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Effects of Fusarium Mycotoxin Exposure on Lipid Peroxidation and Glutathione Redox System in the Liver of Laying Hens. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10081313. [PMID: 34439561 PMCID: PMC8389190 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10081313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been proven by several studies that Fusarium mycotoxins induce oxidative stress in animals, consequently inducing lipid peroxidation, which the glutathione system can neutralize. A short-term (3-day) in vivo feeding trial was performed with laying hens using a double dose of the EU recommendation for mycotoxin contamination (T-2 toxin 0.5 mg/kg feed; deoxynivalenol (DON) 10 mg/kg feed; fumonisin B1 (FB1) 40 mg/kg feed). Some lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system parameters and gene expression levels were measured in the liver. The results show that FB1 significantly decreased the reduced glutathione (GSH) content and the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) compared to the control and the two other mycotoxin-treated groups on day 3. Lipid peroxidation was affected by all three mycotoxins. Significantly lower values were observed in the case of conjugated dienes for all of the three mycotoxins and malondialdehyde concentration as an effect of DON on day 3. T-2 toxin and DON upregulated the expression of the GPX4 gene. The results show that Fusarium mycotoxins had different effects at the end of the trial. The FB1 exposure caused a decrease in the glutathione redox markers, while DON decreased the formation of malondialdehyde. The results suggest that the Fusarium mycotoxins investigated individually differently activated the antioxidant defense and caused low-level oxidative stress at the dose applied.
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Wojtacha P, Trybowski W, Podlasz P, Żmigrodzka M, Tyburski J, Polak-Śliwińska M, Jakimiuk E, Bakuła T, Baranowski M, Żuk-Gołaszewska K, Zielonka Ł, Obremski K. Effects of a Low Dose of T-2 Toxin on the Percentage of T and B Lymphocytes and Cytokine Secretion in the Porcine Ileal Wall. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13040277. [PMID: 33924586 PMCID: PMC8070124 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13040277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant materials used in the production of pig feed are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. T-2 toxin is a secondary metabolite of selected Fusarium species, and it can exert a harmful influence on living organisms. Most mycotoxins enter the body via the gastrointestinal tract, and they can modulate the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) function. However, little is known about the influence of low T-2 toxin doses on GALT. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of T-2 toxin administered at 50% of the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) on the percentage of CD2+ T cells, CD4+ T helper cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, CD4+CD8+ double-positive T cells, TCRγδ+ cells, CD5+CD8- B1 cells, and CD21+ B2 cells, and the secretion of proinflammatory (IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-12/23p40, IL-17A), anti-inflammatory, and regulatory (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) cytokines in the porcine ileal wall. The results of the study revealed that T-2 toxin disrupts the development of tolerance to food antigens by enhancing the secretion of proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines and decreasing the production of anti-inflammatory TGF-β. T-2 toxin triggered the cellular response, which was manifested by an increase in the percentage of CD8+ T cells and a decrease in the percentage of B2 and Tγδ lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Wojtacha
- Department of Industrial and Food Microbiology, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | | | - Piotr Podlasz
- Department of Pathophysiology, Forensic Veterinary Medicine and Administration, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence: (P.P.); (K.O.)
| | - Magdalena Żmigrodzka
- Department of Pathology and Veterinary Diagnostics, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Józef Tyburski
- Department of Agroecosystems and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Polak-Śliwińska
- Department of Commodity Science and Food Analysis, Faculty of Food Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-726 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Ewa Jakimiuk
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.J.); (T.B.); (M.B.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Tadeusz Bakuła
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.J.); (T.B.); (M.B.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Mirosław Baranowski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.J.); (T.B.); (M.B.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Krystyna Żuk-Gołaszewska
- Department of Agrotechnology and Agribusines, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Zielonka
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.J.); (T.B.); (M.B.); (Ł.Z.)
| | - Kazimierz Obremski
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland; (E.J.); (T.B.); (M.B.); (Ł.Z.)
- Correspondence: (P.P.); (K.O.)
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Kövesi B, Kulcsár S, Zándoki E, Szabó-Fodor J, Mézes M, Balogh K, Ancsin Z, Pelyhe C. Short-term effects of deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, fumonisin B1 or ochratoxin on lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system and its regulatory genes in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) liver. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2020; 46:1921-1932. [PMID: 32617788 PMCID: PMC7584534 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-020-00845-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The effects of a single oral dose of 1.82 mg kg-1 bw of T-2 and HT-2 toxin (T-2), 1.75 mg kg-1 bw deoxynivalenol (DON) and 15-acetyl DON, 1.96 mg kg-1 bw fumonisin B1 (FB1) or 1.85 mg kg-1 bw ochratoxin A (OTA) were investigated in common carp juveniles on lipid peroxidation, the parameters of the glutathione redox system including the expression of their encoding genes in a short-term (24 h) experiment. Markers of the initiation phase of lipid peroxidation, conjugated dienes, and trienes, were slightly affected by DON and OTA treatment at 16-h sampling. The termination marker, malondialdehyde, concentration increased only as an effect of FB1. Glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activity showed significantly higher levels in the T-2 and FB1 groups at 8 h, and in the DON and FB1 groups at 16 h. The expression of glutathione peroxidase genes (gpx4a, gpx4b) showed a dual response. Downregulation of gpxa was observed at 8 h, as the effect of DON, FB1, and OTA, but an upregulation in the T-2 group. At 16 h gpx4a upregulated as an effect of DON, T-2, and FB1, and at 24 h in the DON and T-2 groups. Expression of gpx4b downregulated at 8 h, except in the T-2 group, and upregulation observed as an effect of T-2 at 24 h. The lack of an increase in the expression of nrf2, except as the effect of DON at 8 h, and a decrease in the keap1 expression suggests that the antioxidant defence system was activated at gene and protein levels through Keap1-Nrf2 independent pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjámin Kövesi
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary
| | - Szabina Kulcsár
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary
| | - Erika Zándoki
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Kaposvár University- Szent István University, Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Kaposvár, H-7400, Hungary
| | - Judit Szabó-Fodor
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Kaposvár University- Szent István University, Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Kaposvár, H-7400, Hungary
| | - Miklós Mézes
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary.
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Kaposvár University- Szent István University, Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Kaposvár, H-7400, Hungary.
| | - Krisztián Balogh
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary
- Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Kaposvár University- Szent István University, Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Kaposvár, H-7400, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Ancsin
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary
| | - Csilla Pelyhe
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, H-2103, Hungary
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Rahman S, Sharma AK, Singh ND, Prawez S. Immunopathological effects of experimental T-2 mycotoxicosis in Wistar rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 2020; 40:772-790. [PMID: 33111562 DOI: 10.1177/0960327120968852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that T-2 toxin has cytotoxic radiomimetic like effects on the immune system. Because of scant research data demonstrating the chronic effects of low doses of the T-2 toxin on humoral and cellular responses in rats, the present experiment was undertaken. The animals were divided into four groups, namely, group I (0.5 ppm), group II (0.75 ppm) and group III (1.0 ppm) and group IV (control) were given toxin-free diet for 12 weeks and eight animals each were sacrificed at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12-week of the experimental period. The humoral immune response was evaluated based on hemagglutination test (HA), and levels of serum immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, IgM) while the cell-mediated immune response was evaluated by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response to ovalbumin, lymphocyte stimulation index, analyses of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and mRNA expression levels of selected cytokines like IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 by quantitative Real-time PCR in experimental groups. T-2 treatment caused suppression in both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as evidenced by a decrease in all these parameters in toxin fed animals compared to the control in the dose and duration-dependent manner. This dose-dependent effect on the immune system has been further reflected largely by the depletion of lymphocytes from lymphoid organs as observed histopathologically in the spleen, thymus, and Peyer's patches in the present study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shafiqur Rahman
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-J, Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
| | - Anil Kumar Sharma
- Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Nittin Dev Singh
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Shahid Prawez
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, RGSC, 30114Banaras Hindu University, Barkachha, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Kövesi B, Pelyhe C, Zándoki E, Mézes M, Balogh K. Combined effects of aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol on the expression of glutathione redox system regulatory genes in common carp. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2020; 104:1531-1539. [PMID: 32166807 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the short-term effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) and deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure on the expression of the genes encoding the glutathione redox system glutathione peroxidase 4a (gpx4a), glutathione peroxidase 4b (gpx4b), glutathione synthetase (gss) and glutathione reductase (gsr) and the oxidative stress response-related transcription factors Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (keap1) and nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (nrf2) in liver, kidney and spleen of common carp. During the 24-hr long experiment, three different doses (5 µg AFB1 and 110 µg DON; 7.5 µg AFB1 and 165 µg DON or 10 µg AFB1 and 220 µg DON/kg bw) were used. The results indicated that the co-exposure of AFB1 and DON initiated free radical formation in liver, kidney and spleen, which was suggested by the increase in Nrf2 dependent genes, namely gpx4a, gpx4b, gss and gsr. Expression of keap1 gene showed upregulation after 8 hr of mycotoxin exposure, and also upregulation of nrf2 gene was found in kidney after 8 hr of exposure, while in the liver, only slight differences were observed. The changes in the expression of the analysed genes suggest that level of reactive oxygen species reached a critical level where other signalling pathway was activated as described by the hierarchical model of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Kövesi
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Csilla Pelyhe
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár University, Szent István University, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Erika Zándoki
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár University, Szent István University, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Miklós Mézes
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary.,Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár University, Szent István University, Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Krisztián Balogh
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary.,Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár University, Szent István University, Kaposvár, Hungary
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Fusarium Mycotoxins Disrupt the Barrier and Induce IL-6 Release in a Human Placental Epithelium Cell Line. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11110665. [PMID: 31739567 PMCID: PMC6891427 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and zearalenone, major Fusarium mycotoxins, contaminate human food on a global level. Exposure to these mycotoxins during pregnancy can lead to abnormalities in neonatal development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on human placental epithelial cells. As an in vitro model of placental barrier, BeWo cells were exposed to different concentrations of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone or T-2 toxin. Cytotoxicity, effects on barrier integrity, paracellular permeability along with mRNA and protein expression and localization of junctional proteins after exposure were evaluated. Induction of proinflammatory responses was determined by measuring cytokine production. Increasing mycotoxin concentrations affect BeWo cell viability, and T-2 toxin was more toxic compared to other mycotoxins. Deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin caused significant barrier disruption, altered protein and mRNA expression of junctional proteins, and induced irregular cellular distribution. Although the effects of zearalenone on barrier integrity were less prominent, all tested mycotoxins were able to induce inflammation as measured by IL-6 release. Overall, Fusarium mycotoxins disrupt the barrier of BeWo cells by altering the expression and structure of junctional proteins and trigger proinflammatory responses. These changes in placental barrier may disturb the maternal–fetal interaction and adversely affect fetal development.
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Effect of 4-week feeding of deoxynivalenol- or T-2-toxin-contaminated diet on lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system in the hepatopancreas of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Mycotoxin Res 2016; 32:77-83. [PMID: 26920403 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0242-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Revised: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of study was to investigate the effects of T-2 toxin (4.11 mg T-2 toxin and 0.45 mg HT-2 toxin kg(-1) feed) and deoxynivalenol (5.96 and 0.33 mg 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol (DON) kg(-1) feed) in 1-year-old common carp juveniles in a 4-week feeding trial. The exposure of mycotoxins resulted in increased mortality in both groups consuming mycotoxin-contaminated diet. Parameters of lipid peroxidation were not affected during the trial, and antioxidant defence also did not show response to oxidative stress; however, glutatione peroxidase activity slightly, but significantly, decreased in the T-2 toxin group. Glutathione S-transferase activity showed moderate decrease as effect of T-2 toxin, which suggests its effect on xenobiotic transformation. Reduced glutathione concentration showed moderate changes as effect of DON exposure, but T-2 toxin has no effect. Expression of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (GPx4) genes showed different response to mycotoxin exposure. T-2 toxin caused dual response in the expression of gpx4a (early and late downregulation and mid-term upregulation), but continuous upregulation was found as effect of deoxynivalenol. Expression of the other gene, gpx4b, was upregulated by both trichothecenes during the whole period. The results suggested that trichothecenes have some effect on free radical formation and antioxidant defence, but the changes depend on the duration of exposure and the dose applied, and in case of glutathione peroxidase, there was no correlation between expression of genes and enzyme activity.
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Effects of Long-term Feeding of Graded Levels of T-2 Toxin-contaminated Diets on Performance, Some Lipid Peroxide and Glutathione Redox Status Parameters of Broiler Chickens. J Poult Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.2141/jpsa.0140147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Park SH, Moon Y. Integrated stress response-altered pro-inflammatory signals in mucosal immune-related cells. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2012; 35:205-14. [PMID: 23237490 DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2012.742535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Various cells are associated with the integrated stress response (ISR) that leads to translation arrest via phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2. Pathogenic insults or nutritional imbalance in the mucosal tissues including the intestinal, airway, and genitourinary epithelia can cause ISRs, which have been linked to different mucosal inflammatory responses and subsequent systemic diseases. In particular, translational arrest caused by the early recognition of luminal microbes as well as nutritional status allows the human body to mount appropriate responses and maintain homeostasis both at the cellular and systemic levels. However, an over- or reduced ISR can create pathogenic conditions such as inflammation and carcinogenesis. This present review explores the association between eIF2α kinase-linked pathways and mucosal or systemic pro-inflammatory signals activated by xenobiotic insults (such as ones caused by microbes or nutritional abnormalities). Understanding ISR-modulated cellular alterations will provide progressive insights into approaches for treating human mucosal inflammatory and metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Hwan Park
- Laboratory of Mucosal Exposome and Biomodulation, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, South Korea
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Do KH, Choi HJ, Kim J, Park SH, Kim HH, Oh CG, Moon Y. Ambivalent roles of early growth response 1 in inflammatory signaling following ribosomal insult in human enterocytes. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 84:513-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Moon Y. Cellular alterations of mucosal integrity by ribotoxins: Mechanistic implications of environmentally-linked epithelial inflammatory diseases. Toxicon 2012; 59:192-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Li Y, Wang Z, Beier RC, Shen J, De Smet D, De Saeger S, Zhang S. T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin: review of toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:3441-3453. [PMID: 21417259 DOI: 10.1021/jf200767q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the toxicity and metabolism of T-2 toxin and analytical methods used for the determination of T-2 toxin. Among the naturally occurring trichothecenes in food and feed, T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by various species of Fusarium. Following ingestion, T-2 toxin causes acute and chronic toxicity and induces apoptosis in the immune system and fetal tissues. T-2 toxin is usually metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites. Consequently, there is a possibility of human consumption of animal products contaminated with T-2 toxin and its metabolites. Several methods for the determination of T-2 toxin based on traditional chromatographic, immunoassay, or mass spectroscopy techniques are described. This review will contribute to a better understanding of T-2 toxin exposure in animals and humans and T-2 toxin metabolism, toxicity, and analytical methods, which may be useful in risk assessment and control of T-2 toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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T-2 toxin-induced toxicity in pregnant mice and rats. Int J Mol Sci 2008; 9:2146-2158. [PMID: 19330064 PMCID: PMC2635623 DOI: 10.3390/ijms9112146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic secondary fungal metabolite that belongs to the trichothecene mycotoxin family. This mycotoxin is a well known inhibitor of protein synthesis through its high binding affinity to peptidyl transferase, which is an integral part of the ribosomal 60s subunit, and it also inhibits the synthesis of DNA and RNA, probably secondary to the inhibition of protein synthesis. In addition, T-2 toxin is said to induce apoptosis in many types of cells bearing high proliferating activity. T-2 toxin readily passes the placenta and is distributed to embryo/fetal tissues, which include many component cells bearing high proliferating activity. This paper reviews the reported data related to T-2 toxin-induced maternal and fetal toxicities in pregnant mice and rats. The mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in maternal and fetal tissues are also discussed in this paper.
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Dietert RR, Piepenbrink MS. Perinatal immunotoxicity: why adult exposure assessment fails to predict risk. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2006; 114:477-83. [PMID: 16581533 PMCID: PMC1440768 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent research has pointed to the developing immune system as a remarkably sensitive toxicologic target for environmental chemicals and drugs. In fact, the perinatal period before and just after birth is replete with dynamic immune changes, many of which do not occur in adults. These include not only the basic maturation and distribution of immune cell types and selection against autoreactive lymphocytes but also changes designed specifically to protect the pregnancy against immune-mediated miscarriage. The newborn is then faced with critical immune maturational adjustments to achieve an immune balance necessary to combat myriad childhood and later-life diseases. All these processes set the fetus and neonate completely apart from the adult regarding immunotoxicologic risk. Yet for decades, safety evaluation has relied almost exclusively upon exposure of the adult immune system to predict perinatal immune risk. Recent workshops and forums have suggested a benefit in employing alternative exposures that include exposure throughout early life stages. However, issues remain concerning when and where such applications might be required. In this review we discuss the reasons why immunotoxic assessment is important for current childhood diseases and why adult exposure assessment cannot predict the effect of xenobiotics on the developing immune system. It also provides examples of developmental immunotoxicants where age-based risk appears to differ. Finally, it stresses the need to replace adult exposure assessment for immune evaluation with protocols that can protect the developing immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney R Dietert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, North Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Junko Shinozuka
- Exploratory Toxicology and DMPK Research Laboratories, Tanabe Seiyaku Co., Ltd
| | - Shinya Sehata
- Medical Safety Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd
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Vlata Z, Porichis F, Tzanakakis G, Tsatsakis A, Krambovitis E. In vitro cytopathic effects of mycotoxin T-2 on human peripheral blood T lymphocytes. Toxicol Lett 2005; 160:60-8. [PMID: 16023801 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2005.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2005] [Revised: 06/08/2005] [Accepted: 06/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The trichothecene mycotoxin T-2 is reported to exhibit immunotoxic activity. The potential presence of T-2 in foods renders it as public health hazard and its toxicity needs to be better understood. We investigated the in vitro effects of T-2 at sub-toxic (0.1 ng/ml) and toxic (10 ng/ml) levels on freshly isolated human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs). We observed no direct influence on untreated PBLs. The toxic dose of T-2, however, totally inhibited phytohemagglutinin-induced T lymphocyte proliferation and caused early apoptosis that peaked after 8h of exposure. Both major T lymphocyte subsets (CD4+ and CD8+) were affected as they appeared to show a positive response to T-2 at 8h followed by their sharp reduction after 96 h. Further investigation on the naïve (CD45RA+) and memory (CD45RO+) subpopulations confirmed these observations and indicated that T-2 affected equally all the subpopulations studied, although PHA preferentially stimulated CD45RO+ T lymphocytes. Sub-toxic T-2 appeared to exhibit co stimulatory properties to PHA-stimulated cells. These results support the hypothesis that T-2 affects the activation-induced cell death mechanism of T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaharenia Vlata
- Department of Applied Biochemistry and Immunology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Vassilika Vouton, 711 10 Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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Grizzle JM, Kersten DB, McCracken MD, Houston AE, Saxton AM. Determination of the Acute 50% Lethal Dose T-2 Toxin in Adult Bobwhite Quail: Additional Studies on the Effect of T-2 Mycotoxin on Blood Chemistry and the Morphology of Internal Organs. Avian Dis 2004; 48:392-9. [PMID: 15283427 DOI: 10.1637/7100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Three experiments were conducted to assess mortality rate, blood chemistry, and histologic changes associated with acute exposure to T-2 mycotoxin in adult bobwhite quail. In Experiment 1, adult quail were orally dosed with T-2 toxin to determine the lethal dose that resulted in 50% mortality of the affected population (LD50), and that dose was determined to be 14.7 mg of T-2 toxin per kilogram of body weight (BW). A second experiment was performed to study the effects of 12-18 mg/kg BW T-2 toxin on blood chemistry and liver enzyme profiles. Posttreatment uric acid, aspartate aminotransferase, lactic dehydrogenase, and gamma glutamyltransferase increased as compared with pretreatment values. In contrast, posttreatment plasma total protein, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels numerically decreased as compared with pretreatment values. Changes in blood chemistry values were consistent with liver and kidney damage after T-2 toxin exposure. In Experiment 3, histologic analyses of bone marrow, spleen, liver, small intestine, kidney, and heart were conducted on birds dosed in Experiment 2. Marked lymphocyte necrosis and depletion throughout the spleen, thymus, bursa, and gut-associated lymphoid tissue in the small intestine were observed in birds dosed with 15 and 18 mg/kg BW T-2 toxin. Necrosis of liver and lipid accumulation as a result of malfunctioning hepatocytes were also observed. Little or no morphologic change was observed in bone marrow and heart tissue. The LD50 for adult bobwhite quail as found in this study is two to three times higher than that reported for other species of commercial poultry. Results from these data confirm previous reports of immunosuppressive and/or cytotoxic effects of T-2 toxin in other mammalian and avian species. T-2 toxin may have a negative impact on the viability of wild quail populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith M Grizzle
- Department of Animal Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37901, USA
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Uzarski RL, Pestka JJ. Comparative susceptibility of B cells with different lineages to cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction by translational inhibitors. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2003; 66:2105-2118. [PMID: 14710595 DOI: 10.1080/15287390390211315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The trichothecene mycotoxins, Shiga toxins (STs), and ricin are potent translational inhibitors that exert diverse mechanisms of action but all have the capacity to induce death by apoptosis. Germinal centers containing actively dividing B cells are particularly sensitive to protein synthesis inhibition, and, of these, the immature B cell is reportedly most susceptible to apoptosis. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that immature and mature B-cell lineages were differentially susceptible to apoptosis and cytotoxicity induction by representative trichothecene mycotoxins, ST-1, and ricin, as well as cycloheximide (CHX), a prototypical protein synthesis inhibitor commonly used to study cell signal transduction. WEHI-231 and CH31 cells were used as representatives of phenotypically immature B cells, whereas CH12.LX cells were used to model mature B cells. Resultant data suggest that Type D and Type A trichothecenes, ricin, and ST-1 were more potent inducers of apoptosis than CHX, whereas Type B and Type A trichothecene metabolites were less. CHX and the trichothecenes affected immature and mature B cells equally, thus suggesting that toxicity due to these natural toxins was lineage independent. In contrast, mature B cells were more sensitive to ricin- and ST-1-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis than immature B cells. Taken together, these results suggest that B cells are targets of a diverse array of naturally occurring translational inhibitors. Upregulation of apoptosis in B lymphocytes may contribute to the impairment of the immune response and other symptoms described following exposure to these toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Uzarski
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Institute for Environmental Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1224, USA
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Poapolathep A, Nagata T, Suzuki H, Kumagai S, Doi K. Development of early apopotosis and changes in lymphocyte subsets in lymphoid organs of mice orally inoculated with nivalenol. Exp Mol Pathol 2003; 75:74-9. [PMID: 12834628 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4800(03)00027-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Development of early apoptosis and changes in lymphocyte subsets were examined in lymphoid organs of female BALB/c mice after oral administration of 15 mg/kg b.w. of nivalenol (NIV), the major type B trichothecene mycotoxin, by FACS analysis. Judging from the results of viable cell count and apoptotic cell index, NIV attacked Peyer's patches first and thymus most severely. In thymus, selective damage in CD4(+)CD8(+) cells was observed at 12 and 24 h after inoculation (HAI), following the peak of apoptosis at 9 HAI. CD4(+) cells were clearly suppressed at 3 HAI in Peyer's patches, at and after 9 HAI in mesenteric lymph nodes, and 3 to 12 HAI in spleen, respectively. CD8(+) cells were also suppressed at 24 HAI in mesenteric lymph nodes and at 12 HAI in spleen, respectively. As to changes in B cell subsets, IgG(+) cells significantly decreased from 3 to 12 HAI and all B cell subsets at 24 HAI in mesenteric lymph nodes. In spleen, IgM(+) cells were suppressed at 9 HAI. On the other hand, in Peyer's patches, following clear decrease in the numbers of pan-T and pan-B cells and viable cells at 3 HAI, all B cell subsets, especially IgA(+) cells, showed a significant increase in their numbers at 9 HAI, and the numbers of IgA(+) and IgM(+) cells remained higher values than controls thereafter. Taken together, in the course of recovery from NIV-induced prominent damage in Peyer's patches at 3 HAI, interaction of NIV with Peyer's patches might result in in vivo stimulation of interleukin production at this site and result in increased proliferation and differentiation of IgA-secreting B cells at and after 9 HAI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amnart Poapolathep
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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Islam Z, King LE, Fraker PJ, Pestka JJ. Differential induction of glucocorticoid-dependent apoptosis in murine lymphoid subpopulations in vivo following coexposure to lipopolysaccharide and vomitoxin (deoxynivalenol). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003; 187:69-79. [PMID: 12649039 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-008x(02)00031-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and vomitoxin (VT) synergistically induce glucocorticoid- mediated apoptotic cell death in lymphoid tissues of the mouse. Based on the known effects of glucocorticoids, it was hypothesized that the combined exposure to LPS and VT targets immature lymphocyte populations. To test this hypothesis, we quantified the effects of VT and LPS on apoptosis induction in T lymphocyte subsets in thymus and B lymphocyte subsets in Peyer's patches and bone marrow. Flow cytometry revealed that a single dose of LPS (0.1 mg/kg body wt ip) together with VT (12.5 mg/kg body wt po) promoted apoptosis of immature (CD4(-)CD8(-), CD4(+)CD8(+)) and mature (CD4(-)CD8(+)) thymocytes at 12 h with a subsequent reduction of these populations being detectable at 24 h. RU 486, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, significantly abrogated apoptosis in CD4(-)CD8(-), CD4(+)CD8(+), and CD4(-)CD8(+) subsets and also prevented loss in cell numbers. In Peyer's patches, mature-B lymphocytes (B220(+)IgM(-)IgD(+)) underwent apoptosis and, in bone marrow, pro/pre-B lymphocytes (B220(+)IgM(-)IgD(-)) and mature-B lymphocytes (B220(+)IgM(-)IgD(+)) underwent apoptosis at 12 h after toxin co- exposure. RU 486 blocked LPS + VT-induced apoptosis of the aforementioned subsets in Peyer patches and bone marrow at 12 h. Taken together, these data suggest that LPS can interact with VT in mice to induce the glucocorticoid-driven apoptotic loss of immature thymocytes and cytotoxic T lymphocytes in thymus, mature-B lymphocytes in Peyer's patch, and pro/pre-B lymphocytes and mature-B lymphocytes in bone marrow in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahidul Islam
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Sehata S, Teranishi M, Atsumi F, Uetsuka K, Nakayama H, Doi K. T-2 Toxin-Induced Morphological Changes in Pregnant Rats. J Toxicol Pathol 2003. [DOI: 10.1293/tox.16.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Sehata
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
- Medicinal Safety Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd
| | | | - Fusako Atsumi
- Medicinal Safety Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd
| | - Koji Uetsuka
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hiroyuki Nakayama
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Kunio Doi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
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Nagata T, Suzuki H, Ishigami N, Shinozuka J, Uetsuka K, Nakayama H, Doi K. Development of apoptosis and changes in lymphocyte subsets in thymus, mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches of mice orally inoculated with T-2 toxin. EXPERIMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGIC PATHOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE GESELLSCHAFT FUR TOXIKOLOGISCHE PATHOLOGIE 2001; 53:309-15. [PMID: 11665856 DOI: 10.1078/0940-2993-00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Development of apoptosis and changes in lymphocyte subsets were examined mainly by flow cytometer in thymus, mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches of mice up to 24 hours after oral inoculation with T-2 toxin (10 mg/kg). T-2 toxin attacked Peyer's patches first, then mesenteric lymph nodes, and finally thymus in relation to the course of enteric absorption of orally inoculated T-2 toxin. The degree of lymphocyte apoptosis was prominent in the thymus, moderate in the Peyer's patches, and somewhat mild in the mesenteric lymph nodes, suggesting the difference in lymphocyte population susceptible to T-2 toxin. As to the changes in lymphocyte subsets, CD4+ CD8+ T cells were most sensitive to T-2 toxin, and CD4+ CD8- T cells were more severely depressed than CD4- CD8+ T cells in the thymus. In the mesenteric lymph nodes, CD3+ cells was more clearly affected than CD19+ cells, and the numbers of CD4+ and CD8+ cells were similarly decreased. In the Peyer's patches, the numbers of CD3+, CD 19+, CD4+ and CD8+ cells were unexceptionally decreased. In addition, among IgM+, IgG+ and IgA+ B cells, the number of IA+ B cells which are more important in the mucosal immunity was most severely affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nagata
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
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Ishigami N, Shinozuka J, Katayama K, Nakayama H, Doi K. Apoptosis in mouse fetuses from dams exposed to T-2 toxin at different days of gestation. EXPERIMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGIC PATHOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE GESELLSCHAFT FUR TOXIKOLOGISCHE PATHOLOGIE 2001; 52:493-501. [PMID: 11256751 DOI: 10.1016/s0940-2993(01)80004-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin (2 mg/kg b.w.) was orally inoculated to pregnant mice at gestational day (GD) 8.5, 9.5, 10.5, 11.5, 12.5, 13.5, 14.5, 15.5 and GD 16.5, respectively, and the fetuses were examined 24 hours later. The number and region of pyknotic or karyorrhectic cells varied according to inoculation date. In the GD 13.5-subgroup, a moderate to high number of pyknotic or karyorrhectic neuronal cells were observed in the central nervous system, peri-ventricular zone to subventricular zone, and pyknosis or karyorrhexis were also observed in a small number of chondroblasts and chondrocytes. In the GD 16.5-subgroup, a moderate to high number of pyknotic or karyorrhectic cells were observed in the thymus and renal subcapsular parenchyma. The nuclei of these pyknotic or karyorrhectic cells were strongly stained by the terminal deoxy nucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end labeling method widely used for the in situ detection of apoptotic nuclei. In addition, a few fetuses from dams which were given T-2 toxin at GD 13.5 or GD 14.5 and killed at GD 17.5 showed skeletal abnormalities such as wavy ribs and short scapula. From the present findings and the well known fact that T-2 toxin readily crosses the rat placenta, it seems that T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in the developing mouse fetuses might be a direct effect of T-2 toxin on fetuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Ishigami
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, Japan. aa77/
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Thuvander A, Wikman C, Gadhasson I. In vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to trichothecenes: individual variation in sensitivity and effects of combined exposure on lymphocyte function. Food Chem Toxicol 1999; 37:639-48. [PMID: 10478832 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(99)00038-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The trichothecenes are mycotoxins produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, which are commonly present in foods and feed of cereal origin. Owing to the lack of sufficient toxicological data for most of the trichothecenes, in vitro studies may contribute to risk assessments of these toxins. In the present report, human lymphocyte cultures were used to study the individual variation in sensitivity among humans and the effects on in vitro Ig production. Furthermore, proliferative responses of cells exposed to combinations of two of the toxins were studied. Four toxins, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), nivalenol (NIV) and deoxynivalenol (DON) were included in the study. All four of the tested trichothecenes effectively inhibited mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation. There were no statistically significant differences in sensitivity to the toxins between lymphocytes from female and male blood donors. The individual variation in sensitivity, evaluated as the range of IC50 values, was rather limited (within a factor of 3 to 4). Immunoglobulin production by pokeweed-stimulated human lymphocytes was also effectively inhibited with IC50 values similar to the IC50 values in the proliferation tests for DON and NIV. However, IC50 values for Ig synthesis in cultures exposed to T2 were approximately two to three times higher than the corresponding IC50 values found in the proliferation tests. At low levels of exposure, elevated Ig production was observed in lymphocyte cultures from four out of the five blood donors tested. This effect was most pronounced on IgA synthesis. Combinations of NIV with T2, DAS or DON resulted in additive toxicity in the lymphocyte proliferation test, while combinations of DON with T2 or DAS resulted in an inhibition that was slightly lower than what could have been expected from the inhibition produced by the individual toxins. In conclusion, the tested trichothecenes inhibited both proliferation and Ig production in human lymphocytes in a dose-dependent manner with limited variation in sensitivity between individuals. Enhanced Ig production was observed in cell cultures exposed to the lower doses of the toxins. Combined exposure to two of the toxins resulted mainly in additive or antagonistic effects, although synergistic effects cannot be excluded and should be further investigated. These findings indicate that the total intake of type A and B trichothecenes should be taken into account in risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Thuvander
- Division of Toxicology, National Food Administration, Uppsala, Sweden
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Shinozuka J, Suzuki M, Noguchi N, Sugimoto T, Uetsuka K, Nakayama H, Doi K. T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in hematopoietic tissues of mice. Toxicol Pathol 1998; 26:674-81. [PMID: 9789955 DOI: 10.1177/019262339802600512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We examined T-2 toxin-induced lesions in the bone marrow and splenic red pulp as many as 48 hr after oral inoculation with 10 mg/kg body weight of T-2 toxin in female ICR:CD-1 mice. Histopathologically, the bone marrow and splenic red pulp showed a significant hypocellularity. In the bone marrow, the number of myelocytes significantly decreased due to the loss of immature granulocytes, erythroblasts, and lymphocytes. The nuclei of the remaining cells showing pyknosis or karyorrhexis were positively stained by the TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) method, and these TUNEL-positive cells showed ultrastructural characteristics of apoptosis. With agarose gel electrophoresis, DNA ladders were clearly detected in bone marrow samples. The number of TUNEL-positive cells in splenic red pulp increased earlier than it did in the splenic white pulp. Thus, T-2 toxin induced-lesions in the hematopoietic tissues and in the lymphoid tissues were brought about by apoptosis of component cells. We believe that damage to the hematopoietic microenvironment may also play an indirect role in the induction of apoptosis in the bone marrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Shinozuka
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tokyo, Japan.
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Dugyala RR, Sharma RP. Alteration of major cytokines produced by mitogen-activated peritoneal macrophages and splenocytes in T-2 toxin-treated male CD-1 mice. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 1997; 3:73-81. [PMID: 21781762 DOI: 10.1016/s1382-6689(96)00142-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/1996] [Revised: 10/30/1996] [Accepted: 11/15/1996] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium T-2 toxin has immunotoxic properties that may be related to the modulation of cytokine expression by cells of the immune system. Male CD-1 mice were used to study the effect of in vivo exposure to T-2 toxin on the alteration of interleukin (IL)-1α, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF), and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, and IL-2, IL-3, and interferon γ (IFNγ) in concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated splenocytes. Mice were orally dosed with 0, 0.1, 0.5, and 2.5 mg T-2 toxin/kg body weight for 2 weeks on alternate days. Northern blot analysis of IL-1α, TNF, and IL-6 mRNA from activated peritoneal macrophages showed no significant differences between control and treated groups. Measurements of secreted protein by immunoassay demonstrated suppression of these cytokines in all treated groups, suggesting that T-2 toxin affects the translational or post-translational regulation of these cytokines from peritoneal macrophages. Levels of IL-2, IL-3, and IFNγ mRNA from Con A-activated splenocytes were higher in all treated groups. The increases were significant for IL-2 and IFNγ in the groups receiving low (0.1 mg/kg) and high (2.5 mg/kg) doses of T-2 toxin, and for IL-3 in the group receiving a medium (0.5 mg/kg) dose of this toxin (P ≤ 0.05). Results indicated that T-2 toxin given orally at low or medium doses induces transcription or increases mRNA stability of IL-2, IFNγ, and IL-3. Protein levels of all three cytokines were also increased, indicating that T-2 toxin also increases translational/post-translational efficiency of IFNγ, IL-2, and IL-3. Possible mechanisms in the immunosuppressive effects of T-2 toxin may involve endotoxemia resulting after the toxin administration, alteration of the stability of mRNA, or previously described effects of T-2 toxin on protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Dugyala
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinery Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7389, USA
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