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Miskimon M, Han S, Lee JJ, Ringkamp M, Wilson MA, Petralia RS, Dong X, Worley PF, Baraban JM, Reti IM. Selective expression of Narp in primary nociceptive neurons: role in microglia/macrophage activation following nerve injury. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 274:86-95. [PMID: 25005116 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal activity regulated pentraxin (Narp) is a secreted protein implicated in regulating synaptic plasticity via its association with the extracellular surface of AMPA receptors. We found robust Narp immunostaining in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) that is largely restricted to small diameter neurons, and in the superficial layers of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. In double staining studies of DRG, we found that Narp is expressed in both IB4- and CGRP-positive neurons, markers of distinct populations of nociceptive neurons. Although a panel of standard pain behavioral assays were unaffected by Narp deletion, we found that Narp knockout mice displayed an exaggerated microglia/macrophage response in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord to sciatic nerve transection 3days after surgery compared with wild type mice. As other members of the pentraxin family have been implicated in regulating innate immunity, these findings suggest that Narp, and perhaps other neuronal pentraxins, also regulate inflammation in the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Miskimon
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - S Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - J J Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - M Ringkamp
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - M A Wilson
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - R S Petralia
- NIDCD, NIH, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - X Dong
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - P F Worley
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - J M Baraban
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - I M Reti
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, United States; Laboratory of Origin, United States.
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Liaury K, Miyaoka T, Tsumori T, Furuya M, Hashioka S, Wake R, Tsuchie K, Fukushima M, Limoa E, Tanra AJ, Horiguchi J. Minocycline improves recognition memory and attenuates microglial activation in Gunn rat: a possible hyperbilirubinemia-induced animal model of schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 50:184-90. [PMID: 24389395 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence indicates that neuroinflammation plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. We previously reported evidence of schizophrenia-like behaviors and microglial activation in Gunn rats. We concluded that the Gunn rat, which exhibits a high concentration of unconjugated bilirubin, may be useful as an animal model of schizophrenia. On the other hand, there have been numerous reports that minocycline is effective in treating schizophrenia. METHODS In the present study, we investigated the effects of minocycline on performance of behavioral tests (prepulse inhibition (PPI) and novel object recognition test (NORT)) after animals received either 40mg/kg/d of minocycline or vehicle by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection for 14 consecutive days. Furthermore, we examined the effects of minocycline on microglial activation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of Gunn rats and Wistar rats. RESULTS We found that administration of minocycline for 14days significantly increased the exploratory preference in retention sessions and tended to improve the PPI deficits in Gunn rats. Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that microglial cells in the minocycline-treated Gunn rat group showed less expression of CD11b compared to vehicle-treated Gunn and Wistar groups. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that minocycline improves recognition memory and attenuates microglial activation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of Gunn rats. Therefore, minocycline may be a potential therapeutic drug for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Liaury
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan; Department of Psychiatry, Hasanuddin University Faculty of Medicine, Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan Km. 10, Makassar 90245, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
| | - Tsuyoshi Miyaoka
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Toshiko Tsumori
- Department of Anatomy Morphological Neuroscience, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan; Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health and Welfare, Prefectural University of Hiroshima, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Mihara 723-0053, Japan.
| | - Motohide Furuya
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Sadayuki Hashioka
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Rei Wake
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Keiko Tsuchie
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Michiyo Fukushima
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Erlyn Limoa
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan; Department of Psychiatry, Hasanuddin University Faculty of Medicine, Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan Km. 10, Makassar 90245, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
| | - Andi Jayalangkara Tanra
- Department of Psychiatry, Hasanuddin University Faculty of Medicine, Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan Km. 10, Makassar 90245, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
| | - Jun Horiguchi
- Department of Psychiatry, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo 693-8501, Japan.
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Paizs M, Engelhardt JI, Siklós L. Quantitative assessment of relative changes of immunohistochemical staining by light microscopy in specified anatomical regions. J Microsc 2009; 234:103-12. [PMID: 19335461 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2818.2009.03146.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Despite the advent of ever newer microscopic techniques for the study of the distribution of macromolecules in biological tissues, the enzyme-based immunohistochemical (IHC) methods are still used widely and routinely. However, the acquisition of reliable conclusions from the pattern of the reaction products of IHC procedures is hindered by the regular need for subjective judgments, in view of frequent inconsistencies in staining intensity from section to section or in repeated experiments. Consequently, when numerical comparisons are required, light microscopic morphological descriptions are commonly supplemented with analytical data (e.g. from Western blot analyses); however, these cannot be directly associated with accurate structural information and can easily be contaminated with data from outside the region of interest. Alternatively, to eliminate the more or less subjective evaluation of the results of IHC staining, procedures should be developed that correct for the variability of staining through the use of objective criteria. This paper describes a simple procedure, based on digital image analysis methods and the use of an internal reference area on the analyzed sections, that reduces the operator input and hence subjectivity, and makes the relative changes in IHC staining intensity in different experiments comparable. The reference area is situated at a position of the section that is not affected by the experimental treatment, or a disease condition, and that can therefore be used to specify the baseline of the IHC staining. Another source of staining variability is the internal heterogeneity of the object to be characterized, which means that identical fields can never be analyzed. To compensate for this variability, details are given of a systematic random sampling paradigm, which provides simple numerical data describing the extent and strength of IHC staining throughout the entire volume to be characterized. In this integrated approach, the figures are derived by pooling relative IHC staining intensities from all sections of the series from a particular animal. The procedure (1) eliminates the problem arising from the personal assessment of the significance of the IHC staining intensity, (2) does not depend on the precise dissection of the tissue on a gross scale and (3) considerably reduces the consequences of limited, arbitrary sampling of the region of interest for IHC analysis. The quantification procedure is illustrated by data from an experiment in which inflammatory reactions in the murine spinal cord, measured as microglial activation, were followed by IHC after the lesion of the sciatic nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Paizs
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Center, Szeged, Hungary
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Li L, Lu J, Tay SSW, Moochhala SM, He BP. The function of microglia, either neuroprotection or neurotoxicity, is determined by the equilibrium among factors released from activated microglia in vitro. Brain Res 2007; 1159:8-17. [PMID: 17572395 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2007] [Accepted: 04/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Opposing functions of activated microglia, namely neuroprotection or neurotrophy versus neurodestruction or neurotoxicity, have been observed in a number of experimental models of neurotrauma and neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanism(s) involved in the determination of which function activated microglia execute under a given set of conditions still remains to be elucidated. Our current in vitro study has revealed that a neuroprotective/neurotrophic or a neurodestructive/neurotoxic microglial function may be configured by the equilibrium among various microglial factors released into the microenvironment. When NSC-34 neurons were treated with lower concentrations of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 microglial conditioned medium (LPS-BVCM), viability of the NSC-34 neurons increased, outgrowth of neuronal processes was promoted, and the formation of 2,5-hexanedione-induced aggregates was prevented. However, when NSC-34 neurons were treated with higher concentrations of the same LPS-BVCM, neuronal viability was reduced, apoptosis was induced and outgrowth of neuronal processes was prevented. Measurement of the cytokines tumor necrotic factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and IL-6 in the LPS-BVCM has shown that the upregulation in expression for each cytokine varied both temporally and quantitatively. It is postulated that an alteration in the concentration of the LPS-BVCM might significantly affect the functional balance of microglial factors in the microenvironment with a resultant different microglial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lv Li
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, MD10, 4 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore
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Pollock G, Pennypacker KR, Mémet S, Israël A, Saporta S. Activation of NF-κB in the mouse spinal cord following sciatic nerve transection. Exp Brain Res 2005; 165:470-7. [PMID: 15912368 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-005-2318-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Accepted: 02/16/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
NF-kappaB is a ubiquitous nuclear transcription factor that regulates a number of physiological processes. NF-kappaB activity has been implicated in enhancing neuronal survival following CNS injury. The present study was conducted to test the hypothesis that NF-kappaB activity is up-regulated in neurons of the spinal cord in response to peripheral nerve transection. In this series of experiments, we used NF-kappaB reporter mice in which activation of NF-kappaB drives the expression of the lac-z gene. The response to injury of cells in the spinal cord was assessed by evaluating the number and distribution of beta-galalactosidase (beta-gal)-positive cells following sciatic nerve transection. The animals were randomly assigned to four groups, which were allowed to survive for one, three, five and ten days. Four mice that did not undergo sciatic nerve transection were assigned to each group to serve as controls. The total number of beta-gal-positive cells in the right and left dorsal and ventral horns were compared. The numbers of beta-gal-positive cells between the right and left sides were significantly different three and five days post axotomy (p<0.05). Double immunofluorescent labeling was utilized to characterize which cells showed NF-kappaB activity, and it revealed that all beta-gal-positive cells were colocalized with MAP-2-positive neurons. The results of this study demonstrated that complete sciatic nerve transection leads to an up-regulation of NF-kappaB transactivation in spinal neurons ipsilateral to the side of transection. The increase in activity in the ipsilateral dorsal horn is consistent with this transcription factor acting as neuronal survival signal during this time frame in response to the peripheral nerve insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Pollock
- Department of Anatomy, Health Sciences Center, College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa 33612, USA
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He Y, Le WD, Appel SH. Role of Fcgamma receptors in nigral cell injury induced by Parkinson disease immunoglobulin injection into mouse substantia nigra. Exp Neurol 2002; 176:322-7. [PMID: 12359173 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2002.7946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Immune/inflammatory factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Immunoglobulin G (IgG) from patients with PD can induce injury of dopaminergic neurons following stereotaxic injection into rat substantia nigra (SN). The PD IgG can be demonstrated in vitro to activate microglia via the Fcgamma receptor (Fcgamma R) and induce dopaminergic cell injury. To confirm the involvement of microglia and their Fcgamma R in IgG-induced lesions of SN in vivo we analyzed the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cell loss in SN par compacta (SNpc) in mice lacking Fcgamma receptors (Fcgamma R(-/-)) and wild type (Fcgamma R(+/+)). At 1 day after stereotaxic injection of PD IgG into the SN of Fcgamma R(+/+) mice there was a 27% increase in the number of CD11b-positive microglial cells and no significant loss of TH-positive cells. At 14 days after the stereotaxic injection, the number of microglial cells was increased by 42%, accompanied by a 40% loss of TH-positive neurons in the SNpc. PD IgG injection in Fcgamma R(-/-) mice resulted in no significant increase of microglia and no loss of TH-positive cells in the SNpc at any time point. The injection of F(ab')(2) fragments of PD IgG was able to induce TH-positive neuronal loss in the SNpc only when the injected animals raised antibodies against the injected human IgG fragments, which confirmed the importance of the Fcgamma R in microglial activation and nigral injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi He
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Breidert T, Callebert J, Heneka MT, Landreth G, Launay JM, Hirsch EC. Protective action of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist pioglitazone in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2002; 82:615-24. [PMID: 12153485 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00990.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effect of pioglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) agonist of the thiazolidinedione class, on dopaminergic nerve cell death and glial activation in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of Parkinson's disease. The acute intoxication of C57BL/6 mice with MPTP led to nigrostriatal injury, as determined by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunocytochemistry, and HPLC detection of striatal dopamine and metabolites. Damage to the nigrostriatal dopamine system was accompanied by a transient activation of microglia, as determined by macrophage antigen-1 (Mac-1) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) immunoreactivity, and a prolonged astrocytic response. Orally administered pioglitazone (approximately 20 mg/kg/day) attenuated the MPTP-induced glial activation and prevented the dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). In contrast, there was little reduction of MPTP-induced dopamine depletion, with no detectable effect on loss of TH immunoreactivity and glial response in the striatum of pioglitazone-treated animals. Low levels of PPARgamma expression were detected in the ventral mesencephalon and striatum, and were unaffected by MPTP or pioglitazone treatment. Since pioglitazone affects primarily the SNpc in our model, different PPARgamma-independent mechanisms may regulate glial activation in the dopaminergic terminals compared with the dopaminergic cell bodies after acute MPTP intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Breidert
- INSERM U289, Experimental Neurology and Therapeutics, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France.
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He Y, Appel S, Le W. Minocycline inhibits microglial activation and protects nigral cells after 6-hydroxydopamine injection into mouse striatum. Brain Res 2001; 909:187-93. [PMID: 11478935 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02681-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To determine the role of immune/inflammatory factors in dopaminergic cell degeneration in parkinsonian substantia nigra, we assayed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive immunoreactive neuronal numbers with stereologic techniques and CD11b-positive immunoreactive microglial profiles following 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) injection into ipsilateral striatum of mice. We further investigated the effect of minocycline on the inhibition of microglial activation and subsequent protection of nigral cells. The relative number of microglial profiles in the substantia nigra (SN) ipsilateral to the injection increased from 31 to 32% 1-3 days after injection, and increased further to 55% by 7 days and 59% by 14 days, compared with the contralateral SN. These changes started prior to the decrease of TH immunoreactivity of 34% on day 7 and of 42% by day 14. In animals treated with minocycline, microglial activation was inhibited by 47%, and TH positive cells were protected by 21% at day 14 after 6-OHDA injection, compared with those parkinsonian animals without minocycline treatment. All these results suggest that microglial activation may be involved in the nigral cell degeneration in 6-OHDA induced parkinsonian mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y He
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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de Bilbao F, Giannakopoulos P, Srinivasan A, Dubois-Dauphin M. In vivo study of motoneuron death induced by nerve injury in mice deficient in the caspase 1/ interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. Neuroscience 2000; 98:573-83. [PMID: 10869851 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00100-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The apoptotic cell death program is orchestrated by members of the caspase family. Among these caspases, several in vitro and in vivo reports indicate that the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme (or caspase 1) may be involved in neurodegenerative processes. In view of these findings, and in order to characterize the role of the interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme in mediating or modulating cell death processes in vivo, we have investigated the effects of its deletion on motoneuron survival after a facial nerve transection in newborn and adult interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme knock-out mice. During the postnatal period of development, when facial motoneurons are highly vulnerable to axotomy, we did not observe any significant effect of the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-deletion on the percentage of cell death in the lesioned nuclei. In addition, the spontaneous cell death characteristic of the postnatal period was not altered in knock-out mice. In contrast, in adult knock-out mice, a significant reduction (16%) in the number of surviving facial motoneurons was observed six weeks after axotomy. We therefore conclude that the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme does not appear to be critical for cell death during the postnatal period but may favor motoneuron survival during adulthood. Given the key role of caspase 3 in neuronal apoptosis during embryonic development of the central nervous system, we also investigated the role of this caspase in cell death following axotomy. Combined immunofluorescence revealed that, at least during the postnatal period, axotomized motoneurons that have apoptotic nuclear morphologies were immunopositive for the active form of caspase 3. Double-stained cells could be also observed on the unlesioned side. These results strongly suggest that caspase 3 may be involved in both the postnatal spontaneous- and axotomy-induced facial motoneuron death processes. Similar results were obtained in interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-deficient and wild-type mice, indicating that the interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme may not be required for caspase 3 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- F de Bilbao
- University Hospital Geneva, Department of Psychiatry, 2, Chemin du Petit Bel-Air, 1225, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Ng YK, Yong VW, Ling EA. Microglial reaction in some CNS nuclei following nerves transection in BALB/c and interferon-gamma gene knockout mice. Neurosci Lett 1999; 262:207-10. [PMID: 10218892 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(99)00076-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The present study was aimed to ascertain if the endogenous IFN-gamma is necessary for induction of microglial reaction associated with the CNS neurons after neurectomy of the vagus and hypoglossal nerves in IFN-gamma gene knockout mice and BALB/c mice serving as controls. Vigorous microglial reaction as detected by Mac-1 antibody was elicited in the brainstem nuclei in both strains of mice. Increased Mac-1 immunoreactivity in microglia was detected as early as 1 day post-operation in the ipsilateral dorsal nucleus of vagus, nucleus ambiguus and the hypoglossal nucleus; a similar feature was observed in the nucleus tractus solitarius bilaterally. Mac-1 immunoreactivity in reactive microglia appeared to increase with survival intervals and was comparable throughout in both strains of mice. It is therefore concluded that endogenous IFN-gamma is not responsible for upregulation of complement type 3 receptor immunomolecules in reactive microglia following nerves sectioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y K Ng
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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