactors with the different trypsin coverage on the bridged ethylene hybrid particles were evaluated. To ensure optimal trypsin activity, the separation temperature was set at 37.0 °C and the pH of the mobile phase buffer was maintained at 8.5. The on-line digestion itself ongoing during the initial state of gradient was carried out at a low flow rate using a mobile phase that was free of organic modifiers. Proteins such as cytochrome C, enolase, and myoglobin were successfully digested on-line without prior reduction or alkylation, and the resulting peptides were separated using a mixed-mode column. Additionally, proteins that contain multiple cysteines, such as α-lactalbumin, albumin, β-lactoglobulin A, and conalbumin, were also successfully digested on-line (after reduction and alkylation). Moreover, trypsin immobilized enzymatic reactors were utilized for over 300 injections without any noticeable loss of digestion activity.

Customizable Resveratrol Spray-dried Micro-composites for Inhalation as a Promising Contender for Treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

The past decades have witnessed tremendous expansion in utilization of plant-derived medicines as resveratrol (RES) in treating several diseases like idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). RES can exhibit its role in treating IPF via its outstanding antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The goal of this work was to formulate RES-loaded spray-dried composite microparticles (SDCMs) suitable for pulmonary delivery via dry powder inhaler (DPI). They were prepared by spray drying of a previously prepared RES-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA NPs) dispersion using different carriers. RES-loaded BSA NPs, prepared by the desolvation technique, acquired suitable particle size of 177.67±0.95 nm and entrapment efficiency of 98.7±0.35% with perfectly uniform size distribution and high stability. Considering the attributes of the pulmonary route, NPs were co-spray dried with compatible carriers viz. mannitol, dextran, trehalose, leucine, glycine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid to fabricate SDCMs. All formulations showed suitable mass median aerodynamic diameter less than 5 µm; that is suitable for deep lung deposition. However, the best aerosolization behavior was attained from using leucine with fine particle fraction (FPF) of 75.74%, followed by glycine with FPF of 54.7%. Finally, a pharmacodynamic study was conducted on bleomycin-induced mice, and it strongly revealed the role of the optimized formulations in alleviating PF through suppressing the levels of hydroxyproline, tumor necrosis factor-α and matrix metalloproteinase-9 with obvious improvements in the treated lung histopathology. These findings indicate that in addition to leucine, the glycine amino acid, which is not commonly used yet, is very promising in the formulation of DPIs.

Succinylation of zein and gelatin hydrolysates improved their ice recrystallization inhibition activity

The goal of this research was to enhance the ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity of zein and gelatin hydrolysates (ZH and GH, respectively) by succinylation modification. ZH was prepared by Alcalase treatment for 3 h and then modified by succinic anhydride (SA); whereas GH was made by Alcalase hydrolysis for 0.25 h and succinylated by n-octylsuccinic anhydride (OSA). After 0.5 h of annealing at -8 °C at 40 mg/mL, modified hydrolysates decreased the average Feret's diameter of ice crystal from 50.2 μm (polyethylene glycol, negative control) to 28.8 μm (SA modified ZH) and 29.5 μm (OSA modified GH) in comparison to the unmodified hydrolysates, which had the crystal size of 47.2 μm (ZH) and 45.4 μm (GH). Also, the two succinylated samples had altered surface hydrophobicity, which potentially contributed to their enhanced IRI activity. Our results indicate that succinylation of food-derived protein hydrolysates can improve their IRI activity.

A Novel 3D Printing Particulate Manufacturing Technology for Encapsulation of Protein Therapeutics: Sprayed Multi Adsorbed-Droplet Reposing Technology (SMART)

Recently, various innovative technologies have been developed for the enhanced delivery of biologics as attractive formulation targets including polymeric micro and nanoparticles. Combined with personalized medicine, this area can offer a great opportunity for the improvement of therapeutics efficiency and the treatment outcome. Herein, a novel manufacturing method has been introduced to produce protein-loaded chitosan particles with controlled size. This method is based on an additive manufacturing technology that allows for the designing and production of personalized particulate based therapeutic formulations with a precise control over the shape, size, and potentially the geometry. Sprayed multi adsorbed-droplet reposing technology (SMART) consists of the high-pressure extrusion of an ink with a well determined composition using a pneumatic 3D bioprinting approach and flash freezing the extrudate at the printing bed, optionally followed by freeze drying. In the present study, we attempted to manufacture trypsin-loaded chitosan particles using SMART. The ink and products were thoroughly characterized by dynamic light scattering, rheometer, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) and Circular Dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. These characterizations confirmed the shape morphology as well as the protein integrity over the process. Further, the effect of various factors on the production were investigated. Our results showed that the concentration of the carrier, chitosan, and the lyoprotectant concentration as well as the extrusion pressure have a significant effect on the particle size. According to CD spectra, SMART ensured Trypsin's secondary structure remained intact regardless of the ink composition and pressure. However, our study revealed that the presence of 5% (w/v) lyoprotectant is essential to maintain the trypsin's proteolytic activity. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the viability of SMART as a single-step efficient process to produce biologics-based stable formulations with a precise control over the particulate morphology which can further be expanded across numerous therapeutic modalities including vaccines and cell/gene therapies.

Inhibitory effect of lignin from Canna edulis Ker residues on trypsin: kinetics and molecular docking studies

BACKGROUND

Lignin extracted from Canna edulis Ker residues shows a strong inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase and a promoting effect on α-amylase. Protease activity inhibition may play a key role in disease processes, such as metastasis, tumor invasion and bacterial colonization. Hence, in the present study, the inhibitory mechanism of lignin on trypsin was examined, including the interaction type, thermodynamic parameters, structure, reaction site and molecular docking.

RESULTS

The isolated lignin presented an inhibitory effect on trypsin activity with an IC₅₀ value of 1.35 μmol L^-1 . This inhibition was a mixed linear type with a constant K_i of 3.92 μmol L^-1 . The lignin could bind with the key amino acid residue Ser195 on the active site of the trypsin molecule to inhibit its activity, and the phenolic hydroxyl group and -OH on the β-O-4 structure of the lignin molecule were the major groups bound with trypsin.

CONCLUSION

These results illustrate the inhibitory effects of Canna edulis residue lignin on protease, which helps with respect to understanding the possible application of lignin in the food industry in functional foods. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of biological activities, structural and conformational properties of bovine beta- and alpha-trypsin isoforms in aqueous-organic media

The study of the biological activity of trypsin isoforms in aqueous-organic media is of great interest to various fields of knowledge and biochemistry applications. Thus enzymatic, structural, and energetic properties of bovine β- and α-trypsin isoforms were compared in aqueous-organic media using 30 mg of each isoform. The results showed that the changes induced on the structure and activity of the same trypsin isoform occur at different concentrations. Better results for activity (ionic strength of 0.11 mol·L^-1, at 37 °C and pH 8.0) were found in 0-40% of ethanolic media in which the activity for β-trypsin was about 60% higher than ɑ-trypsin. The ethanolic system does not cause significant changes in the level of secondary structure but the β-trypsin isoform undergoes a major rearrangement. The use of until 60% (v/v) ethanol showed that β-trypsin presents a denaturation process 17% more cooperative. The organic solvent causes redistribution in the supramolecular arrangement of both isoforms: all concentrations used induced the β-trypsin molecules to rearrange into agglomerates. The ɑ-trypsin rearranges into agglomerates up to 60% (v/v) of ethanol and aggregates at 80% (v/v) of ethanol. Both isoforms keep the enzymatic activity up to 60% (v/v) of ethanol.

Controllable enzymatic superactivity of α-chymotrypsin activated by the electrostatic interaction with cationic gemini surfactants

Surfactant plays a critical role in enzymatic multi-functionalization processes. However, a deep understanding of surfactant-enzyme interactions has been lacking up until now due to the extreme complexity of the mixed system. This work reported the effect of cationic gemini surfactants, alkanediyl-α,ω-bis(dimethyldodecylammonium bromide) (C12C S C12Br2, S = 2, 6, and 10) on the enzymatic activity and conformation of α-chymotrypsin (α-CT) in phosphate buffer solution (PBS, pH 7.3). The enzymatic activity was assessed by the rate of 2-naphthyl acetate (2-NA) hydrolysis measured by UV-vis absorption. The superactivity of α-CT in the presence of C12C S C12Br2 appears in the concentration region below the critical micelle concentration (cmc) of the surfactant, and its maximum superactivity is correlated to the spacer length of C12C S C12Br2. Subtle regulation of the charge density of headgroups of the cationic surfactant can be achieved through partial charge neutralization of cationic headgroups by introducing inorganic counterions or oppositely charged surfactant, demonstrating that the electrostatic interaction plays the crucial role for emergence of the superactivity. The interaction between C12C S C12Br2 (S = 2,6, and 10) and α-CT was characterized by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and the obtained endothermic enthalpy change indicates that the interaction induces the change in conformation and enzymatic superactivity. The methodologies of fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) show that the gemini surfactants with different spacer lengths induct and regulate the secondary, tertiary and even fourth structures of the protein. The present work is significant to get deeper insight into the mechanism of the activation and denaturation of enzymes.

Study of Prepared α-Chymotrypsin as Enzyme Nanoparticles and of Biocatalytic Membrane Reactor

Biocatalytic kinetic effect of α-chymotrypsin enzyme has been investigated in its free and pretreated forms (it was covered by a very thin, porous polymer layer, called enzyme nanoparticle) as well as its immobilized form into pores of polysulfone/polyamide asymmetric, hydrophilic membrane. Trimethoxysilyl and acrylamide-bisacrylamide polymers have been used for synthesis of enzyme nanoparticles. Applying Michaelis-Menten kinetics, the KM and vmax values of enzyme-polyacrylamide nanoparticles are about the same, as that of free enzyme. On the other hand, enzyme nanoparticles retain their activity 20–80 fold longer time period than that of the free enzyme, but their initial activity values are reduced to 13–55% of those of free enzymes, at 37 °C. Enzyme immobilized into asymmetric porous membrane layer remained active about 2.3-fold longer time period than that of native enzyme (at pH = 7.4 and at 23 °C), while its reaction rate was about 8-fold higher than that of free enzyme, measured in mixed tank reactor. The conversion degree of substrate was gradually decreased in presence of increasing convective flux of the inlet fluid phase. Biocatalytic membrane reactor has transformed 2.5 times more amount of substrate than the same amount of enzyme nanoparticles and 19 times more amount of substrate than free enzyme, measured in mixed tank reactor.

Development and Application of a Modified Method to Determine the Encapsulation Efficiency of Proteins in Polymer Matrices

A modified method to determine protein encapsulation efficiency in polymer matrices has been developed and applied to two proteins and two polymers to demonstrate its wide range of applicability. This study was pursued due to the wide variation in reported protein encapsulation efficiency of polymer-based microcapsules, even when the protein, the polymer, and the microcapsule manufacturing method were consistent. Hemoglobin (Hb) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were chosen as model proteins and ethylcellulose and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) as model polymers. The polymer of the microcapsule was dissolved in dichloromethane/ethanol or dichloromethane/ethyl acetate for ethylcellulose or PLGA microcapsules, respectively. Liberated proteins were simultaneously precipitated, pelleted by centrifugation, isolated by decanting the polymer solution, redissolved in 10% w/v sodium dodecyl sulfate in 0.8 N sodium hydroxide, and quantified using a modified Lowry assay. Blank microcapsules and exogenously added proteins demonstrated ≥ 93.8% recovery of proteins. The mean encapsulation efficiency of ethylcellulose or PLGA microcapsules was 52.4 or 76.9% for Hb and 86.4 or 74.7% for BSA, respectively. This demonstrates the effective use of centrifugation and the importance of an appropriate cosolvent system in the measure of encapsulation efficiency where one solvent dissolves the polymer while the other solvent quantitatively precipitates the liberated protein. It is evident that an alkaline solution of sodium dodecyl sulfate is efficient at quantitatively dissolving precipitated proteins. Remediation of problems observed with current methods and high reproducibility suggest that this modified method is generally applicable to the measure of protein encapsulation efficiency of polymer microcapsules.

Neat Ionic liquid and α-Chymotrypsin-Polymer Surfactant Conjugate-Based Biocatalytic Solvent

Performing biocatalysis in nonaqueous solvents is advantageous as it imparts enhanced solubility to hydrophobic substrates and an ability to increase the temperature for shifting reaction equilibrium in the forward direction. In this work, we show the design and development of another class of nonaqueous composite solvent obtained by mixing surface modified enzyme and neat ionic liquid (IL). We systematically probe the interaction and solubility of industrially relevant α-chymotrypsin in its native or surface-bound polymer-surfactant bioconjugated form, with neat protic (N-methyl-2-pyrrolidonium trifluoromethanesulfonate; [NMP][OTf]), or aprotic (1-methyl-3-(4-sulfobutyl)-1H-imidazol-3-ium trifluoromethanesulfonate; [HO₃S(CH₂)₄MIm][OTf]), ILs. Polarized optical micrographs show that the lyophilized powder of native α-chymotrypsin, nCT, does not disperse in either of the neat ILs, however, its polymer surfactant (PS)-coated bioconjugate counterparts, PScCT, in the waterless state, can be well-dispersed and solubilized in the neat [HO₃S(CH₂)₄MIm][OTf]. The solubilization of waterless bioconjugates of PScCT in neat aprotic IL provides a composite liquid, WL-ImPScCT (WL: waterless, Im: [HO₃S(CH₂)₄MIm][OTf]), having a viscosity of 69.6 Pa·s at 25 °C with a shear-thinning behavior, ≈ 15 w/w % α-chymotrypsin, and ≈ 1.2 w/w % residual water content. Detailed secondary structural analysis using circular dichroism and Fourier self-deconvolution on the ATR-FTIR data of WL-ImPScCT liquid reveals retention of the near native secondary structure of α-chymotrypsin. Further, using a combination of fluorescence spectroscopy and electron spray ionization mass spectrometry, we show that scattering of dry and powdered bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein on the WL-ImPScCT composite liquid results in the solubilization of the former, followed by limited proteolysis of BSA by the α-chymotrypsin. Our results, therefore, show the stabilization of α-chymotrypsin in a neat aprotic IL environment to yield a composite liquid, which not only acts as a nonaqueous, nonvolatile, and environmentally benign solvent, but also provides a biocatalytic platform capable of carrying out reactions relevant for biotransformations, food processing, drug delivery, and various other applications.

Structural Plasticity of Intrinsically Disordered LEA Proteins from Xerophyta schlechteri Provides Protection In Vitro and In Vivo

Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins are essential to the ability of resurrection plants and orthodox seeds to protect the subcellular milieu against irreversible damage associated with desiccation. In this work, we investigated the structure and function of six LEA proteins expressed during desiccation in the monocot resurrection species Xerophyta schlechteri (XsLEAs). In silico analyses suggested that XsLEAs are hydrophilic proteins with variable intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) properties. Circular dichroism (CD) analysis indicated that these proteins are mostly unstructured in water but acquire secondary structure in hydrophobic solution, suggesting that structural dynamics may play a role in their function in the subcellular environment. The protective property of XsLEAs was demonstrated by their ability to preserve the activity of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) against desiccation, heat and oxidative stress, as well as growth of Escherichia coli upon exposure to osmotic and salt stress. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that XsLEA recombinant proteins are differentially distributed in the cytoplasm, membranes and nucleus of Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Interestingly, a LEA_1 family protein (XsLEA1-8), showing the highest disorder-to-order propensity and protective ability in vitro and in vivo, was also able to enhance salt and drought stress tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Together, our results suggest that the structural plasticity of XsLEAs is essential for their protective activity to avoid damage of various subcellular components caused by water deficit stress. XsLEA1-8 constitutes a potential model protein for engineering structural stability in vitro and improvement of water-deficit stress tolerance in plants.

Protein at liquid solid interfaces: Toward a new paradigm to change the approach to design hybrid protein/solid-state materials

This review gives an overview of protein adsorption at solid/liquid interface. Compared to the other ones, we have focus on three main questions with the point of view of the protein. The first question is related to the kinetic and especially the using of Langmuir model to describe the protein adsorption. The second question is about the concept of hard and soft protein. In this part, we report the protein structural modification induced by adsorption regarding their intrinsic structure. This allows formulating of a new concept to classify the protein to predict their behavior at solid/liquid interface. The last question is related to the protein corona. We give an overview about the soft/hard corona and attempt to make correlation with the concept of hard/soft protein.

Immobilization of endoglucanase Cel9A on chitosan nanoparticles leads to its stabilization against organic solvents: the use of polyols to improve the stability

The immobilization of enzymes improves their stability in non-conventional media such as organic solvents. In this work, the effects of solvents (DMSO, methanol, ethanol, and n-propanol) on the endoglucanase Cel9A activity and stability were studied. Then, the enzymes were stabilized by its immobilization on chitosan nanoparticles and also using polyols (sorbitol and glycerol) against organic solvents. The SEM results illustrated that the chitosan nanoparticles had about 40 nm diameter. The results indicated that the organic solvents, especially n-propanol, decreased the activity of the free and immobilized enzymes. The reduced activity of the immobilized enzyme was less than that of the free enzyme. Our studies about the enzymes' stability showed that the free and immobilized enzymes in hydrophobic solvents (with high log P) had the lowest stability compared to other solvents as we observed the half-life of the free enzyme in n-propanol solvent was 2.84 min, and the half-life of the immobilized enzyme was 4.98 min in n-propanol and ethanol solvents 4.50 min. Analysis of the combinatory effects of polyols (sorbitol and glycerol) and the solvents on the stability revealed that sorbitol and glycerol had the most stabilizing effect on the free enzyme in hydrophilic (DMSO) and hydrophobic (n-propanol) solvents, respectively. However, the stabilizing effects of polyols in the immobilized enzyme were independent of the solvents' hydrophobicity (or log P) due to the hydrophilic properties of chitosan nanoparticles. Therefore, one can conclude that the physiochemical properties of nanoparticles (such as hydrophilicity) influence the stabilizing effects of polyols on immobilized enzyme.

Lysozyme in water-acetonitrile mixtures: Preferential solvation at the inner edge of excess hydration

Preferential solvation/hydration is an effective way for regulating the mechanism of the protein destabilization/stabilization. Organic solvent/water sorption and residual enzyme activity measurements were performed to monitor the preferential solvation/hydration of hen egg-white lysozyme at high and low water content in acetonitrile at 25 °C. The obtained results show that the protein destabilization/stabilization depends essentially on the initial hydration level of lysozyme and the water content in acetonitrile. There are three composition regimes for the dried lysozyme. At high water content, the lysozyme has a higher affinity for water than for acetonitrile. The residual enzyme activity values are close to 100%. At the intermediate water content, the dehydrated lysozyme has a higher affinity for acetonitrile than for water. A minimum on the residual enzyme activity curve was observed in this concentration range. At the lowest water content, the organic solvent molecules are preferentially excluded from the dried lysozyme, resulting in the preferential hydration. The residual catalytic activity is ∼80%, compared with that observed after incubation in pure water. Two distinct schemes are operative for the hydrated lysozyme. At high and intermediate water content, lysozyme is preferentially hydrated. However, in contrast to the dried protein, at the intermediate water content, the initially hydrated lysozyme has the increased preferential hydration parameters. At low water content, the preferential binding of the acetonitrile molecules to the initially hydrated lysozyme was detected. No residual enzyme activity was observed in the water-poor acetonitrile. Our data clearly show that the initial hydration level of the protein macromolecules is one of the key factors that govern the stability of the protein-water-organic solvent systems.

A Simplified and Efficient Process for Insulin Production in Pichia pastoris

A significant barrier to insulin is affordability. In this manuscript we describe improvements to key steps in the insulin production process in Pichia pastoris that reduce cost and time. The strategy for recovery and processing of human insulin precursor has been streamlined to two steps from bioreactor to the transpeptidation reaction. In the first step the insulin precursor secreted during the methanol induction phase is recovered directly from the culture broth using Tangential Flow Filtration with a Prostak^™ module eliminating the laborious and time-consuming multi-step clarification, including centrifugation. In the second step the protein is applied at very high loadings on a cation exchange resin and eluted in a mixture of water and ethanol to obtain a concentrated insulin precursor, suitable for use directly in the transpeptidation reaction. Overall the yield from insulin precursor to human insulin was 51% and consisted of three purification chromatography steps. In addition we describe a method for recovery of the excess of H-Thr(tBu)-OtBu from the transpeptidation reaction mixture, one of the more costly reagents in the process, along with its successful reuse.

Effect of different alcohols on stratum corneum kallikrein 5 and phospholipase A2 together with epidermal keratinocytes and skin irritation

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate the effect of ethanol, isopropanol and n-propanol on stratum corneum (SC) enzymes and keratinocytes in vitro together with their effects on skin condition and function.

METHODS

Activities of kallikrein 5 (KLK5) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) as well as keratinocyte metabolic activity, interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured in vitro in the presence and absence of the different alcohols. We also measured transepidermal water loss (TEWL), skin capacitance, visual dryness and visual redness on the volar forearms of 25 Caucasian women following application of the alcohols 20 and 100 times per day over a period of 14 days in a clinical study.

RESULTS

Reduced activities of KLK5 and PLA2 were observed in the presence of the alcohols. The greatest denaturing effect was always observed for n-propanol (P < 0.001), and in the case of PLA2, the effect of isopropanol was greater than ethanol (P < 0.001). Equally, ethanol had the mildest effects on keratinocyte metabolic activity and cytokine secretion (P < 0.001) and n-propanol always produced the most severe changes in normal and differentiated keratinocytes. These in vitro findings supported the clinical results where the major effects were on the induction of skin irritation (increased dropout rates) and ranked the intolerance of the different alcohols as follows: n-propanol > isopropanol > ethanol. At the high application frequencies, the effect of the different alcohols on transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and skin capacitance was similar, but at the low application frequencies, n-propanol had a significant effect on TEWL and capacitance values (P < 0.05). Equally, n-propanol and isopropanol produced significantly more skin redness at the low application frequencies.

CONCLUSIONS

Clearly, isopropanol and n-propanol caused significant SC and keratinocyte perturbation in vitro together with damage to skin condition and function in vivo whereas ethanol did not. As a result, we show that ethanol-based sanitizers are better tolerated by skin, particularly in high-use settings, than other alcohols and should be the active ingredient of choice.

A comparative study of the effects of the Hofmeister series anions of the ionic salts and ionic liquids on the stability of α-chymotrypsin

Direct interactions between the anion and the catalytic amino acid residues lead to denaturation of CT.

Poly(ethylene glycol)-mediated conformational alteration of α-chymotrypsin prevents inactivation of insulin by stabilizing active intermediates

Proteolytic enzymes in the gut represent one of the biggest barriers against oral delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides. In the current study, we explored the effect of poly(ethylene glycol) 400 (PEG 400), a commonly used crowding agent, on insulin degradation mediated by α-chymotrypsin (α-CT). Without PEG 400, insulin was quickly cleaved by α-CT to generate inactive degradation products. In comparison, incorporation of PEG 400 resulted in reaction mixtures with retained biological activity. The analysis on the conformation of α-CT and the local environment of the enzyme's active site unraveled that PEG 400 altered the conformation of α-CT to prevent the inactivation of insulin via stabilization of active intermediates. These findings indicated that PEG 400 may provide a promising addition toward oral delivery of insulin.

Magnetic nanoparticles supported ionic liquids improve firefly luciferase properties

Ionic liquids as neoteric solvents, microwave irradiation, and alternative energy source are becoming as a solvent for many enzymatic reactions. We recently showed that the incubation of firefly luciferase from Photinus pyralis with various ionic liquids increased the activity and stability of luciferase. Magnetic nanoparticles supported ionic liquids have been obtained by covalent bonding of ionic liquids-silane on magnetic silica nanoparticles. In the present study, the effects of [γ-Fe2O3@SiO2][BMImCl] and [γ-Fe2O3@SiO2][BMImI] were investigated on the structural properties and function of luciferase using circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy, and bioluminescence assay. Enzyme activity and structural stability increased in the presence of magnetic nanoparticles supported ionic liquids. Furthermore, the effect of ingredients which were used was not considerable on K(m) value of luciferase for adenosine-5'-triphosphate and also K(m) value for luciferin.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits lactase but is alleviated by salivary proline-rich proteins

Lactase phlorizin hydrolase is a small intestinal brush border enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the milk sugar, lactose, and also many flavonoid glucosides. We demonstrate that epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the principal flavonoid from green tea, inhibits in vitro hydrolysis of lactose by intestinal lactase. We then tested the hypothesis that salivary proline-rich proteins (PRPs) could modulate this inhibition and stabilize EGCG. Inhibition by EGCG of digestive enzymes (α-amylase>chymotrypsin>trypsin>lactase≫pepsin) was alleviated ∼2-6-fold by PRPs. Furthermore, PRPs appeared stable to proteolysis and also stabilized EGCG under digestive conditions in vitro. This is the first report on EGCG inhibition of lactase, and it quantifies the protective role of PRPs against EGCG inhibition of digestive enzymes.

Biological relevance of the interaction between procyanidins and trypsin: a multitechnique approach

The interactions between the digestive protease trypsin type IX-S from porcine pancreas and grape seed procyanidins were monitorized by fluorescence quenching, dynamic light scattering, nephelometry, circular dichroism, and enzymatic inhibition assay. This work reports that the inhibition of trypsin activity by grape seed procyanidins and the respective quenching of intrinsic protein fluorescence are closely related. These two phenomena increase with the molecular weight of the tested procyanidins. The interaction between procyanidins and enzyme was shown to involve a specific interaction as inferred from the fluorescence assays. It was also shown by fluorescence spectroscopy that the binding of procyanidin molecules to the enzyme does not induce significant structural modifications. A relationship between aggregate formation, using dynamic light scattering and nephelometry, and fluorescence quenching was observed with maxima achieved for similar stoichiometric ratios. The binding of procyanidins to trypsin affects only slightly protein structure as seen by circular dichroism.

Understanding the binding of procyanidins to pancreatic elastase by experimental and computational methods

Human diets are rich in secondary metabolites such as polyphenols. These compounds perform a wide range of crucial functions in biological systems and are of great interest for the pharmaceutical and food industries. In this work, the binding mode of the natural polyphenolic compounds from grape seed on the porcine pancreatic elastase surface was studied by experimental and computational methods. Fluorescence quenching, circular dichroism, nephelometry, dynamic light scattering (DLS), molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation studies were performed. A decrease in fluorescence intensities was observed with addition of increasing polyphenol concentrations. The order of binding ability obtained was oligomeric fraction of procyanidins (OFP) > tetramer > trimer > dimer B3 procyanidins. Thus a relationship between higher molecular weight and binding ability was observed. The interaction between these molecules and the enzyme occurs by a static mechanism, as inferred from the high apparent fluorescence and bimolecular quenching constants. A blue shift in the maximal emission wavelength could be seen, which indicates that the tryptophan residues acquire a more hydrophobic character upon procyanidin binding. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations also demonstrate that the SASA (solvent-accessible surface area) values of tryptophans decrease with the binding of these compounds, preventing the accessibility of water molecules, which agrees with the referred blue shift. Circular dichroism studies indicate a decrease in alpha-helix content, followed by an increase in the beta-sheet component of secondary structures of this enzyme. DLS and nephelometry techniques also indicate a relationship between large procyanidins and aggregate formation ability.