Refined structures of beta-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III

Fatty acid synthesis and utilization in gram-positive bacteria: insights from Bacillus subtilis

SUMMARYThe bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, consisting of roughly equal proportions of proteins and lipids, plays a crucial role in cellular growth, metabolism, and maintaining the cytoplasmic boundary. It is a dynamic, fluid matrix that separates intracellular compartments, where lipids and proteins coexist in a highly organized yet flexible arrangement. Membrane fluidity, defined as the inverse of viscosity, determines how rapidly molecules diffuse within the membrane at a given temperature. This property is vital for protein mobility and biomolecular interactions. Structurally, the membrane primarily comprises a lamellar lipid bilayer, with glycerophospholipids and fatty acids forming its core framework. In Bacillus subtilis, a key model organism for studying gram-positive bacterial physiology, major membrane lipids include phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoteichoic acids, the latter anchored to diacylglycerol glycolipids. This review examines the synthesis and regulation of membrane lipids in B. subtilis, with a focus on fatty acid biosynthesis, its diversification, and post-synthetic modifications such as desaturation. It also explores the production of phosphatidic acid and the integration of fatty acid and phospholipid biosynthesis. We review the well-characterized pathway of cold-induced membrane lipid modification in B. subtilis, arguably the best-studied model system for temperature sensing. This pathway is tightly linked to transcriptional responses triggered by changes in bilayer viscosity, detected by a membrane-associated thermosensor. Finally, this review highlights the importance of fatty acid biosynthesis in B. subtilis differentiation and its contributions to the production of biotin and lipoic acid, two universal cofactors essential for fatty acid synthesis and intermediary metabolism.

Fe(III) and Ni(II) imidazole-benzimidazole mixed-ligand complexes: synthesis, structural characterization, molecular docking, DFT studies, and evaluation of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities

This work delves into the synthesis, characterization, and bioactivity of new metal complexes of imidazole (IM)-based and benzimidazole (BZ)-based ligands with Fe(III) and Ni(II) ions. Broad characterization techniques, including elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, magnetic moment measurement, electronic spectral analysis, mass spectrometry, thermal analysis, and DFT calculations, confirmed the successful preparation of the complexes with a 1 : 1 : 1 (M : IM : BZ) stoichiometry. The NiBZI M and FeBZIM complexes possessed octahedral geometry, with one and two water molecules coordinated with Fe(III) and Ni(II), respectively. DFT calculations demonstrated that the reduction of the energy gap and increase in softness for the metal complexes resulted from metal coordination, enhancing the reactivity and biological activity of the complexes. The FeBZIM and NiBZIM complexes exhibited strong antimicrobial activity, with both complexes displaying improved efficacy towards Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria compared with their corresponding free ligands. Their activities were comparable to the standard antibiotic chloramphenicol. Furthermore, these complexes exhibited good antifungal activity towards Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans, surpassing that of the free ligands. MIC values also ensured enhanced antimicrobial activity of the metal complexes. Other than these properties, the complexes demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity, where the FeBZIM complex exhibited the highest activity, with an IC50 value closer to that of the reference drug. Molecular docking studies on the E. coli FabH-CoA complex (PDB ID: 1HNJ) and human cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (PDB ID: 5IKT) revealed that the FeBZIM complex exhibited the highest binding affinity with the formation of several hydrogen bonds with key amino acid residues, suggesting a favorable antibacterial activity. Overall, the newly synthesized FeBZIM and NiBZIM complexes demonstrated immense potential as novel antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory drugs with enhanced efficacy compared with their free ligands.

Design and Characterization of Ni(II) and Cu(II) Complexes With Methionine and 1,10-Phenanthroline: Antibacterial and Anti-Fungal Properties

This research focused on the design and characterization of two new transition metal complexes, NiMetPhe and CuMetPhe, derived from methionine (Met) and 1,10-phenanthroline (Phe), coordinated with Ni(II) and Cu(II) ions, respectively. Structural elucidation through analytical techniques, conductivity, elemental analysis, FTIR spectra, electronic spectra, magnetic moment, mass spectra, and thermal degradation, confirmed their octahedral geometries with the formulas [Ni(Met)(Phe)(Cl)(H₂O)] and [Cu(Met)(Phe)(Cl)(H₂O)]. Thermal analysis revealed their stability and decomposition patterns, whereas density functional theory (DFT) calculations validated the structures and provided insights into quantum chemical parameters, such as highest occupied molecular orbital-lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (HOMO-LUMO) energies, molecular orbitals, and electronic distributions. In vitro antibacterial and anti-fungal assays showed significantly enhanced bioactivity for both complexes compared to the free ligands, indicating that metal coordination boosts biological efficacy. Molecular docking studies targeting the Escherichia coli FabH-CoA complex (PDB ID: 1HNJ), a key enzyme in fatty acid biosynthesis, revealed strong binding affinities, interaction energies, and involvement of critical amino acid residues. These findings highlight NiMetPhe and CuMetPhe as promising candidates for antimicrobial therapies, particularly against resistant strains, underscoring their potential for future medical applications.

SCO6564, a novel 3-ketoacyl acyl carrier protein synthase III, contributes in fatty acid synthesis in Streptomyces coelicolor

The genus Streptomyces comprises gram-positive bacteria that produce large numbers of secondary metabolites, which have promising commercial applications and deserve extensive study. Most bacteria synthesize fatty acids using a type II fatty acid synthase, with each step catalyzed by a discrete protein. Fatty acid synthesis has been intensively studied in the model strain Streptomyces coelicolor, in which 3-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III (KAS III, FabH) is essential for growth and fatty acid biosynthesis. In this study, the FabH homolog SCO6564 (named FabH2) was identified in the S. coelicolor genome by BLAST analysis. The expression of fabH2 restored the growth of Ralstonia solanacearum fabH mutant and made the mutant produce small amounts of branched-chain fatty acids. FabH2 could condense various substrates, including straight-chain and branched-chain acyl-CoAs, with malonyl-acyl carrier protein to initiate fatty acid synthesis in in vitro assays. The fabH2 deletion did not cause significant changes in the growth or fatty acid composition of S. coelicolor, indicating that fabH2 is nonessential for growth or fatty acid synthesis. However, fabH2 overexpression reduced the blue-pigmented actinorhodin production. Phylogenetic analysis of KAS III from different bacteria revealed that FabH2 belongs to a novel group of FabH-type, which is ubiquitous in Streptomyces spp.

Isolation, Structure Elucidation, and Bioactivity Evaluation of Two Alkaloids From Piper chaba H. Stem: A Traditional Medicinal Spice and Its Chemico-Pharmacological Aspects

Bangladesh is endowed with an abundance of excellent medicinal plant resources. A well-known traditional medicinal plant Piper chaba H. from the Piperaceae family is rich in bioactive phytochemicals that have antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, and cytotoxic effects. This plant is locally known as "Chuijhal," and the stem is used as spices. In the current research program, the stems of the P. chaba plant were selected and its chemical and biological investigations such as antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, and analgesic effects were performed. Moreover, docking models were accomplished by exploiting PyRx-Virtual Screening software and implied that isolated compounds of P. chaba exert different pharmacological activity by inhibiting their targeted receptors. Phytochemical investigations revealed the isolation of Chingchengenamide A, a relatively rare alkaloid from the stems of P. chaba. Another alkaloid Chabamide I which is a piperine dimer was also isolated. Their structures were confirmed by comparing these compounds' spectral data (1H and 13C NMR) with their previously published spectral data. Antidiarrheal activity shows a percent reduction of diarrhea by 46.67% and 40%, respectively, for Chabamide I and Chingchengenamide A (at 20 mg/kg b.w.) compared with an 80% reduction by standard loperamide. Similarly, the percent reduction of writhing was 53.06% and 42.86%, respectively, for Chabamide I and Chingchengenamide A at similar doses compared with an 80% reduction by diclofenac sodium considered as standard. Both the alkaloids showed auspicious outcomes against test microorganisms during disk diffusion antimicrobial assay. Molecular docking and ADME/T analysis of the alkaloids also validate a potent pharmacological basis for the traditional utilization of P. chaba in treating diarrhea, pain, and microbial infection. These results emphasize the need to investigate P. chaba as a potential source of natural therapies for common health issues, laying the foundation for future research.

Chemico-pharmacological evaluations of the dwarf elephant ear (Colocasia affinis Schott) plant metabolites and extracts: health benefits from vegetable source

Introduction: Colocasia affinis Schott (Family: Araceae), found in the Asian region, is a traditional root vegetable consumed by the locals and well-known as Dwarf Elephant Ear. Methods: For the pharmacological exploration of this root vegetable, four kupchan fractions (i.e. HSF, DCMSF, EASF, and AQSF) from ethanolic extract of C. affinis were employed to in vitro i.e. antioxidant, cytotoxicity, and antimicrobial and in vivo i.e. antidiarrheal and analgesic assays, followed by phytochemical screening and GC-MS protocol. Result and Discussion: In the antioxidant assay, the AQSF showed promising potential with an IC50 value of 29.4 μg/mL and additionally, it exhibited the greatest overall phenolic content, measuring 57.23 mg GAE/gm. of extract among other fractions. The AQSF also revealed promising cytotoxic activity in brine shrimp lethality assay with an LC50 value of 1.36 μg/mL. Both AQSF and EASF exhibited substantial antimicrobial efficacy against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as various fungus species with a remarkable zone of inhibitions compared to standards. Whereas, during both the castor oil-induced antidiarrheal and acetic acid-induced writhing assay, the DCMSF at 400 mg/kg dose exhibited the highest 51.16% reduction of diarrhea and 52.33% reduction of writhing. Phytochemical screening revealed several chemical groups while GC-MS study of different fractions of dwarf elephant ear ethanolic extract revealed 48 different bioactive phytochemicals in total. Several targets such as KAS, DHFR for anti-microbial activities, GLR, URO for antioxidant activities, EGFR, BCL-2 for cytotoxicity, KOR, DOR for antidiarrheal activities and COX-2, TNF-α for analgesic activities are considered for molecular docking against identified phytocompounds and standards along with ADME/T studies to ascertain their safety, efficacy and drug likeliness profiles. Conclusion: To recapitulate, our study revealed that vegetables such as dwarf elephant ear can be considered as a prospective source of therapeutics and drug development besides their nutritive food values.

Water soluble curcumin with alkyl sulfonate moiety: Synthesis, and anticancer efficacy

Curcumin is classified as a chemotherapeutic medication because of its potential against numerous cancer cell lines and ability to inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Despite these findings, curcumin has yet to be commercialized as a drug due to its low water solubility, low absorption, and restricted bioavailability. As a result, there is a demand for water-soluble curcumin with improved solubility, bioavailability, and thus bioactivity. In this study we report the synthesis and the anticancer activities of water-soluble curcumins derivatives with alkyl sulfonate moiety. The target water-soluble curcumin with alkyl sulfonate moieties was created utilizing a straightforward technique that involved reacting curcumin with various sultones. The cytotoxic (24 h) and cytostatic (72 h) anticancer effect on breast carcinoma (MCF-7), liver carcinoma (HepG2), skin melanoma (B16-F110), colon human cancer and HeLa cervical carcinoma cell lines viability % via MTT assay were determined for the prepared derivatives. Results showed that curcumin-derived compounds have a pronounced cytostatic anticancer effect rather than cytotoxic one in relation to the compound type, cancer cell line type, and examined concentration compared to curcumin. The curcumin sulfonates outperformed curcumin activity against the tested cancer cells and showed to be powerful anticancer candidate drugs as supported by the theoretical calculations. This is evident by their high capacity to form H-bonding during docking with the amino acid side chains and the Vina docking score.

Crystal structures of the fatty acid biosynthesis initiation enzymes in Bacillus subtilis

Bacteria use the fatty acid composition of membrane lipids to maintain homeostasis of the bilayer. β-Ketoacyl-ACP synthase III (FabH) initiates fatty acid biosynthesis and is the primary determinant of the fatty acid composition. FabH condenses malonyl-acyl carrier protein with an acyl-Coenzyme A primer to form β -ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein which is used to make substrates for lipid synthesis. The acyl-Coenzyme A primer determines whether an acyl chain in the membrane has iso, anteiso, or no branching (straight chain) and biophysical properties of the membrane. The soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis encodes two copies of FabH (BsFabHA and BsFabHB), and here we solve their crystal structures. The substrate-free 1.85 Å and 2.40 Å structures of BsFabHA and BsFabHB show both enzymes have similar residues that line the active site but differ in the architecture surrounding the catalytic residues and oxyanion hole. Branching in the BsFabHB active site may better accommodate the structure of an iso-branched acyl-Coenzyme A molecule and thus confer superior utilization to BsFabHA for this primer type. The 2.02 Å structure of BsFabHA•Coenzyme A shows how the active site architecture changes after binding the first substrate. The other notable difference is an amino acid insertion in BsFabHB that extends a cap that covers the dimer interface. The cap topology is diverse across FabH structures and appears to be a distinguishing feature. FabH enzymes have variable sensitivity to natural product inhibitors and the availability of crystal structures help clarify how nature designs antimicrobials that differentially target FabH homologs.

Investigation of Structural and Antibacterial Properties of WS2-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles

ZnO nanoparticles, well-known for their structural, optical, and antibacterial properties, are widely applied in diverse fields. The doping of different materials to ZnO, such as metals or metal oxides, is known to ameliorate its properties. Here, nanofilms composed of ZnO doped with WS2 at 5, 15, and 25% ratios are synthesized, and their properties are investigated. Supported by molecular docking analyses, the enhancement of the bactericidal properties after the addition of WS2 at different ratios is highlighted and supported by the inhibitory interaction of residues playing a crucial role in the bacterial survival through the targeting of proteins of interest.

Cytotoxic and Infection-Controlled Investigations of Novel Dihydropyridine Hybrids: An Efficient Synthesis and Molecular-Docking Studies

A sequence of novel 1,4-dihydropyridines (DHP) and their hybrids was developed using a multicomponent strategy under environmentally benign conditions. In addition, computational studies were performed, and the ligand-protein interactions calculated in different bacteria and two fungal strains. Para-hydroxy-linked DHP (5f) showed the best binding energies of 3.591, 3.916, 8.499 and 6.895 kcal/mol against various pathogens used and other substances received a good docking score. The pathogen resistance potential of the synthesized targets against four bacteria and two fungi showed that whole DHP substances exhibit different levels of resistance to each microorganism. Gram-positive bacteria, which are highly sensitive to all molecules, and the MTCC-1884-encoded fungus strongly rejected the studied compounds compared to comparator drugs. In particular, the 5f candidate showed remarkable antimicrobial activity, followed by the substances 5a, 5b, 5j, 5k and 5l. Furthermore, MIC and MBC/MFC properties showed that 5f had a minimum bacterial concentration of 12.5 μg/mL against E. coli and against two fungal pathogens, with its killing activity being effective even at low concentrations. On the other hand, whole motifs were tested for their cytotoxic activity, revealing that the methoxy and hydroxy-linked compounds (5h) showed greater cytotoxic potency, followed by the two hydroxy linked compounds (5d and 5f). Overall, this synthetic approach used represents a prototype for future nature-favored synthesis methods and these biological results serve as a guide for future therapeutic drug research. However, the computer results play an important role in the further development of biological experiments.

Structures of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase III and Escherichia coli β-ketoacylsynthase III co-crystallized with partially hydrolysed acetyl-oxa(dethia)CoA

Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) is a reactive metabolite that nonproductively hydrolyzes in a number of enzyme active sites in the crystallization time frame. In order to elucidate the enzyme-acetyl-CoA interactions leading to catalysis, acetyl-CoA substrate analogs are needed. One possible analog for use in structural studies is acetyl-oxa(dethia)CoA (AcOCoA), in which the thioester S atom of CoA is replaced by an O atom. Here, structures of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase III (CATIII) and Escherichia coli ketoacylsynthase III (FabH) from crystals grown in the presence of partially hydrolyzed AcOCoA and the respective nucleophile are presented. Based on the structures, the behavior of AcOCoA differs between the enzymes, with FabH reacting with AcOCoA and CATIII being unreactive. The structure of CATIII reveals insight into the catalytic mechanism, with one active site of the trimer having relatively clear electron density for AcOCoA and chloramphenicol and the other active sites having weaker density for AcOCoA. One FabH structure contains a hydrolyzed AcOCoA product oxa(dethia)CoA (OCoA), while the other FabH structure contains an acyl-enzyme intermediate with OCoA. Together, these structures provide preliminary insight into the use of AcOCoA for enzyme structure-function studies with different nucleophiles.

Activity of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Initiating Ketosynthase FabH with Acetyl/Malonyl-oxa/aza(dethia)CoAs

Fatty acid and polyketide biosynthetic enzymes exploit the reactivity of acyl- and malonyl-thioesters for catalysis. A prime example is FabH, which initiates fatty acid biosynthesis in many bacteria and plants. FabH performs an acyltransferase reaction with acetyl-CoA to generate an acetyl-S-FabH acyl-enzyme intermediate and subsequent decarboxylative Claisen-condensation with a malonyl-thioester carried by an acyl carrier protein (ACP). We envision that crystal structures of FabH with substrate analogues can provide insight into the conformational changes and enzyme/substrate interactions underpinning the distinct reactions. Here, we synthesize acetyl/malonyl-CoA analogues with esters or amides in place of the thioester and characterize their stability and behavior as Escherichia coli FabH substrates or inhibitors to inform structural studies. We also characterize the analogues with mutant FabH C112Q that mimics the acyl-enzyme intermediate allowing dissection of the decarboxylation reaction. The acetyl- and malonyl-oxa(dethia)CoA analogues undergo extremely slow hydrolysis in the presence of FabH or the C112Q mutant. Decarboxylation of malonyl-oxa(dethia)CoA by FabH or C112Q mutant was not detected. The amide analogues were completely stable to enzyme activity. In enzyme assays with acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA (rather than malonyl-ACP) as substrates, acetyl-oxa(dethia)CoA is surprisingly slightly activating, while acetyl-aza(dethia)CoA is a moderate inhibitor. The malonyl-oxa/aza(dethia)CoAs are inhibitors with Ki's near the Km of malonyl-CoA. For comparison, we determine the FabH catalyzed decomposition rates for acetyl/malonyl-CoA, revealing some fundamental catalytic traits of FabH, including hysteresis for malonyl-CoA decarboxylation. The stability and inhibitory properties of the substrate analogues make them promising for structure-function studies to reveal fatty acid and polyketide enzyme/substrate interactions.

Design, synthesis, DFT calculations, molecular docking and antimicrobial activities of novel cobalt, chromium metal complexes of heterocyclic moiety-based 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives

A Schiff base, 5-(4-methylphenyl)-4-[(pyridin-2-ylmethylidene)amino]-4H-1,2,4-oxadiazole as a bidentate ligand has been synthesized by the reaction between the 4-amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4H-1,3,4-oxadiazole and aromatic aldehyde. The Schiff base reacted with CoCl₃·6H₂O and CrCl₃·6H₂O in ethanol to yield 1,3,4-oxadiazole complexes. The structures of synthesized ligand and their complexes have been established on the basis of their IR, Mass and ¹H-NMR spectra. Electronic and geometric structures of both cobalt and chromium complexes were investigated by density functional theory (DFT) and quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) calculations. DFT-based reactivity calculations estimated the studied system as strong electrophile and/or strong nucleophile in polar organic reactions. Moreover, most reactive sites were predicted theoretically based on the delocalized and localized indexes. The nature of Ligand-Metal chemical bonding is discussed in terms of the natural bond orbital (NBO) and QTAIM analysis. Accordingly, the metal ions such as cobalt and chromium are bidentate coordinated with the Schiff base by nitrogen atoms of imine function and pyridine, to form stable complexes. Furthermore, the chromium ions have an affinity superior to the cobalt ions towards Schiff base ligand. In addition, the results of the antibacterial activity in-vitro show that the metal complexation confers an increase in the antibacterial activity of the complexed ligand compared to the free ligand against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria with broad spectrum activity. In silico molecular docking studies of the ligands and their complexes were applied to describe the probable binding modes into the active site of Escherichia coli (E. coli) FabH and Salmonella typhimurium LT2 neuraminidase (STNA) receptors. The increase in biological activity could be attributed to the high stability of the complexes and strong affinities to bacterial enzyme receptors.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The Synthesis, Antimicrobial Activity, and Molecular Docking of New 1, 2, 4-Triazole, 1, 2, 4-Triazepine, Quinoline, and Pyrimidine Scaffolds Condensed to Naturally Occurring Furochromones

This study aims to synthesize a new series of furochromone derivatives, evaluate their antimicrobial properties, and improve the permeability of potent compounds to inhibit different types of bacteria and fungi. Hence, Substituted furo[3,2-g]chromene-6-carbonitrile (3a,b) readily form 7-amino-5-methyl-furo [3,2-g]chromene-6-carbonitrile (4a,b) via reduction using sodium borohydride in methanol. The same compounds of (4a,b) were used as starting materials for the synthesis of new furochromone derivatives such as furochromeno [2,3-d]pyrimidines, N- (6-cyano- 5-methyl-furochromene) acetamide, N-(6-cyano-5-methyl-furo chromene)-2-phenyl acetamide, N- (6-cyano-5-methyl-furochromene) formimidate, furochromeno[1,2,4]triazepin-5-amine, furochrom ene-6-carboxamide, furochromeno[1,2,4]triazolopyrimidines, and furochromeno[2,3-b]quinolin- 6-amine. The structures of the new compounds were determined using spectroscopy: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H, 13C), Mass spectra, Infrared, and elemental analysis. Molecular docking studies were conducted to investigate the binding patterns of the prepared compounds against DNA-gyrase (PDB 1HNJ). The results displayed that compounds furochromenotriazolopyrimidine (20a,b), furochromenoquinolin-6-amine (21a,b), furochromenotriazepin-amine (9a,b), and furo- chromenopyrimidine-amine (19a,b) were excellent antimicrobials.

Biochemical and in silico study of leaf and bark extracts from Aphanamixis polystachya against common pathogenic bacteria

Aphanamixis polystachya may be a natural, renewable resource against antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. The antibacterial activity of A. polystachya leaf and bark extracts was investigated against three antibiotic-resistant bacterial species and one fungus. Methanolic leaf extract showed only limited antibacterial activity but both methanolic and aqueous bark extract showed high antimicrobial activity. In an antioxidant activity test, leaf and bark extracts exhibited 50% free radical scavenging at a concentration of 107.14 ± 3.14 μg/mL and 97.13 ± 3.05 μg/mL, respectively, indicating that bark extracts offer more antioxidative activity than leaf extracts. Bark extracts also showed lower toxicity than leaf extracts. This suggests that bark extracts may offer greater development potential than leaf extracts. The molecular dynamics were also investigated through the simulated exploration of multiple potential interactions to understand the interaction dynamics (root-mean-square deviation, solvent-accessible surface area, radius of gyration, and the hydrogen bonding of chosen compounds to protein targets) and possible mechanisms of inhibition. This molecular modeling of compounds derived from A. polystachya revealed that inhibition may occur by binding to the active sites of the target proteins of the tested bacterial strains. A. polystachya bark extract may be used as a natural source of drugs to control antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Decoding antibacterial and antibiofilm properties of cinnamon and cardamom essential oils: a combined molecular docking and experimental study

This study sets out to compare the antibacterial and antibiofilm profiles of Ci/Ca EOs alone and in combination together against infectious bacterial strains. MIC assay was carried out to survey the effectiveness of prepared EOs by two-fold serial dilution method and MTT evaluation. Synergic antibacterial properties of EOs against target strains were studied by using checkerboard titration method. Biofilm growth and development were evaluated using CV and XTT reduction assays. Antibacterial activity was observed for EOs against both bacterial strains with stronger activity for CiEO against both bacteria. The synergistic antibacterial effect was observed only against B. subtilis. Based on the FIC index, combinations could not inhibit the growth of E. coli. The pure EOs and their combination inhibited cell attachment for both studied bacteria with stronger effect on E. coli. CV and XTT reduction assays results showed that Ci EO and its combination with CaEO had the highest antibiofilm activity at lowest MIC value 0.08% and 0.04/0.02% against biofilm formed by E. coli and B. subtilis respectively, indicating a high antibiofilm potential. Computational docking analyses also postulated that the active constituents of evaluated EOs have the potential to interact with different bacterial targets, suggested binding mode of action of EOs metabolites. By and large, synergistic anti-biofilm properties of EOs may provide further options for developing novel formula to inhibit a variety of infectious clinical and industrial strains without (or less) toxicity effects on human body.

Animal Fatty Acid Synthase: A Chemical Nanofactory

Fatty acids are crucial molecules for most living beings, very well spread and conserved across species. These molecules play a role in energy storage, cell membrane architecture, and cell signaling, the latter through their derivative metabolites. De novo synthesis of fatty acids is a complex chemical process that can be achieved either by a metabolic pathway built by a sequence of individual enzymes, such as in most bacteria, or by a single, large multi-enzyme, which incorporates all the chemical capabilities of the metabolic pathway, such as in animals and fungi, and in some bacteria. Here we focus on the multi-enzymes, specifically in the animal fatty acid synthase (FAS). We start by providing a historical overview of this vast field of research. We follow by describing the extraordinary architecture of animal FAS, a homodimeric multi-enzyme with seven different active sites per dimer, including a carrier protein that carries the intermediates from one active site to the next. We then delve into this multi-enzyme's detailed chemistry and critically discuss the current knowledge on the chemical mechanism of each of the steps necessary to synthesize a single fatty acid molecule with atomic detail. In line with this, we discuss the potential and achieved FAS applications in biotechnology, as biosynthetic machines, and compare them with their homologous polyketide synthases, which are also finding wide applications in the same field. Finally, we discuss some open questions on the architecture of FAS, such as their peculiar substrate-shuttling arm, and describe possible reasons for the emergence of large megasynthases during evolution, questions that have fascinated biochemists from long ago but are still far from answered and understood.

Antidiarrheal, antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials of methanol extract of Colocasia gigantea Hook. f. leaves: evidenced from in vivo and in vitro studies along with computer-aided approaches

BACKGROUND

Colocasia gigantea, locally named as kochu is well-known due to its various healing power. This research is to investigate the antidiarrheal, antimicrobial and antioxidant possibilities of the methanol soluble extract of Colocasia gigantea.

METHODS

The antidiarrheal investigation was performed by using in vivo castor oil-induced diarrheal method whereas in vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant investigation have been implemented by disc diffusion and DPPH scavenging method respectively. Moreover, in silico studies were followed by molecular docking analysis of several secondary metabolites that were appraised with Schrödinger-Maestro v11.1 and Biovia Discovery Studio.

RESULTS

The induction of plant extract (200 and 400 mg/kg, b.w, p.o) has minimized the castor oil mediated diarrhea by 16.96% (p < 0.01) and 38.89% (p < 0.001) respectively compared to control group. The methanol extract of C. gigantea showed mild sensitivity against almost all the tested strains but it shows high consistency of phenolic content and yielded 67.68 μg/mL of IC50 value in the DPPH test. In the PASS prediction, selected isolated compounds have demonstrated significant antidiarrheal and antimicrobial activity following the Lipinski drug rules which have ascertained efficacy with the compounds in molecular docking study.

CONCLUSION

The results of this scientific research reflects that the methanol soluble extract of C. gigantea is safe and may provide possibilities of alleviation of diarrhea along with being a potential wellspring of antioxidant and antimicrobial agents which can be considered as an alternate source for exploration of new medicinal products in near future.

α-proteobacteria synthesize biotin precursor pimeloyl-ACP using BioZ 3-ketoacyl-ACP synthase and lysine catabolism

Pimelic acid, a seven carbon α,ω-dicarboxylic acid (heptanedioic acid), is known to provide seven of the ten biotin carbon atoms including all those of the valeryl side chain. Distinct pimelate synthesis pathways were recently elucidated in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis where fatty acid synthesis plus dedicated biotin enzymes produce the pimelate moiety. In contrast, the α-proteobacteria which include important plant and mammalian pathogens plus plant symbionts, lack all of the known pimelate synthesis genes and instead encode bioZ genes. Here we report a pathway in which BioZ proteins catalyze a 3-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) synthase III-like reaction to produce pimeloyl-ACP with five of the seven pimelate carbon atoms being derived from glutaryl-CoA, an intermediate in lysine degradation. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains either deleted for bioZ or which encode a BioZ active site mutant are biotin auxotrophs, as are strains defective in CaiB which catalyzes glutaryl-CoA synthesis from glutarate and succinyl-CoA.

Synthesis, antibacterial and anticancer activity, and docking study of aminoguanidines containing an alkynyl moiety

Two series of aminoguanidines containing an alkynyl moiety were designed, synthesised, and screened for antibacterial and anticancer activities. Generally, the series 3a-3j with a 1,2-diphenylethyne exhibited better antibacterial activity than the other series (6a-6k) holding 1,4-diphenylbuta-1,3-diyne moiety antibacterial activity. Most compounds in series 3a-3j showed potent growth inhibition against the tested bacterial strains, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values in the range 0.25-8 µg/mL. Compound 3g demonstrated rapid and persistent bactericidal activity at 2 × MIC. The resistance study revealed that resistance of the tested bacteria towards 3g is not easily developed. Molecular docking studies revealed that compounds 3g and 6e bind strongly to the LpxC and FabH enzymes. Moreover, excellent activity of selected compounds against the growth of cancer cell lines A549 and SGC7901 was also observed, with IC₅₀ values in the range 0.30-4.57 µg/mL. These findings indicate that compounds containing the aminoguanidine moiety are promising candidates for the development of new antibacterial and anticancer agents.

Functional characterization and structural modelling of Helianthus annuus (sunflower) ketoacyl-CoA synthases and their role in seed oil composition

The enzymes HaKCS1 and HaKCS2 are expressed in sunflower seeds and contribute to elongation of C18 fatty acids, resulting in the C20-C24 fatty acids in sunflower oil. Most plant fatty acids are produced by plastidial soluble fatty acid synthases that produce fatty acids of up to 18 carbon atoms. However, further acyl chain elongations can take place in the endoplasmic reticulum, catalysed by membrane-bound synthases that act on acyl-CoAs. The condensing enzymes of these complexes are the ketoacyl-CoA synthase (KCSs), responsible for the synthesis of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) and their derivatives in plants, these including waxes and cuticle hydrocarbons, as well as fatty aldehydes. Sunflower seeds accumulate oil that contains around 2-3% of VLCFAs and studies of the fatty acid elongase activity in developing sunflower embryos indicate that two different KCS isoforms drive the synthesis of these fatty acids. Here, two cDNAs encoding distinct KCSs were amplified from RNAs extracted from developing sunflower embryos and named HaKCS1 and HaKCS2. These genes are expressed in developing seeds during the period of oil accumulation and they are clear candidates to condition sunflower oil synthesis. These two KCS cDNAs complement a yeast elongase null mutant and when expressed in yeast, they alter the host's fatty acid profile, proving the encoded KCSs are functional. The structure of these enzymes was modelled and their contribution to the presence of VLCFAs in sunflower oil is discussed based on the results obtained.

Design, synthesis and molecular docking of 1,4-benzodioxane thiazolidinedione piperazine derivatives as FabH inhibitors

A series of novel 1,4-benzodioxane thiazolidinedione piperazine derivatives targeting FabH were designed and synthesized. The compounds exhibited better inhibitory activity against Gram-negative bacteria by computer-assisted screening, antibacterial activity test and E. coli FabH inhibitory activity test, wherein compound 6j exhibited the most significant inhibitory activity (MIC = 1.80 μΜ for P. aeruginosa, MIC = 1.56 μΜ for E. coli). Besides, compound 6j still showed the best E. coli FabH inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 0.06 μΜ). Moreover, the antibacterial activities of all compounds were strongly correlated with the inhibitory ability of FabH, with a correlation coefficient of 0.954. Computational docking studies also showed that compound 6j has interacting with FabH key residues in the active site.

Structure and Catalytic Mechanism of a Bacterial Friedel-Crafts Acylase

C-C bond-forming reactions are key transformations for setting up the carbon frameworks of organic compounds. In this context, Friedel-Crafts acylation is commonly used for the synthesis of aryl ketones, which are common motifs in many fine chemicals and natural products. A bacterial multicomponent acyltransferase from Pseudomonas protegens (PpATase) catalyzes such Friedel-Crafts C-acylation of phenolic substrates in aqueous solution, reaching up to >99 % conversion without the need for CoA-activated reagents. We determined X-ray crystal structures of the native and ligand-bound complexes. This multimeric enzyme consists of three subunits: PhlA, PhlB, and PhlC, arranged in a Phl(A2 C2 )2 B4 composition. The structure of a reaction intermediate obtained from crystals soaked with the natural substrate 1-(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)ethanone together with site-directed mutagenesis studies revealed that only residues from the PhlC subunits are involved in the acyl transfer reaction, with Cys88 very likely playing a significant role during catalysis. These structural and mechanistic insights form the basis of further enzyme engineering efforts directed towards enhancing the substrate scope of this enzyme.

Structural basis of branched-chain fatty acid synthesis by Propionibacterium acnes β-ketoacyl acyl Carrier protein synthase

Propionibacterium acnes is an anaerobic gram-positive bacterium found in the niche of the sebaceous glands in the human skin, and is a causal pathogen of inflammatory skin diseases as well as periprosthetic joint infection. To gain effective control of P. acnes, a deeper understanding of the cellular metabolism mechanism involved in its ability to reside in this unique environment is needed. P. acnes exhibits typical cell membrane features of gram-positive bacteria, such as control of membrane fluidity by branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs). Branching at the iso- or anteiso-position is achieved by incorporation of isobutyryl- or 2-methyl-butyryl-CoA via β-ketoacyl acyl carrier protein synthase (KAS III) from fatty acid synthesis. Here, we determined the crystal structure of P. acnes KAS III (PaKAS III) at the resolution of 1.9 Å for the first time. Conformation-sensitive urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and tryptophan fluorescence quenching experiments confirmed that PaKAS III prefers isobutyryl-CoA as the acetyl-CoA, and the unique shape of the active site cavity complies with incorporation of branched-short chain CoAs. The determined structure clearly illustrates how BCFA synthesis is achieved in P. acnes. Moreover, the unique shape of the cavity required for the branched-chain primer can be invaluable in designing novel inhibitors of PaKAS III and developing new specifically targeted antibiotics.

Type II fatty acid and polyketide synthases: deciphering protein-protein and protein-substrate interactions

Covering: up to April 5, 2018 Metabolites from type II fatty acid synthase (FAS) and polyketide synthase (PKS) pathways differ broadly in their identities and functional roles. The former are considered primary metabolites that are linear hydrocarbon acids, while the latter are complex aromatic or polyunsaturated secondary metabolites. Though the study of bacterial FAS has benefitted from decades of biochemical and structural investigations, type II PKSs have remained less understood. Here we review the recent approaches to understanding the protein-protein and protein-substrate interactions in these pathways, with an emphasis on recent chemical biology and structural applications. New approaches to the study of FAS have highlighted the critical role of the acyl carrier protein (ACP) with regard to how it stabilizes intermediates through sequestration and selectively delivers cargo to successive enzymes within these iterative pathways, utilizing protein-protein interactions to guide and organize enzymatic timing and specificity. Recent tools that have shown promise in FAS elucidation should find new approaches to studying type II PKS systems in the coming years.

Differences in substrate specificity of V. cholerae FabH enzymes suggest new approaches for the development of novel antibiotics and biofuels

Vibrio cholerae, the causative pathogen of the life-threatening infection cholera, encodes two copies of β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III (vcFabH1 and vcFabH2). vcFabH1 and vcFabH2 are pathogenic proteins associated with fatty acid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and potential applications in biofuel production. Our biochemical assays characterize vcFabH1 as exhibiting specificity for acetyl-CoA and CoA thioesters with short acyl chains, similar to that observed for FabH homologs found in most gram-negative bacteria. vcFabH2 prefers medium chain-length acyl-CoA thioesters, particularly octanoyl-CoA, which is a pattern of specificity rarely seen in bacteria. Structural characterization of one vcFabH1 and six vcFabH2 structures determined in either apo form or in complex with acetyl-CoA/octanoyl-CoA indicate that the substrate-binding pockets of vcFabH1 and vcFabH2 are of different sizes, accounting for variations in substrate chain-length specificity. An unusual and unique feature of vcFabH2 is its C-terminal fragment that interacts with both the substrate-entrance loop and the dimer interface of the enzyme. Our discovery of the pattern of substrate specificity of both vcFabH1 and vcFabH2 can potentially aid the development of novel antibacterial agents against V. cholerae. Additionally, the distinctive substrate preference of FabH2 in V. cholerae and related facultative anaerobes conceivably make it an attractive component of genetically engineered bacteria used for commercial biofuel production.

The Alkylquinolone Repertoire of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is Linked to Structural Flexibility of the FabH-like 2-Heptyl-3-hydroxy-4(1H)-quinolone (PQS) Biosynthesis Enzyme PqsBC

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a bacterial pathogen that causes life-threatening infections in immunocompromised patients. It produces a large armory of saturated and mono-unsaturated 2-alkyl-4(1H)-quinolones (AQs) and AQ N-oxides (AQNOs) that serve as signaling molecules to control the production of virulence factors and that are involved in membrane vesicle formation and iron chelation; furthermore, they also have, for example, antibiotic properties. It has been shown that the β-ketoacyl-acyl-carrier protein synthase III (FabH)-like heterodimeric enzyme PqsBC catalyzes the last step in the biosynthesis of the most abundant AQ congener, 2-heptyl-4(1H)-quinolone (HHQ), by condensing octanoyl-coenzyme A (CoA) with 2-aminobenzoylacetate (2-ABA), but the basis for the large number of other AQs/AQNOs produced by P. aeruginosa is not known. Here, we demonstrate that PqsBC uses different medium-chain acyl-CoAs to produce various saturated AQs/AQNOs and that it also biosynthesizes mono-unsaturated congeners. Further, we determined the structures of PqsBC in four different crystal forms at 1.5 to 2.7 Å resolution. Together with a previous report, the data reveal that PqsBC adopts open, intermediate, and closed conformations that alter the shape of the acyl-binding cavity and explain the promiscuity of PqsBC. The different conformations also allow us to propose a model for structural transitions that accompany the catalytic cycle of PqsBC that might have broader implications for other FabH-enzymes, for which such structural transitions have been postulated but have never been observed.

Structure and substrate specificity of β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III from Acinetobacter baumannii

Originally annotated as the initiator of fatty acid synthesis (FAS), β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III (KAS III) is a unique component of the bacterial FAS system. Novel variants of KAS III have been identified that promote the de novo use of additional extracellular fatty acids by FAS. These KAS III variants prefer longer acyl-groups, notably octanoyl-CoA. Acinetobacter baumannii, a clinically important nosocomial pathogen, contains such a multifunctional KAS III (AbKAS III). To characterize the structural basis of its substrate specificity, we determined the crystal structures of AbKAS III in the presence of different substrates. The acyl-group binding cavity of AbKAS III and co-crystal structure of AbKAS III and octanoyl-CoA confirmed that the cavity can accommodate acyl groups with longer alkyl chains. Interestingly, Cys264 formed a disulfide bond with residual CoA used in the crystallization, which distorted helices at the putative interface with acyl-carrier proteins. The crystal structure of KAS III in the alternate conformation can also be utilized for designing novel antibiotics.

The role of OleA His285 in orchestration of long-chain acyl-coenzyme A substrates

Renewable production of hydrocarbons is being pursued as a petroleum-independent source of commodity chemicals and replacement for biofuels. The bacterial biosynthesis of long-chain olefins represents one such platform. The process is initiated by OleA catalyzing the condensation of two fatty acyl-coenzyme A substrates to form a β-keto acid. Here, the mechanistic role of the conserved His285 is investigated through mutagenesis, activity assays, and X-ray crystallography. Our data demonstrate that His285 is required for product formation, influences the thiolase nucleophile Cys143 and the acyl-enzyme intermediate before and after transesterification, and orchestrates substrate coordination as a defining component of an oxyanion hole. As a consequence, His285 plays a key role in enabling a mechanistic strategy in OleA that is distinct from other thiolases.

Structural characterisation of the fatty acid biosynthesis enzyme FabF from the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Development of new antimicrobial agents is required against the causative agent for listeriosis, Listeria monocytogenes, as the number of drug resistant strains continues to increase. A promising target is the β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase FabF, which participates in the catalysis of fatty acid synthesis and elongation, and is required for the production of phospholipid membranes, lipoproteins, and lipopolysaccharides. In this study, we report the 1.35 Å crystal structure of FabF from L. monocytogenes, providing an excellent platform for the rational design of novel inhibitors. By comparing the structure of L. monocytogenes FabF with other published bacterial FabF structures in complex with known inhibitors and substrates, we highlight conformational changes within the active site, which will need to be accounted for during drug design and virtual screening studies. This high-resolution structure of FabF represents an important step in the development of new classes of antimicrobial agents targeting FabF for the treatment of listeriosis.

Structure-activity relationship-based screening of antibiotics against Gram-negative Acinetobacter baumannii

To discover potent antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacteria, we performed a structure-activity relationship (SAR) study of YKsa-6, which was the most potent inhibitor of Staphylococcus aureus β-ketoacyl acyl carrier protein III in our previous study. We identified and selected 11 candidates, and finally screened two active compounds, YKab-4 (4-[(3-chloro-4-methylphenyl)aminoiminomethyl]benzene-1,3-diol) and YKab-6 (4-[[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]aminoiminomethyl]phenol) as inhibitors of Acinetobacter baumannii KAS III (abKAS III). They showed potent antimicrobial activities at 2 or 8 μg/mL, specifically against Acinetobacter baumannii and a strong binding affinity for abKAS III. From the homology modeling, we defined the three-dimensional (3D) structure of abKAS III for the first time and found that it had an extra loop region compared with common Gram-negative bacteria derived KAS IIIs. The docking study revealed that the hydroxyl groups of inhibitors formed extensive hydrogen bonds and the complicated hydrophobic and cation-stacking interactions are important to binding with abKAS III. We confirmed that the hydrophobicity of these compounds might be the essential factor for their antimicrobial activities against Gram-negative bacteria as well as their structural rigidity, a cooperative feature for retaining the hydrophobic interactions between abKAS III and its inhibitors. This study may provide an insight developing strategies for potent antibiotics against A. baumannii.

Biological and quantitative-SAR evaluations, and docking studies of (E)-N -benzylidenebenzohydrazide analogues as potential antibacterial agents

A series of 15 (E)-N'-benzylidenebenzohydrazide analogues were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities against eleven pathogenic and food-borne microbes, namely, S. aureus (G(+)), L. monocytogenes (G(+)), B. subtilis (G(+)), K. pneumonia (G¯), C. sakazakii (G¯), C. freundii (G¯), S. enterica (G¯), S. enteritidis (G¯), E. coli (G¯), Y. pestis (G¯), and P. aeruginosa (G¯). Most of the compounds exhibited selective activity against some Gram-negative bacterial strains. Of the compounds tested (3a-o), 3b and 3g were most active against C. freundii (MIC = ~19 µg mL(-1)). Whereas, compounds 3d, 3i, 3k and 3n exhibited MIC values ranging from 37.5 to 75 μg mL(-1) against C. freundii, and compounds 3e, 3l and 3n had MIC values of ~75 μg mL(-1) against K. pneumonia. Quantitative structure-antibacterial activity relationships were studied using physicochemical parameters and a good correlation was found between calculated octanol-water partition coefficients (clogP; a lipophilic parameter) and antibacterial activities. In silico screening was also performed by docking high (3b and 3g) and low (3n) activity compounds on the active site of E. coli FabH receptor, which is an important therapeutic target. The findings of these in silico screening studies provide a theoretical basis for the design and synthesis of novel benzylidenebenzohydrazide analogues that inhibit bacterial FabH.

Antibacterial FabH Inhibitors with Mode of Action Validated in Haemophilus influenzae by in Vitro Resistance Mutation Mapping

Fatty acid biosynthesis is essential to bacterial growth in Gram-negative pathogens. Several small molecules identified through a combination of high-throughput and fragment screening were cocrystallized with FabH (β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III) from Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Structure-based drug design was used to merge several scaffolds to provide a new class of inhibitors. After optimization for Gram-negative enzyme inhibitory potency, several compounds demonstrated antimicrobial activity against an efflux-negative strain of Haemophilus influenzae. Mutants resistant to these compounds had mutations in the FabH gene near the catalytic triad, validating FabH as a target for antimicrobial drug discovery.

Fungal naphtho-γ-pyrones: Potent antibiotics for drug-resistant microbial pathogens

Four naphtho-γ-pyrones (fonsecinones A and C and aurasperones A and E) were identified as potential antibacterial agents against Escherichia coli, extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an in vitro antibacterial screen of 218 fungal metabolites. Fonsecinone A (2) exhibited the most potent antibacterial activity, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 4.26, 17.04, and 4.26 μg/mL against ESBL-producing E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and E. faecalis, respectively. The inhibitory effects of fonsecinones A (2) and C (3) against E. coli and ESBL-producing E. coli were comparable to those of amikacin. Molecular docking-based target identification of naphtho-γ-pyrones 1–8 revealed bacterial enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (FabI) as an antibacterial target, which was further validated by FabI affinity and inhibition assays. Fonsecinones A (2) and C (3) and aurasperones A (6) and E (7) bound FabI specifically and produced concentration-dependent inhibition effects. This work is the first report of anti-drug-resistant bacterial activities of naphtho-γ-pyrones 1–8 and their possible antibacterial mechanism of action and provides an example of the successful application of in silico methods for drug target identification and validation and the identification of new lead antibiotic compounds against drug-resistant pathogens.

PqsBC, a Condensing Enzyme in the Biosynthesis of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa Quinolone Signal: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE, INHIBITION, AND REACTION MECHANISM

Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces a number of alkylquinolone-type secondary metabolites best known for their antimicrobial effects and involvement in cell-cell communication. In the alkylquinolone biosynthetic pathway, the β-ketoacyl-(acyl carrier protein) synthase III (FabH)-like enzyme PqsBC catalyzes the condensation of octanoyl-coenzyme A and 2-aminobenzoylacetate (2-ABA) to form the signal molecule 2-heptyl-4(1H)-quinolone. PqsBC, a potential drug target, is unique for its heterodimeric arrangement and an active site different from that of canonical FabH-like enzymes. Considering the sequence dissimilarity between the subunits, a key question was how the two subunits are organized with respect to the active site. In this study, the PqsBC structure was determined to a 2 Å resolution, revealing that PqsB and PqsC have a pseudo-2-fold symmetry that unexpectedly mimics the FabH homodimer. PqsC has an active site composed of Cys-129 and His-269, and the surrounding active site cleft is hydrophobic in character and approximately twice the volume of related FabH enzymes that may be a requirement to accommodate the aromatic substrate 2-ABA. From physiological and kinetic studies, we identified 2-aminoacetophenone as a pathway-inherent competitive inhibitor of PqsBC, whose fluorescence properties could be used for in vitro binding studies. In a time-resolved setup, we demonstrated that the catalytic histidine is not involved in acyl-enzyme formation, but contributes to an acylation-dependent increase in affinity for the second substrate 2-ABA. Introduction of Asn into the PqsC active site led to significant activity toward the desamino substrate analog benzoylacetate, suggesting that the substrate 2-ABA itself supplies the asparagine-equivalent amino function that assists in catalysis.

Study of acylhydrazone derivatives with deoxygenated seven-membered rings as potential β-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase III (FabH) inhibitors

Fatty acid biosynthesis is essential for bacterial survival.