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Tang Q, Huang Y, Ni X, Lyu MJA, Chen G, Sage R, Zhu XG. Increased α-ketoglutarate links the C3-C4 intermediate state to C4 photosynthesis in the genus Flaveria. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 195:291-305. [PMID: 38377473 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
As a complex trait, C4 photosynthesis has multiple independent origins in evolution. Phylogenetic evidence and theoretical analysis suggest that C2 photosynthesis, which is driven by glycine decarboxylation in the bundle sheath cell, may function as a bridge from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. However, the exact molecular mechanism underlying the transition between C2 photosynthesis to C4 photosynthesis remains elusive. Here, we provide evidence suggesting a role of higher α-ketoglutarate (AKG) concentration during this transition. Metabolomic data of 12 Flaveria species, including multiple photosynthetic types, show that AKG concentration initially increased in the C3-C4 intermediate with a further increase in C4 species. Petiole feeding of AKG increases the concentrations of C4-related metabolites in C3-C4 and C4 species but not the activity of C4-related enzymes. Sequence analysis shows that glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT), which catalyzes the generation of glutamate using AKG, was under strong positive selection during the evolution of C4 photosynthesis. Simulations with a constraint-based model for C3-C4 intermediate further show that decreasing the activity of Fd-GOGAT facilitated the transition from a C2-dominant to a C4-dominant CO2 concentrating mechanism. All these results provide insight into the mechanistic switch from C3-C4 intermediate to C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiming Tang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yuhui Huang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaoxiang Ni
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ming-Ju Amy Lyu
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Genyun Chen
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Rowan Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3B2, Canada
| | - Xin-Guang Zhu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai 200032, China
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2
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Sage RF, Gilman IS, Smith JAC, Silvera K, Edwards EJ. Atmospheric CO2 decline and the timing of CAM plant evolution. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2023; 132:753-770. [PMID: 37642245 PMCID: PMC10799994 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcad122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS CAM photosynthesis is hypothesized to have evolved in atmospheres of low CO2 concentration in recent geological time because of its ability to concentrate CO2 around Rubisco and boost water use efficiency relative to C3 photosynthesis. We assess this hypothesis by compiling estimates of when CAM clades arose using phylogenetic chronograms for 73 CAM clades. We further consider evidence of how atmospheric CO2 affects CAM relative to C3 photosynthesis. RESULTS Where CAM origins can be inferred, strong CAM is estimated to have appeared in the past 30 million years in 46 of 48 examined clades, after atmospheric CO2 had declined from high (near 800 ppm) to lower (<450 ppm) values. In turn, 21 of 25 clades containing CAM species (but where CAM origins are less certain) also arose in the past 30 million years. In these clades, CAM is probably younger than the clade origin. We found evidence for repeated weak CAM evolution during the higher CO2 conditions before 30 million years ago, and possible strong CAM origins in the Crassulaceae during the Cretaceous period prior to atmospheric CO2 decline. Most CAM-specific clades arose in the past 15 million years, in a similar pattern observed for origins of C4 clades. CONCLUSIONS The evidence indicates strong CAM repeatedly evolved in reduced CO2 conditions of the past 30 million years. Weaker CAM can pre-date low CO2 and, in the Crassulaceae, strong CAM may also have arisen in water-limited microsites under relatively high CO2. Experimental evidence from extant CAM species demonstrates that elevated CO2 reduces the importance of nocturnal CO2 fixation by increasing the contribution of C3 photosynthesis to daily carbon gain. Thus, the advantage of strong CAM would be reduced in high CO2, such that its evolution appears less likely and restricted to more extreme environments than possible in low CO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Ian S Gilman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - J Andrew C Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Katia Silvera
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Erika J Edwards
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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3
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Adachi S, Stata M, Martin DG, Cheng S, Liu H, Zhu XG, Sage RF. The Evolution of C4 Photosynthesis in Flaveria (Asteraceae): Insights from the Flaveria linearis Complex. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 191:233-251. [PMID: 36200882 PMCID: PMC9806627 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Flaveria is a leading model for C4 plant evolution due to the presence of a dozen C3-C4 intermediate species, many of which are associated with a phylogenetic complex centered around Flaveria linearis. To investigate C4 evolution in Flaveria, we updated the Flaveria phylogeny and evaluated gas exchange, starch δ13C, and activity of C4 cycle enzymes in 19 Flaveria species and 28 populations within the F. linearis complex. A principal component analysis identified six functional clusters: (1) C3, (2) sub-C2, (3) full C2, (4) enriched C2, (5) sub-C4, and (6) fully C4 species. The sub-C2 species lacked a functional C4 cycle, while a gradient was present in the C2 clusters from little to modest C4 cycle activity as indicated by δ13C and enzyme activities. Three Yucatan populations of F. linearis had photosynthetic CO2 compensation points equivalent to C4 plants but showed little evidence for an enhanced C4 cycle, indicating they have an optimized C2 pathway that recaptures all photorespired CO2 in the bundle sheath (BS) tissue. All C2 species had enhanced aspartate aminotransferase activity relative to C3 species and most had enhanced alanine aminotransferase activity. These aminotransferases form aspartate and alanine from glutamate and in doing so could help return photorespiratory nitrogen (N) from BS to mesophyll cells, preventing glutamate feedback onto photorespiratory N assimilation. Their use requires upregulation of parts of the C4 metabolic cycle to generate carbon skeletons to sustain N return to the mesophyll, and thus could facilitate the evolution of the full C4 photosynthetic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Adachi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Matt Stata
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3B2, Canada
| | - Duncan G Martin
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Shifeng Cheng
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China
| | - Hongbing Liu
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China
| | - Xin-Guang Zhu
- Center of Excellence for Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute for Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032 China
| | - Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3B2, Canada
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4
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Mercado MA, Studer AJ. Meeting in the Middle: Lessons and Opportunities from Studying C 3-C 4 Intermediates. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 73:43-65. [PMID: 35231181 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-102720-114201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of C3-C4 intermediate species nearly 50 years ago opened up a new avenue for studying the evolution of photosynthetic pathways. Intermediate species exhibit anatomical, biochemical, and physiological traits that range from C3 to C4. A key feature of C3-C4 intermediates that utilize C2 photosynthesis is the improvement in photosynthetic efficiency compared with C3 species. Although the recruitment of some core enzymes is shared across lineages, there is significant variability in gene expression patterns, consistent with models that suggest numerous evolutionary paths from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. Despite the many evolutionary trajectories, the recruitment of glycine decarboxylase for C2 photosynthesis is likely required. As technologies enable high-throughput genotyping and phenotyping, the discovery of new C3-C4 intermediates species will enrich comparisons between evolutionary lineages. The investigation of C3-C4 intermediate species will enhance our understanding of photosynthetic mechanisms and evolutionary processes and will potentially aid in crop improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony J Studer
- Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA; ,
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5
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Oono J, Hatakeyama Y, Yabiku T, Ueno O. Effects of growth temperature and nitrogen nutrition on expression of C 3-C 4 intermediate traits in Chenopodium album. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2022; 135:15-27. [PMID: 34519912 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-021-01346-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Proto-Kranz plants represent an initial phase in the evolution from C3 to C3-C4 intermediate to C4 plants. The ecological and adaptive aspects of C3-C4 plants would provide an important clue to understand the evolution of C3-C4 plants. We investigated whether growth temperature and nitrogen (N) nutrition influence the expression of C3-C4 traits in Chenopodium album (proto-Kranz) in comparison with Chenopodium quinoa (C3). Plants were grown during 5 weeks at 20 or 30 °C under standard or low N supply levels (referred to as 20SN, 20LN, 30SN, and 30LN). Net photosynthetic rate and leaf N content were higher in 20SN and 30SN plants than in 20LN and 30LN plants of C. album but did not differ among growth conditions in C. quinoa. The CO2 compensation point (Γ) of C. album was lowest in 30LN plants (36 µmol mol-1), highest in 20SN plants (51 µmol mol-1), and intermediate in 20LN and 30SN plants, whereas Γ of C. quinoa did not differ among the growth conditions (51-52 µmol mol-1). The anatomical structure of leaves was not considerably affected by growth conditions in either species. However, ultrastructural observations in C. album showed that the number of mitochondria per mesophyll or bundle sheath (BS) cell was lower in 20LN and 30LN plants than in 20SN and 30SN plants. Immunohistochemical observations revealed that lower accumulation level of P-protein of glycine decarboxylase (GDC-P) in mesophyll mitochondria than in BS mitochondria is the major factor causing the decrease in Γ values in C. album plants grown under low N supply and high temperature. These results suggest that high growth temperature and low N supply lead to the expression of C3-C4 traits (the reduction of Γ) in the proto-Kranz plants of C. album through the regulation of GDC-P expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jemin Oono
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yuto Hatakeyama
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Takayuki Yabiku
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Osamu Ueno
- Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
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6
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Johnson JE, Field CB, Berry JA. The limiting factors and regulatory processes that control the environmental responses of C 3, C 3-C 4 intermediate, and C 4 photosynthesis. Oecologia 2021; 197:841-866. [PMID: 34714387 PMCID: PMC8591018 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05062-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Here, we describe a model of C3, C3-C4 intermediate, and C4 photosynthesis that is designed to facilitate quantitative analysis of physiological measurements. The model relates the factors limiting electron transport and carbon metabolism, the regulatory processes that coordinate these metabolic domains, and the responses to light, carbon dioxide, and temperature. It has three unique features. First, mechanistic expressions describe how the cytochrome b6f complex controls electron transport in mesophyll and bundle sheath chloroplasts. Second, the coupling between the mesophyll and bundle sheath expressions represents how feedback regulation of Cyt b6f coordinates electron transport and carbon metabolism. Third, the temperature sensitivity of Cyt b6f is differentiated from that of the coupling between NADPH, Fd, and ATP production. Using this model, we present simulations demonstrating that the light dependence of the carbon dioxide compensation point in C3-C4 leaves can be explained by co-occurrence of light saturation in the mesophyll and light limitation in the bundle sheath. We also present inversions demonstrating that population-level variation in the carbon dioxide compensation point in a Type I C3-C4 plant, Flaveria chloraefolia, can be explained by variable allocation of photosynthetic capacity to the bundle sheath. These results suggest that Type I C3-C4 intermediate plants adjust pigment and protein distributions to optimize the glycine shuttle under different light and temperature regimes, and that the malate and aspartate shuttles may have originally functioned to smooth out the energy supply and demand associated with the glycine shuttle. This model has a wide range of potential applications to physiological, ecological, and evolutionary questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Johnson
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
| | - Christopher B Field
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.,Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Joseph A Berry
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, 260 Panama Street, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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7
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Russ Monson and the evolution of C 4 photosynthesis. Oecologia 2021; 197:823-840. [PMID: 33661402 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-04883-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Early in his career, Russ Monson produced a series of influential eco-physiological papers that helped lay the foundation for the study of C4 plant evolution. Among the most important was a 1984 paper with Maurice Ku and Gerry Edwards that outlined the pathway for the evolutionary bridge from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. This model proposed C4 photosynthesis arose out of a shuttle that imported photorespiratory metabolites into bundle sheath (BS) cells, where glycine decarboxylase cleaved off CO2, allowing it to accumulate and be efficiently refixed by BS Rubisco. By the mid-1990's, Monson's research focus had shifted away from C4 plants, save for one 2003 paper on C3 versus C4 stomatal control with Travis Huxman, and a series of critical reviews on C4 evolution. These reviews heavily influenced the modern synthesis of C4 evolutionary studies, which incorporates phylogenomic understanding with physiological, molecular, and structural characterizations of trait shifts in multiple evolutionary lineages. Subsequent research supported the Monson et al. model from 1984, by showing a glycine shuttle occurs in nearly all C3-C4 intermediate species identified. Monson also examined the physiological controls over the ecological distribution of C3, C3-C4 intermediate, and C4 photosynthesis, building our understanding of the fitness value of the intermediate and C4 pathway in relevant microenvironments. By establishing the foundation for discoveries that followed, Russ Monson can rightly be considered a leading pioneer contributing to the evolutionary biology of C4 photosynthesis.
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8
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Abstract
C4 photosynthesis evolved multiple times independently from ancestral C3 photosynthesis in a broad range of flowering land plant families and in both monocots and dicots. The evolution of C4 photosynthesis entails the recruitment of enzyme activities that are not involved in photosynthetic carbon fixation in C3 plants to photosynthesis. This requires a different regulation of gene expression as well as a different regulation of enzyme activities in comparison to the C3 context. Further, C4 photosynthesis relies on a distinct leaf anatomy that differs from that of C3, requiring a differential regulation of leaf development in C4. We summarize recent progress in the understanding of C4-specific features in evolution and metabolic regulation in the context of C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urte Schlüter
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; ,
| | - Andreas P M Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; ,
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9
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Yi Z, Cui J, Fu Y, Liu H. Effect of different light intensity on physiology, antioxidant capacity and photosynthetic characteristics on wheat seedlings under high CO 2 concentration in a closed artificial ecosystem. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2020; 144:23-34. [PMID: 32090305 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-020-00726-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The growth of plants under high carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations (≥ 1000 ppm) is explored for the climate change and the bioregenerative life support system (BLSS) environment of long-duration space missions. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a grass cultivated for cereal grain-a global staple food including astronauts. Light and CO2 are both indispensable conditions for wheat seedlings. This study provides insights on the physiology, antioxidant capacity and photosynthetic characteristics of wheat seedlings under a range of photosynthetic photon flux densities in a closed system simulating BLSS with high CO2 concentration. We found that the Fv/Fm, Fv/F0, chlorophyll content, intrinsic water use efficiencies (WUEi), membrane stability index (MSI), and malondialdehyde (MDA) of wheat seedlings grown under an intermediate light intensity of 600 μmol m-2 s-1 environment were all largest. Interestingly, the high light intensity of 1200 mol m-2 s-1 treatment group exhibits the highest net photosynthetic rate but the lowest MDA content. The stomatal conductance and F0 of high light intensity of 1000 μmol m-2 s-1 treatment group were both significantly higher than that of other groups. Our study provides basic knowledge on the wheat growth in different environments, especially in a closed ecosystem with artificial lights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Yi
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Jingjing Cui
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yuming Fu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083, China.
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Hong Liu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083, China
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
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10
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Yorimitsu Y, Kadosono A, Hatakeyama Y, Yabiku T, Ueno O. Transition from C 3 to proto-Kranz to C 3-C 4 intermediate type in the genus Chenopodium (Chenopodiaceae). JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2019; 132:839-855. [PMID: 31473860 PMCID: PMC7205854 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-019-01135-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The Chenopodiaceae is one of the families including C4 species among eudicots. In this family, the genus Chenopodium is considered to include only C3 species. However, we report here a transition from C3 photosynthesis to proto-Kranz to C3-C4 intermediate type in Chenopodium. We investigated leaf anatomical and photosynthetic traits of 15 species, of which 8 species showed non-Kranz anatomy and a CO2 compensation point (Γ) typical of C3 plants. However, 5 species showed proto-Kranz anatomy and a C3-like Γ, whereas C. strictum showed leaf anatomy and a Γ typical of C3-C4 intermediates. Chenopodium album accessions examined included both proto-Kranz and C3-C4 intermediate types, depending on locality. Glycine decarboxylase, a key photorespiratory enzyme that is involved in the decarboxylation of glycine, was located predominantly in the mesophyll (M) cells of C3 species, in both M and bundle-sheath (BS) cells in proto-Kranz species, and exclusively in BS cells in C3-C4 intermediate species. The M/BS tissue area ratio, number of chloroplasts and mitochondria per BS cell, distribution of these organelles to the centripetal region of BS cells, the degree of inner positioning (vacuolar side of chloroplasts) of mitochondria in M cells, and the size of BS mitochondria also changed with the change in glycine decarboxylase localization. All Chenopodium species examined were C3-like regarding activities and amounts of C3 and C4 photosynthetic enzymes and δ13C values, suggesting that these species perform photosynthesis without contribution of the C4 cycle. This study demonstrates that Chenopodium is not a C3 genus and is valuable for studying evolution of C3-C4 intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Yorimitsu
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Aya Kadosono
- School of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yuto Hatakeyama
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Takayuki Yabiku
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Osamu Ueno
- Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
- School of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
- Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
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11
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Edwards EJ. Evolutionary trajectories, accessibility and other metaphors: the case of C 4 and CAM photosynthesis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 223:1742-1755. [PMID: 30993711 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Are evolutionary outcomes predictable? Adaptations that show repeated evolutionary convergence across the Tree of Life provide a special opportunity to dissect the context surrounding their origins, and identify any commonalities that may predict why certain traits evolved many times in particular clades and yet never evolved in others. The remarkable convergence of C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis in vascular plants makes them exceptional model systems for understanding the repeated evolution of complex phenotypes. This review highlights what we have learned about the recurring assembly of C4 and CAM, focusing on the increasingly predictable stepwise evolutionary integration of anatomy and biochemistry. With the caveat that we currently understand C4 evolution better than we do CAM, I propose a general model that explains and unites C4 and CAM evolutionary trajectories. Available data suggest that anatomical modifications are the 'rate-limiting step' in each trajectory, which in large part determines the evolutionary accessibility of both syndromes. The idea that organismal structure exerts a primary influence on innovation is discussed in the context of other systems. Whether the rate-limiting step occurs early or late in the evolutionary assembly of a new phenotype may have profound implications for its distribution across the Tree of Life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika J Edwards
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, 165 Prospect St, New Haven, CT, 06520-8105, USA
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12
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Hu L, Zhang Y, Xia H, Fan S, Song J, Lv X, Kong L. Photosynthetic characteristics of non-foliar organs in main C 3 cereals. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2019; 166:226-239. [PMID: 30221359 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthesis in non-foliar organs plays an important role in crop growth and productivity, and it has received considerable research attention in recent years. However, compared with the capability of photosynthetic CO2 fixation in leaves, the distinct attributes of photosynthesis in the non-foliar organs of wheat (a C3 species) are unclear. This review presents a comprehensive examination of the photosynthetic characteristics of non-foliar organs in wheat. Compared with leaves, non-foliar organs had a higher capacity to refix respired CO2 , higher tolerance to environmental stresses and slower terminal senescence after anthesis. Additionally, whether C4 photosynthetic metabolism exists in the non-foliar organs of wheat is discussed, as is the advantage of photosynthesis in non-foliar organs during times of abiotic stress. Introducing the photosynthesis-related genes of C4 plants into wheat, which are specifically expressed in non-foliar organs, can be a promising approach for improving wheat productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Hu
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Yunxiu Zhang
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Haiyong Xia
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Shoujin Fan
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Jie Song
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Xuemei Lv
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Lingan Kong
- Crop Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, 250014, China
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Sedelnikova OV, Hughes TE, Langdale JA. Understanding the Genetic Basis of C 4 Kranz Anatomy with a View to Engineering C 3 Crops. Annu Rev Genet 2018; 52:249-270. [PMID: 30208293 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120417-031217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
One of the most remarkable examples of convergent evolution is the transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis, an event that occurred on over 60 independent occasions. The evolution of C4 is particularly noteworthy because of the complexity of the developmental and metabolic changes that took place. In most cases, compartmentalized metabolic reactions were facilitated by the development of a distinct leaf anatomy known as Kranz. C4 Kranz anatomy differs from ancestral C3 anatomy with respect to vein spacing patterns across the leaf, cell-type specification around veins, and cell-specific organelle function. Here we review our current understanding of how Kranz anatomy evolved and how it develops, with a focus on studies that are dissecting the underlying genetic mechanisms. This research field has gained prominence in recent years because understanding the genetic regulation of Kranz may enable the C3-to-C4 transition to be engineered, an endeavor that would significantly enhance crop productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga V Sedelnikova
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom; , ,
| | - Thomas E Hughes
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom; , ,
| | - Jane A Langdale
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom; , ,
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Some like it hot: the physiological ecology of C 4 plant evolution. Oecologia 2018; 187:941-966. [PMID: 29955992 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4191-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of C4 photosynthesis requires an intermediate phase where photorespiratory glycine produced in the mesophyll cells must flow to the vascular sheath cells for metabolism by glycine decarboxylase. This glycine flux concentrates photorespired CO2 within the sheath cells, allowing it to be efficiently refixed by sheath Rubisco. A modest C4 biochemical cycle is then upregulated, possibly to support the refixation of photorespired ammonia in sheath cells, with subsequent increases in C4 metabolism providing incremental benefits until an optimized C4 pathway is established. 'Why' C4 photosynthesis evolved is largely explained by ancestral C3 species exploiting photorespiratory CO2 to improve carbon gain and thus enhance fitness. While photorespiration depresses C3 performance, it produces a resource (photorespired CO2) that can be exploited to build an evolutionary bridge to C4 photosynthesis. 'Where' C4 evolved is indicated by the habitat of species branching near C3-to-C4 transitions on phylogenetic trees. Consistent with the photorespiratory bridge hypothesis, transitional species show that the large majority of > 60 C4 lineages arose in hot, dry, and/or saline regions where photorespiratory potential is high. 'When' C4 evolved has been clarified by molecular clock analyses using phylogenetic data, coupled with isotopic signatures from fossils. Nearly all C4 lineages arose after 25 Ma when atmospheric CO2 levels had fallen to near current values. This reduction in CO2, coupled with persistent high temperature at low-to-mid-latitudes, met a precondition where photorespiration was elevated, thus facilitating the evolutionary selection pressure that led to C4 photosynthesis.
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15
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Hanawa H, Ishizaki K, Nohira K, Takagi D, Shimakawa G, Sejima T, Shaku K, Makino A, Miyake C. Land plants drive photorespiration as higher electron-sink: comparative study of post-illumination transient O 2 -uptake rates from liverworts to angiosperms through ferns and gymnosperms. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2017; 161:138-149. [PMID: 28419460 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, the electron-sink capacity of photorespiration contributes to alleviation of photoinhibition by dissipating excess energy under conditions when photosynthesis is limited. We addressed the question at which point in the evolution of photosynthetic organisms photorespiration began to function as electron sink and replaced the flavodiiron proteins which catalyze the reduction of O2 at photosystem I in cyanobacteria. Algae do not have a higher activity of photorespiration when CO2 assimilation is limited, and it can therefore not act as an electron sink. Using land plants (liverworts, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) we compared photorespiration activity and estimated the electron flux driven by photorespiration to evaluate its electron-sink capacity at CO2 -compensation point. In vivo photorespiration activity was estimated by the simultaneous measurement of O2 -exchange rate and chlorophyll fluorescence yield. All C3-plants leaves showed transient O2 -uptake after actinic light illumination (post-illumination transient O2 -uptake), which reflects photorespiration activity. Post-illumination transient O2 -uptake rates increased in the order from liverworts to angiosperms through ferns and gymnosperms. Furthermore, photorespiration-dependent electron flux in photosynthetic linear electron flow was estimated from post-illumination transient O2 -uptake rate and compared with the electron flux in photosynthetic linear electron flow in order to evaluate the electron-sink capacity of photorespiration. The electron-sink capacity at the CO2 -compensation point also increased in the above order. In gymnosperms photorespiration was determined to be the main electron-sink. C3-C4 intermediate species of Flaveria plants showed photorespiration activity, which intermediate between that of C3- and C4-flaveria species. These results indicate that in the first land plants, liverworts, photorespiration started to function as electron sink. According to our hypothesis, the dramatic increase in partial pressure of O2 in the atmosphere about 0.4 billion years ago made it possible to drive photorespiration with higher activity in liverworts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Hanawa
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Kimitsune Ishizaki
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Kana Nohira
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Daisuke Takagi
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Ginga Shimakawa
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Takehiro Sejima
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Keiichiro Shaku
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
| | - Amane Makino
- Department of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 981-8555, Japan
| | - Chikahiro Miyake
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, 657-8501, Japan
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Sage RF. A portrait of the C4 photosynthetic family on the 50th anniversary of its discovery: species number, evolutionary lineages, and Hall of Fame. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:4039-4056. [PMID: 28110278 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Fifty years ago, the C4 photosynthetic pathway was first characterized. In the subsequent five decades, much has been learned about C4 plants, such that it is now possible to place nearly all C4 species into their respective evolutionary lineages. Sixty-one independent lineages of C4 photosynthesis are identified, with additional, ancillary C4 origins possible in 12 of these principal lineages. The lineages produced ~8100 C4 species (5044 grasses, 1322 sedges, and 1777 eudicots). Using midpoints of stem and crown node dates in their respective phylogenies, the oldest and most speciose C4 lineage is the grass lineage Chloridoideae, estimated to be near 30 million years old. Most C4 lineages are estimated to be younger than 15 million years. Older C4 lineages tend to be more speciose, while those younger than 7 million years have <43 species each. To further highlight C4 photosynthesis for a 50th anniversary snapshot, a Hall of Fame comprised of the 40 most significant C4 species is presented. Over the next 50 years, preservation of the Earth's C4 diversity is a concern, largely because of habitat loss due to elevated CO2 effects, invasive species, and expanded agricultural activities. Ironically, some members of the C4 Hall of Fame are leading threats to the natural C4 flora due to their association with human activities on landscapes where most C4 plants occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5R3C6
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17
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Sage RF. A portrait of the C4 photosynthetic family on the 50th anniversary of its discovery: species number, evolutionary lineages, and Hall of Fame. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4039-56. [PMID: 27053721 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Fifty years ago, the C4 photosynthetic pathway was first characterized. In the subsequent five decades, much has been learned about C4 plants, such that it is now possible to place nearly all C4 species into their respective evolutionary lineages. Sixty-one independent lineages of C4 photosynthesis are identified, with additional, ancillary C4 origins possible in 12 of these principal lineages. The lineages produced ~8100 C4 species (5044 grasses, 1322 sedges, and 1777 eudicots). Using midpoints of stem and crown node dates in their respective phylogenies, the oldest and most speciose C4 lineage is the grass lineage Chloridoideae, estimated to be near 30 million years old. Most C4 lineages are estimated to be younger than 15 million years. Older C4 lineages tend to be more speciose, while those younger than 7 million years have <43 species each. To further highlight C4 photosynthesis for a 50th anniversary snapshot, a Hall of Fame comprised of the 40 most significant C4 species is presented. Over the next 50 years, preservation of the Earth's C4 diversity is a concern, largely because of habitat loss due to elevated CO2 effects, invasive species, and expanded agricultural activities. Ironically, some members of the C4 Hall of Fame are leading threats to the natural C4 flora due to their association with human activities on landscapes where most C4 plants occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5R3C6
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18
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Lin H, Karki S, Coe RA, Bagha S, Khoshravesh R, Balahadia CP, Ver Sagun J, Tapia R, Israel WK, Montecillo F, de Luna A, Danila FR, Lazaro A, Realubit CM, Acoba MG, Sage TL, von Caemmerer S, Furbank RT, Cousins AB, Hibberd JM, Quick WP, Covshoff S. Targeted Knockdown of GDCH in Rice Leads to a Photorespiratory-Deficient Phenotype Useful as a Building Block for C4 Rice. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 57:919-32. [PMID: 26903527 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcw033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The glycine decarboxylase complex (GDC) plays a critical role in the photorespiratory C2 cycle of C3 species by recovering carbon following the oxygenation reaction of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. Loss of GDC from mesophyll cells (MCs) is considered a key early step in the evolution of C4 photosynthesis. To assess the impact of preferentially reducing GDC in rice MCs, we decreased the abundance of OsGDCH (Os10g37180) using an artificial microRNA (amiRNA) driven by a promoter that preferentially drives expression in MCs. GDC H- and P-proteins were undetectable in leaves of gdch lines. Plants exhibited a photorespiratory-deficient phenotype with stunted growth, accelerated leaf senescence, reduced chlorophyll, soluble protein and sugars, and increased glycine accumulation in leaves. Gas exchange measurements indicated an impaired ability to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate in photorespiratory conditions. In addition, MCs of gdch lines exhibited a significant reduction in chloroplast area and coverage of the cell wall when grown in air, traits that occur during the later stages of C4 evolution. The presence of these two traits important for C4 photosynthesis and the non-lethal, down-regulation of the photorespiratory C2 cycle positively contribute to efforts to produce a C4 rice prototype.
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Affiliation(s)
- HsiangChun Lin
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Shanta Karki
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Robert A Coe
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Shaheen Bagha
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Roxana Khoshravesh
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - C Paolo Balahadia
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Julius Ver Sagun
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Ronald Tapia
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - W Krystler Israel
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | | | - Albert de Luna
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Florence R Danila
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Andrea Lazaro
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Czarina M Realubit
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Michelle G Acoba
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Tammy L Sage
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Susanne von Caemmerer
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, 2601, Australia
| | - Robert T Furbank
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Acton, 2601, Australia
| | - Asaph B Cousins
- School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Plant Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Julian M Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - W Paul Quick
- C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Sarah Covshoff
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
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19
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Schlüter U, Weber APM. The Road to C4 Photosynthesis: Evolution of a Complex Trait via Intermediary States. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 57:881-9. [PMID: 26893471 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcw009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis enables high photosynthetic energy conversion efficiency as well as high nitrogen and water use efficiencies. Given the multitude of biochemical, structural and molecular changes in comparison with C3 photosynthesis, it appears unlikely that such a complex trait would evolve in a single step. C4 photosynthesis is therefore believed to have evolved from the ancestral C3 state via intermediary stages. Consequently, the identification and detailed characterization of plant species representing transitory states between C3 and C4 is important for the reconstruction of the sequence of evolutionary events, especially since C4 evolution occurred in very different phylogenetic backgrounds. There is also significant interest in engineering of C4 or at least C4-like elements into C3 crop plants. A detailed and mechanistic understanding of C3-C4 intermediates is likely to provide guidance for the experimental design of such approaches. Here we provide an overview on the most relevant results obtained on C3-C4 intermediates to date. Recent knowledge gains in this field will be described in more detail. We thereby concentrate especially on biochemical and physiological work. Finally, we will provide a perspective and outlook on the continued importance of research on C3-C4 intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urte Schlüter
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätsstrasse 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas P M Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätsstrasse 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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20
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Khoshravesh R, Stinson CR, Stata M, Busch FA, Sage RF, Ludwig M, Sage TL. C3-C4 intermediacy in grasses: organelle enrichment and distribution, glycine decarboxylase expression, and the rise of C2 photosynthesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:3065-78. [PMID: 27073202 PMCID: PMC4867898 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Photorespiratory glycine shuttling and decarboxylation in bundle sheath (BS) cells exhibited by C2 species is proposed to be the evolutionary bridge to C4 photosynthesis in eudicots. To evaluate this in grasses, we compare anatomy, cellular localization of glycine decarboxylase (GDC), and photosynthetic physiology of a suspected C2 grass, Homolepis aturensis, with these traits in known C2 grasses, Neurachne minor and Steinchisma hians, and C3 S laxum that is sister to S hians We also use publicly available genome and RNA-sequencing data to examine the evolution of GDC subunits and enhance our understanding of the evolution of BS-specific GDC expression in C2 and C4 grasses. Our results confirm the identity of H aturensis as a C2 species; GDC is confined predominantly to the organelle-enriched BS cells in H aturensis and S hians and to mestome sheath cells of N minor Phylogenetic analyses and data obtained from immunodetection of the P-subunit of GDC are consistent with the hypothesis that the BS dominant levels of GDC in C2 and C4 species are due to changes in expression of a single GLDP gene in M and BS cells. All BS mitochondria and peroxisomes and most chloroplasts in H aturensis and S hians are situated centripetally in a pattern identical to C2 eudicots. In S laxum, which has C3-like gas exchange patterns, mitochondria and peroxisomes are positioned centripetally as they are in S hians This subcellular phenotype, also present in eudicots, is posited to initiate a facilitation cascade leading to C2 and C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Khoshravesh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Ontario, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Corey R Stinson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Ontario, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Matt Stata
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Ontario, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Florian A Busch
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Ontario, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Martha Ludwig
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Tammy L Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Ontario, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
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21
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Stata M, Sage TL, Hoffmann N, Covshoff S, Ka-Shu Wong G, Sage RF. Mesophyll Chloroplast Investment in C3, C4 and C2 Species of the Genus Flaveria. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 57:904-918. [PMID: 26985020 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcw015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The mesophyll (M) cells of C4 plants contain fewer chloroplasts than observed in related C3 plants; however, it is uncertain where along the evolutionary transition from C3 to C4 that the reduction in M chloroplast number occurs. Using 18 species in the genus Flaveria, which contains C3, C4 and a range of C3-C4 intermediate species, we examined changes in chloroplast number and size per M cell, and positioning of chloroplasts relative to the M cell periphery. Chloroplast number and coverage of the M cell periphery declined in proportion to increasing strength of C4 metabolism in Flaveria, while chloroplast size increased with increasing C4 cycle strength. These changes increase cytosolic exposure to the cell periphery which could enhance diffusion of inorganic carbon to phosphenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC), a cytosolic enzyme. Analysis of the transcriptome from juvenile leaves of nine Flaveria species showed that the transcript abundance of four genes involved in plastid biogenesis-FtsZ1, FtsZ2, DRP5B and PARC6-was negatively correlated with variation in C4 cycle strength and positively correlated with M chloroplast number per planar cell area. Chloroplast size was negatively correlated with abundance of FtsZ1, FtsZ2 and PARC6 transcripts. These results indicate that natural selection targeted the proteins of the contractile ring assembly to effect the reduction in chloroplast numbers in the M cells of C4 Flaveria species. If so, efforts to engineer the C4 pathway into C3 plants might evaluate whether inducing transcriptome changes similar to those observed in Flaveria could reduce M chloroplast numbers, and thus introduce a trait that appears essential for efficient C4 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Stata
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5S3B2 Canada
| | - Tammy L Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5S3B2 Canada
| | - Natalie Hoffmann
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5S3B2 Canada
| | - Sarah Covshoff
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Gane Ka-Shu Wong
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, T6G 2E9, Canada Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB, T6G 2E1, Canada BGI-Shenzhen, Beishan Industrial Zone, Yantian District, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5S3B2 Canada
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Wang M, Xie B, Fu Y, Dong C, Hui L, Guanghui L, Liu H. Effects of different elevated CO2 concentrations on chlorophyll contents, gas exchange, water use efficiency, and PSII activity on C3 and C4 cereal crops in a closed artificial ecosystem. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2015; 126:351-62. [PMID: 25869633 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-015-0134-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although terrestrial CO2 concentrations [CO2] are not expected to reach 1000 μmol mol(-1) (or ppm) for many decades, CO2 levels in closed systems such as growth chambers and greenhouses can easily exceed this concentration. CO2 levels in life support systems (LSS) in space can exceed 10,000 ppm (1 %). In order to understand how photosynthesis in C4 plants may respond to elevated CO2, it is necessary to determine if leaves of closed artificial ecosystem grown plants have a fully developed C4 photosynthetic apparatus, and whether or not photosynthesis in these leaves is more responsive to elevated [CO2] than leaves of C3 plants. To address this issue, we evaluated the response of gas exchange, water use efficiency, and photosynthetic efficiency of PSII by soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr., 'Heihe35') of a typical C3 plant and maize (Zea mays L., 'Susheng') of C4 plant under four CO2 concentrations (500, 1000, 3000, and 5000 ppm), which were grown under controlled environmental conditions of Lunar Palace 1. The results showed that photosynthetic pigment by the C3 plants of soybean was more sensitive to elevated [CO2] below 3000 ppm than the C4 plants of maize. Elevated [CO2] to 1000 ppm induced a higher initial photosynthetic rate, while super-elevated [CO2] appeared to negate such initial growth promotion for C3 plants. The C4 plant had the highest ETR, φPSII, and qP under 500-3000 ppm [CO2], but then decreased substantially at 5000 ppm [CO2] for both species. Therefore, photosynthetic down-regulation and a decrease in photosynthetic electron transport occurred by both species in response to super-elevated [CO2] at 3000 and 5000 ppm. Accordingly, plants can be selected for and adapt to the efficient use of elevated CO2 concentration in LSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minjuan Wang
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Beizhen Xie
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yuming Fu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Chen Dong
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Liu Hui
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Liu Guanghui
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Hong Liu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
- Institute of Environmental Biology and Life Support Technology, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
- International Joint Research Center of Aerospace Biotechnology & Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China.
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Wen Z, Zhang M. Salsola laricifolia, another C3-C 4 intermediate species in tribe Salsoleae s.l. (Chenopodiaceae). PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2015; 123:33-43. [PMID: 25227996 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-014-0037-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This study identifies Salsola laricifolia as a C3-C4 intermediate in tribe Salsoleae s.l., Chenopodiaceae, and compares S. laricifolia with the previously described C3-C4 intermediates in Salsoleae. Photosynthetic pathway characteristics were studied in four species of this tribe including S. laricifolia, C3 Sympegma regelii, C3-C4 S. arbusculiformis, and C4 S. arbuscula, using the approaches of leaf anatomy and ultrastructure, activities of ribulose 1-5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and PEP carboxylase (PEPC), CO2 compensation point, and immunolocalization of Rubisco, PEPC, and the P-subunit of glycine decarboxylase (GDC). Salsola laricifolia has intermediate features, with near continuous and distinctive Kranz-like cells (KLCs) compared with the C3-Sympegmoid anatomical type and the C3-C4 intermediate S. arbusculiformis, a relatively low CO2 compensation point (30.4 μmol mol(-1)) and mesophyll (M)-to KLC tissue ratio, mitochondria in KLCs primarily occurring along the centripetal wall, and specific localization of P-protein GDC in the KLCs. The C3-type isotope value (-22.4 ‰), the absence of the clear labeling for PEPC in M cells, and the low activity of the PEPC enzyme (61.5 μmol mg(-1 )chlorophyll(-1) h(-1)) support the identification of S. laricifolia as a type I C3-C4 intermediate. Although these C3-C4 intermediate species have different structural features, one with discontinuous KL cells and the other with continuous, they have similar characteristics in physiology and biochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhibin Wen
- Key Laboratory of Biogeography and Bioresource in Arid Land, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 818 South Beijing Road, Ürūmqi, 830011, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China,
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Gandin A, Koteyeva NK, Voznesenskaya EV, Edwards GE, Cousins AB. The acclimation of photosynthesis and respiration to temperature in the C3 -C4 intermediate Salsola divaricata: induction of high respiratory CO2 release under low temperature. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2014; 37:2601-12. [PMID: 24716875 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthesis in C(3) -C(4) intermediates reduces carbon loss by photorespiration through refixing photorespired CO(2) within bundle sheath cells. This is beneficial under warm temperatures where rates of photorespiration are high; however, it is unknown how photosynthesis in C(3) -C(4) plants acclimates to growth under cold conditions. Therefore, the cold tolerance of the C(3) -C(4) Salsola divaricata was tested to determine whether it reverts to C(3) photosynthesis when grown under low temperatures. Plants were grown under cold (15/10 °C), moderate (25/18 °C) or hot (35/25 °C) day/night temperatures and analysed to determine how photosynthesis, respiration and C(3) -C(4) features acclimate to these growth conditions. The CO(2) compensation point and net rates of CO(2) assimilation in cold-grown plants changed dramatically when measured in response to temperature. However, this was not due to the loss of C(3) -C(4) intermediacy, but rather to a large increase in mitochondrial respiration supported primarily by the non-phosphorylating alternative oxidative pathway (AOP) and, to a lesser degree, the cytochrome oxidative pathway (COP). The increase in respiration and AOP capacity in cold-grown plants likely protects against reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria and photodamage in chloroplasts by consuming excess reductant via the alternative mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Gandin
- School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Plant Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164-4236, USA
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25
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Stata M, Sage TL, Rennie TD, Khoshravesh R, Sultmanis S, Khaikin Y, Ludwig M, Sage RF. Mesophyll cells of C4 plants have fewer chloroplasts than those of closely related C3 plants. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2014; 37:2587-2600. [PMID: 24689501 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of C(4) photosynthesis from C(3) ancestors eliminates ribulose bisphosphate carboxylation in the mesophyll (M) cell chloroplast while activating phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylation in the cytosol. These changes may lead to fewer chloroplasts and different chloroplast positioning within M cells. To evaluate these possibilities, we compared chloroplast number, size and position in M cells of closely related C(3), C(3) -C(4) intermediate and C(4) species from 12 lineages of C(4) evolution. All C(3) species had more chloroplasts per M cell area than their C(4) relatives in high-light growth conditions. C(3) species also had higher chloroplast coverage of the M cell periphery than C(4) species, particularly opposite intercellular air spaces. In M cells from 10 of the 12 C(4) lineages, a greater fraction of the chloroplast envelope was pulled away from the plasmalemma in the C(4) species than their C(3) relatives. C(3) -C(4) intermediate species generally exhibited similar patterns as their C(3) relatives. We interpret these results to reflect adaptive shifts that facilitate efficient C(4) function by enhancing diffusive access to the site of primary carbon fixation in the cytosol. Fewer chloroplasts in C(4) M cells would also reduce shading of the bundle sheath chloroplasts, which also generate energy required by C(4) photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Stata
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, M5S 3B2
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26
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Abstract
Elements of C4 photosynthesis—a complex adaptation that increases photosynthetic efficiency—may have evolved first to correct an intercellular nitrogen imbalance, and only later evolved a central role in carbon fixation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika J Edwards
- Erika J Edwards is at Brown University, Providence, United States
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27
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Sage RF, Khoshravesh R, Sage TL. From proto-Kranz to C4 Kranz: building the bridge to C4 photosynthesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:3341-56. [PMID: 24803502 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we examine how the specialized "Kranz" anatomy of C4 photosynthesis evolved from C3 ancestors. Kranz anatomy refers to the wreath-like structural traits that compartmentalize the biochemistry of C4 photosynthesis and enables the concentration of CO2 around Rubisco. A simplified version of Kranz anatomy is also present in the species that utilize C2 photosynthesis, where a photorespiratory glycine shuttle concentrates CO2 into an inner bundle-sheath-like compartment surrounding the vascular tissue. C2 Kranz is considered to be an intermediate stage in the evolutionary development of C4 Kranz, based on the intermediate branching position of C2 species in 14 evolutionary lineages of C4 photosynthesis. In the best-supported model of C4 evolution, Kranz anatomy in C2 species evolved from C3 ancestors with enlarged bundle sheath cells and high vein density. Four independent lineages have been identified where C3 sister species of C2 plants exhibit an increase in organelle numbers in the bundle sheath and enlarged bundle sheath cells. Notably, in all of these species, there is a pronounced shift of mitochondria to the inner bundle sheath wall, forming an incipient version of the C2 type of Kranz anatomy. This incipient version of C2 Kranz anatomy is termed proto-Kranz, and is proposed to scavenge photorespiratory CO2. By doing so, it may provide fitness benefits in hot environments, and thus represent a critical first stage of the evolution of both the C2 and C4 forms of Kranz anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, On M5S3B2 Canada
| | - Roxana Khoshravesh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, On M5S3B2 Canada
| | - Tammy L Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, On M5S3B2 Canada
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Mallmann J, Heckmann D, Bräutigam A, Lercher MJ, Weber APM, Westhoff P, Gowik U. The role of photorespiration during the evolution of C4 photosynthesis in the genus Flaveria. eLife 2014; 3:e02478. [PMID: 24935935 PMCID: PMC4103682 DOI: 10.7554/elife.02478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis represents a most remarkable case of convergent evolution of a complex trait, which includes the reprogramming of the expression patterns of thousands of genes. Anatomical, physiological, and phylogenetic and analyses as well as computational modeling indicate that the establishment of a photorespiratory carbon pump (termed C2 photosynthesis) is a prerequisite for the evolution of C4. However, a mechanistic model explaining the tight connection between the evolution of C4 and C2 photosynthesis is currently lacking. Here we address this question through comparative transcriptomic and biochemical analyses of closely related C3, C3-C4, and C4 species, combined with Flux Balance Analysis constrained through a mechanistic model of carbon fixation. We show that C2 photosynthesis creates a misbalance in nitrogen metabolism between bundle sheath and mesophyll cells. Rebalancing nitrogen metabolism requires anaplerotic reactions that resemble at least parts of a basic C4 cycle. Our findings thus show how C2 photosynthesis represents a pre-adaptation for the C4 system, where the evolution of the C2 system establishes important C4 components as a side effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Mallmann
- Institute for Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - David Heckmann
- Institute for Computer Science, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andrea Bräutigam
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Martin J Lercher
- Institute for Computer Science, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas PM Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peter Westhoff
- Institute for Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Udo Gowik
- Institute for Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
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29
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Ocampo G, Koteyeva NK, Voznesenskaya EV, Edwards GE, Sage TL, Sage RF, Columbus JT. Evolution of leaf anatomy and photosynthetic pathways in Portulacaceae. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2013; 100:2388-2402. [PMID: 24259525 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1300094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY Portulacaceae is a family with a remarkable diversity in photosynthetic pathways. This lineage not only has species with different C4 biochemistry (NADP-ME and NAD-ME types) and C3-C4 intermediacy, but also displays different leaf anatomical configurations. Here we addressed the evolutionary history of leaf anatomy and photosynthetic pathways in Portulacaceae. METHODS Photosynthetic pathways were assessed based on leaf anatomy and carbon isotope ratios. Information on the NADP-ME and NAD-ME C4 variants was obtained from the literature. The evolutionary relationships and trait evolution were estimated under a Bayesian framework, and divergence times were calibrated using the ages obtained in a previous study. KEY RESULTS C4 photosynthesis is the main pathway in Portulacaceae. One clade (Cryptopetala), however, includes species that have non-Kranz anatomy and C3 type isotope values, two of which are C3-C4 intermediates. The ancestral leaf anatomy for the family is uncertain. The analysis showed one origin of the C4 pathway, which was lost in the Cryptopetala clade. Nevertheless, when a second analysis was performed taking into account the limited number of species with NAD-ME and NADP-ME data, a secondary gain of the C4 pathway from a C3-C4 intermediate was inferred. CONCLUSIONS The C4 pathway evolved ca. 23 Myr in the Portulacaceae. The number of times that the pathway evolved in the family is uncertain. The diversity of leaf anatomical types and C4 biochemical variants suggest multiple independent origins of C4 photosynthesis. Evidence for a switch from C4 to C3-C4 intermediacy supports the hypothesis that intermediates represent a distinct successful strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto Ocampo
- Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden and Claremont Graduate University, 1500 North College Avenue, Claremont, California 91711 USA
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30
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Ludwig M. Evolution of the C4 photosynthetic pathway: events at the cellular and molecular levels. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2013; 117:147-61. [PMID: 23708978 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-013-9853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The biochemistry and leaf anatomy of plants using C4 photosynthesis promote the concentration of atmospheric CO2 in leaf tissue that leads to improvements in growth and yield of C4 plants over C3 species in hot, dry, high light, and/or saline environments. C4 plants like maize and sugarcane are significant food, fodder, and bioenergy crops. The C4 photosynthetic pathway is an excellent example of convergent evolution, having evolved in multiple independent lineages of land plants from ancestors employing C3 photosynthesis. In addition to C3 and C4 species, some plant lineages contain closely related C3-C4 intermediate species that demonstrate leaf anatomical, biochemical, and physiological characteristics between those of C3 plants and species using C4 photosynthesis. These groups of plants have been extremely useful in dissecting the modifications to leaf anatomy and molecular biology, which led to the evolution of C4 photosynthesis. It is now clear that great variation exists in C4 leaf anatomy, and diverse molecular mechanisms underlie C4 biochemistry and physiology. However, all these different paths have led to the same destination-the expression of a C4 CO2 concentrating mechanism. Further identification of C4 leaf anatomical traits and molecular biological components, and understanding how they are controlled and assembled will not only allow for additional insights into evolutionary convergence, but also contribute to sustainable food and bioenergy production strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha Ludwig
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia,
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31
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Karki S, Rizal G, Quick WP. Improvement of photosynthesis in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by inserting the C4 pathway. RICE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2013; 6:28. [PMID: 24280149 PMCID: PMC4883725 DOI: 10.1186/1939-8433-6-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
To boost food production for a rapidly growing global population, crop yields must significantly increase. One of the avenues being recently explored is the improvement of photosynthetic capacity by installing the C4 photosynthetic pathway into C3 crops like rice to drastically increase their yield. Crops with an enhanced photosynthetic mechanism would better utilize the solar radiation that can be translated into yield. This subsequently will help in producing more grain yield, reduce water loss and increase nitrogen use efficiency especially in hot and dry environments. This review provides a summary of the factors that need to be modified in rice so that the C4 pathway can be introduced successfully. It also discusses the differences between the C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways in terms of anatomy, biochemistry and genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanta Karki
- />C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna Philippines
| | - Govinda Rizal
- />C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna Philippines
| | - William Paul Quick
- />C4 Rice Center, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna Philippines
- />Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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32
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von Caemmerer S. Steady-state models of photosynthesis. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2013; 36:1617-30. [PMID: 23496792 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
In the challenge to increase photosynthetic rate per leaf area mathematical models of photosynthesis can be used to help interpret gas exchange measurements made under different environmental conditions and predict underlying photosynthetic biochemistry. To do this successfully it is important to improve the modelling of temperature dependencies of CO₂ assimilation and gain better understanding of internal CO₂ diffusion limitations. Despite these shortcomings steady-state models of photosynthesis provide simple easy to use tools for thought experiments to explore photosynthetic pathway changes such as redirecting photorespiratory CO₂, inserting bicarbonate pumps into C₃ chloroplasts or inserting C₄ photosynthesis into rice. Here a number of models derived from the C₃ model by Farquhar, von Caemmerer and Berry are discussed and compared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne von Caemmerer
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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33
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Sage RF. Photorespiratory compensation: a driver for biological diversity. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2013; 15:624-638. [PMID: 23656429 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews how terrestrial plants reduce photorespiration and thus compensate for its inhibitory effects. As shown in the equation φ = (1/Sc/o )O/C, where φ is the ratio of oxygenation to carboxylation, Sc/o is the relative specificity of Rubisco, O is stromal O2 level and C is the stromal CO2 concentration, plants can reduce photorespiration by increasing Sc/o or C, or by reducing O. By far the most effective means of reducing φ is by concentrating CO2, as occurs in C4 and CAM plants, and to a lesser extent in plants using a glycine shuttle to concentrate CO2 into the bundle sheath. Trapping and refixation of photorespired CO2 by a sheath of chloroplasts around the mesophyll cell periphery in C3 plants also enhances C, particularly at low atmospheric CO2. O2 removal is not practical because high energy and protein investment is needed to have more than a negligible effect. Sc/o enhancement provides for modest reductions in φ, but at the potential cost of limiting the kcat of Rubisco. An effective means of decreasing φ and enhancing carbon gain is to lower leaf temperature by reducing absorbance of solar radiation, or where water is abundant, opening stomata. By using a combination of mechanisms, C3 plants can achieve substantial (>30%) reductions in φ. This may have allowed many C3 species to withstand severe competition from C4 plants in low CO2 atmospheres of recent geological time, thereby preserving some of the Earth's floristic diversity that accumulated over millions of years.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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34
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Khoshravesh R, Hossein A, Sage TL, Nordenstam B, Sage RF. Phylogeny and photosynthetic pathway distribution in Anticharis Endl. (Scrophulariaceae). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:5645-58. [PMID: 22945938 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ers218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
C(4) photosynthesis independently evolved >62 times, with the majority of origins within 16 dicot families. One origin occurs in the poorly studied genus Anticharis Endl. (Scrophulariaceae), which consists of ~10 species from arid regions of Africa and southwest Asia. Here, the photosynthetic pathway of 10 Anticharis species and one species from each of the sister genera Aptosimum and Peliostomum was identified using carbon isotope ratios (δ(13)C). The photosynthetic pathway was then mapped onto an internal transcribed spacer (ITS) phylogeny of Anticharis and its sister genera. Leaf anatomy was examined for nine Anticharis species and plants from Aptosimum and Peliostomum. Leaf ultrastructure, gas exchange, and enzyme distributions were assessed in Anticharis glandulosa collected in SE Iran. The results demonstrate that C(3) photosynthesis is the ancestral condition, with C(4) photosynthesis occurring in one clade containing four species. C(4) Anticharis species exhibit the atriplicoid type of C(4) leaf anatomy and the NAD-malic enzyme biochemical subtype. Six Anticharis species had C(3) or C(3)-C(4) δ(13)C values and branched at phylogenetic nodes that were sister to the C(4) clade. The rest of Anticharis species had enlarged bundle sheath cells, close vein spacing, and clusters of chloroplasts along the centripetal (inner) bundle sheath walls. These traits indicate that basal-branching Anticharis species are evolutionary intermediates between the C(3) and C(4) conditions. Anticharis appears to be an important new group in which to study the dynamics of C(4) evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Khoshravesh
- Department of Plant Sciences, School of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Tehran PO Box 14155-6455, Tehran Iran
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35
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Sage RF, Sage TL, Kocacinar F. Photorespiration and the evolution of C4 photosynthesis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2012; 63:19-47. [PMID: 22404472 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 396] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
C(4) photosynthesis is one of the most convergent evolutionary phenomena in the biological world, with at least 66 independent origins. Evidence from these lineages consistently indicates that the C(4) pathway is the end result of a series of evolutionary modifications to recover photorespired CO(2) in environments where RuBisCO oxygenation is high. Phylogenetically informed research indicates that the repositioning of mitochondria in the bundle sheath is one of the earliest steps in C(4) evolution, as it may establish a single-celled mechanism to scavenge photorespired CO(2) produced in the bundle sheath cells. Elaboration of this mechanism leads to the two-celled photorespiratory concentration mechanism known as C(2) photosynthesis (commonly observed in C(3)-C(4) intermediate species) and then to C(4) photosynthesis following the upregulation of a C(4) metabolic cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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36
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Vogan PJ, Sage RF. Effects of low atmospheric CO2 and elevated temperature during growth on the gas exchange responses of C3, C3-C4 intermediate, and C4 species from three evolutionary lineages of C4 photosynthesis. Oecologia 2011; 169:341-52. [PMID: 22139428 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-011-2201-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluates acclimation of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in three evolutionary lineages of C(3), C(3)-C(4) intermediate, and C(4) species grown in the low CO(2) and hot conditions proposed to favo r the evolution of C(4) photosynthesis. Closely related C(3), C(3)-C(4), and C(4) species in the genera Flaveria, Heliotropium, and Alternanthera were grown near 380 and 180 μmol CO(2) mol(-1) air and day/night temperatures of 37/29°C. Growth CO(2) had no effect on photosynthetic capacity or nitrogen allocation to Rubisco and electron transport in any of the species. There was also no effect of growth CO(2) on photosynthetic and stomatal responses to intercellular CO(2) concentration. These results demonstrate little ability to acclimate to low CO(2) growth conditions in closely related C(3) and C(3)-C(4) species, indicating that, during past episodes of low CO(2), individual C(3) plants had little ability to adjust their photosynthetic physiology to compensate for carbon starvation. This deficiency could have favored selection for more efficient modes of carbon assimilation, such as C(3)-C(4) intermediacy. The C(3)-C(4) species had approximately 50% greater rates of net CO(2) assimilation than the C(3) species when measured at the growth conditions of 180 μmol mol(-1) and 37°C, demonstrating the superiority of the C(3)-C(4) pathway in low atmospheric CO(2) and hot climates of recent geological time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Vogan
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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37
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Muhaidat R, Sage TL, Frohlich MW, Dengler NG, Sage RF. Characterization of C₃--C₄ intermediate species in the genus Heliotropium L. (Boraginaceae): anatomy, ultrastructure and enzyme activity. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2011; 34:1723-36. [PMID: 21631534 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02367.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthetic pathway characteristics were studied in nine species of Heliotropium (sensu lato, including Euploca), using assessments of leaf anatomy and ultrastructure, activities of PEP carboxylase and C₄ acid decarboxylases, and immunolocalization of ribulose 1·5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and the P-subunit of glycine decarboxylase (GDC). Heliotropium europaeum, Heliotropium calcicola and Heliotropium tenellum are C₃ plants, while Heliotropium texanum and Heliotropium polyphyllum are C₄ species. Heliotropium procumbens and Heliotropium karwinskyi are functionally C₃, but exhibit 'proto-Kranz' anatomy where bundle sheath (BS) cells are enlarged and mitochondria primarily occur along the centripetal (inner) wall of the BS cells; GDC is present throughout the leaf. Heliotropium convolvulaceum and Heliotropium greggii are C₃--C₄ intermediates, with Kranz-like enlargement of the BS cells, localization of mitochondria along the inner BS wall and a loss of GDC in the mesophyll (M) tissue. These C₃--C₄ species of Heliotropium probably shuttle photorespiratory glycine from the M to the BS tissue for decarboxylation. Heliotropium represents an important new model for studying C₄ evolution. Where existing models such as Flaveria emphasize diversification of C₃--C₄ intermediates, Heliotropium has numerous C₃ species expressing proto-Kranz traits that could represent a critical initial phase in the evolutionary origin of C₄ photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riyadh Muhaidat
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S3B2, Canada
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38
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Vogan PJ, Sage RF. Water-use efficiency and nitrogen-use efficiency of C(3) -C(4) intermediate species of Flaveria Juss. (Asteraceae). PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2011; 34:1415-30. [PMID: 21486309 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02340.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plants using the C(4) pathway of carbon metabolism are marked by greater photosynthetic water and nitrogen-use efficiencies (PWUE and PNUE, respectively) than C(3) species, but it is unclear to what extent this is the case in C(3) -C(4) intermediate species. In this study, we examined the PWUE and PNUE of 14 species of Flaveria Juss. (Asteraceae), including two C(3) , three C(4) and nine C(3) -C(4) species, the latter containing a gradient of C(4) -cycle activities (as determined by initial fixation of (14) C into C-4 acids). We found that PWUE, PNUE, leaf ribulose 1·5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) content and intercellular CO(2) concentration in air (C(i) ) do not change gradually with C(4) -cycle activity. These traits were not significantly different between C(3) species and C(3) -C(4) species with less than 50% C(4) -cycle activity. C(4) -like intermediates with greater than 65% C(4) -cycle activity were not significantly different from plants with fully expressed C(4) photosynthesis. These results indicate that a gradual increase in C(4) -cycle activity has not resulted in a gradual change in PWUE, PNUE, intercellular CO(2) concentration and leaf Rubisco content towards C(4) levels in the intermediate species. Rather, these traits arose in a stepwise manner during the evolutionary transition to the C(4) -like intermediates, which are contained in two different clades within Flaveria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Vogan
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M5S 3B2
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39
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Ruan CJ, Shao HB, Teixeira da Silva JA. A critical review on the improvement of photosynthetic carbon assimilation in C3 plants using genetic engineering. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2011; 32:1-21. [PMID: 21699437 DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2010.533119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Global warming is one of the most serious challenges facing us today. It may be linked to the increase in atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), leading to a rise in sea level, notable shifts in ecosystems, and in the frequency and intensity of wild fires. There is a strong interest in stabilizing the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and other GHGs by decreasing carbon emission and/or increasing carbon sequestration. Biotic sequestration is an important and effective strategy to mitigate the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations by increasing carbon sequestration and storage capacity of ecosystems using plant photosynthesis and by decreasing carbon emission using biofuel rather than fossil fuel. Improvement of photosynthetic carbon assimilation, using transgenic engineering, potentially provides a set of available and effective tools for enhancing plant carbon sequestration. In this review, firstly different biological methods of CO2 assimilation in C3, C4 and CAM plants are introduced and three types of C4 pathways which have high photosynthetic performance and have evolved as CO2 pumps are briefly summarized. Then (i) the improvement of photosynthetic carbon assimilation of C3 plants by transgenic engineering using non-C4 genes, and (ii) the overexpression of individual or multiple C4 cycle photosynthetic genes (PEPC, PPDK, PCK, NADP-ME and NADP-MDH) in transgenic C3 plants (e.g. tobacco, potato, rice and Arabidopsis) are highlighted. Some transgenic C3 plants (e.g. tobacco, rice and Arabidopsis) overexpressing the FBP/SBPase, ictB and cytochrome c6 genes showed positive effects on photosynthetic efficiency and growth characteristics. However, over the last 28 years, efforts to overexpress individual, double or multiple C4 enzymes in C3 plants like tobacco, potato, rice, and Arabidopsis have produced mixed results that do not confirm or eliminate the possibility of improving photosynthesis of C3 plants by this approach. Finally, a prospect is provided on the challenges of enhancing carbon assimilation of C3 plants using transgenic engineering in the face of global warming, and the trends of the most promising approaches to improving the photosynthetic performance of C3 plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Jiang Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology & Bio-Resources Utilization, Dalian Nationalities University, Dalian City, Liaoning, China.
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Christin PA, Sage TL, Edwards EJ, Ogburn RM, Khoshravesh R, Sage RF. COMPLEX EVOLUTIONARY TRANSITIONS AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF C3-C4 INTERMEDIATE FORMS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN MOLLUGINACEAE. Evolution 2010; 65:643-60. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01168.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Vogan PJ, Frohlich MW, Sage RF. The functional significance of C3-C4 intermediate traits in Heliotropium L. (Boraginaceae): gas exchange perspectives. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2007; 30:1337-45. [PMID: 17727423 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01706.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate for the first time the presence of species exhibiting C3-C4 intermediacy in Heliotropium (sensu lato), a genus with over 100 C3 and 150 C4 species. CO2 compensation points (Gamma) and photosynthetic water-use efficiencies (WUEs) were intermediate between C3 and C4 values in three species of Heliotropium: Heliotropium convolvulaceum (Gamma = 20 micromol CO2 mol(-1) air), Heliotropium racemosum (Gamma = 22 micromol mol(-1)) and Heliotropium greggii (Gamma = 17 micromol mol(-1)). Heliotropium procumbens may also be a weak C3-C4 intermediate based on a slight reduction in Gamma (48.5 micromol CO2 mol(-1)) compared to C3Heliotropium species (52-60 micromol mol(-1)). The intermediate species H. convolvulaceum, H. greggii and H. racemosum exhibited over 50% enhancement of net CO2 assimilation rates at low CO2 levels (200-300 micromol mol(-1)); however, no significant differences in stomatal conductance were observed between the C3 and C3-C4 species. We also assessed the response of Gamma to variation in O2 concentration for these species. Heliotropium convolvulaceum, H. greggii and H. racemosum exhibited similar responses of Gamma to O2 with response slopes that were intermediate between the responses of C3 and C4 species below 210 mmol O2 mol(-1) air. The presence of multiple species displaying C3-C4 intermediate traits indicates that Heliotropium could be a valuable new model for studying the evolutionary transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Vogan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada
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Ueno O, Wada Y, Wakai M, Bang SW. Evidence from photosynthetic characteristics for the hybrid origin of Diplotaxis muralis from a C3-C4 intermediate and a C3 species. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2006; 8:253-9. [PMID: 16547870 DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-873050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Artificial hybridization studies have been carried out between plants with different photosynthetic types to study the genetic mechanism of photosynthetic types. However, there are only few reports describing the possibility of natural hybridization between plants with different photosynthetic types. A previous cytological and morphological study suggested that a cruciferous allotetraploid species, Diplotaxis muralis (L.) DC. (2n = 42), originated from natural hybridization between D. tenuifolia (L.) DC. (2n = 22) and D. viminea (L.) DC. (2n = 20). These putative parents have recently been reported to be a C (3)-C (4) intermediate and a C (3) species, respectively. If this hybridization occurred, D. muralis should have characteristics intermediate between those of the C (3)-C (4) intermediate and C (3) types. We compared leaf structures and photosynthetic characteristics of the three species. The bundle sheath (BS) cells in D. tenuifolia included many centripetally located chloroplasts and mitochondria, but those of D. viminea had only a few organelles. The BS cells in D. muralis displayed intermediate features between the putative parents. Glycine decarboxylase P protein was confined to the BS mitochondria in D. tenuifolia, but accumulated mainly in the mesophyll mitochondria in D. viminea. In D. muralis, it accumulated in both the BS and the mesophyll mitochondria. Values of CO (2) compensation point and its response to changing light intensity were also intermediate between the putative parents. These data support the theory that D. muralis was created by natural hybridization between species with different photosynthetic types.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Ueno
- Plant Physiology Department, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan.
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Abstract
C4 photosynthesis is a series of anatomical and biochemical modifications that concentrate CO2 around the carboxylating enzyme Rubisco, thereby increasing photosynthetic efficiency in conditions promoting high rates of photorespiration. The C4 pathway independently evolved over 45 times in 19 families of angiosperms, and thus represents one of the most convergent of evolutionary phenomena. Most origins of C4 photosynthesis occurred in the dicots, with at least 30 lineages. C4 photosynthesis first arose in grasses, probably during the Oligocene epoch (24-35 million yr ago). The earliest C4 dicots are likely members of the Chenopodiaceae dating back 15-21 million yr; however, most C4 dicot lineages are estimated to have appeared relatively recently, perhaps less than 5 million yr ago. C4 photosynthesis in the dicots originated in arid regions of low latitude, implicating combined effects of heat, drought and/or salinity as important conditions promoting C4 evolution. Low atmospheric CO2 is a significant contributing factor, because it is required for high rates of photorespiration. Consistently, the appearance of C4 plants in the evolutionary record coincides with periods of increasing global aridification and declining atmospheric CO2 . Gene duplication followed by neo- and nonfunctionalization are the leading mechanisms for creating C4 genomes, with selection for carbon conservation traits under conditions promoting high photorespiration being the ultimate factor behind the origin of C4 photosynthesis. Contents Summary 341 I. Introduction 342 II. What is C4 photosynthesis? 343 III. Why did C4 photosynthesis evolve? 347 IV. Evolutionary lineages of C4 photosynthesis 348 V. Where did C4 photosynthesis evolve? 350 VI. How did C4 photosynthesis evolve? 352 VII. Molecular evolution of C4 photosynthesis 361 VIII. When did C4 photosynthesis evolve 362 IX. The rise of C4 photosynthesis in relation to climate and CO2 363 X. Final thoughts: the future evolution of C4 photosynthesis 365 Acknowledgements 365 References 365.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan F Sage
- Department of Botany, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada
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Edwards GE, Franceschi VR, Voznesenskaya EV. Single-cell C(4) photosynthesis versus the dual-cell (Kranz) paradigm. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2004; 55:173-96. [PMID: 15377218 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The efficiency of photosynthetic carbon assimilation in higher plants faces significant limitations due to the oxygenase activity of the enzyme Rubisco, particularly under warmer temperatures or water stress. A drop in atmospheric CO(2) and rise in O(2) as early as 300 mya provided selective pressure for the evolution of mechanisms to concentrate CO(2) around Rubisco in order to minimize oxygenase activity and the resultant loss of carbon through photorespiration. It is well established that a carbon-concentrating mechanism occurs in some terrestrial plants through the process of C(4) photosynthesis. These plants are characterized as having Kranz-type leaf anatomy, with two structurally and biochemically specialized photosynthetic cell types, mesophyll and bundle sheath, that function coordinately in carbon assimilation. C(4) photosynthesis has evolved independently many times with great diversity in forms of Kranz anatomy, structure of dimorphic chloroplasts, and biochemistry of the C(4) cycle. The most dramatic variants of C(4) terrestrial plants were discovered recently in two species, Bienertia cycloptera and Borszczowia aralocaspica (family Chenopodiaceae); each has novel compartmentation to accomplish C(4) photosynthesis within a single chlorenchyma cell. This review discusses the amazing diversity in C(4) systems, how the essential features of C(4) are accomplished in single-cell versus Kranz-type C(4) plants, and speculates on why single-cell C(4) plants evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald E Edwards
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4236, USA.
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Ueno O, Bang SW, Wada Y, Kondo A, Ishihara K, Kaneko Y, Matsuzawa Y. Structural and biochemical dissection of photorespiration in hybrids differing in genome constitution between Diplotaxis tenuifolia (C3-C4) and radish (C3). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 132:1550-9. [PMID: 12857835 PMCID: PMC167093 DOI: 10.1104/pp.103.021329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2003] [Revised: 02/25/2003] [Accepted: 03/09/2003] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We compared the structural, biochemical, and physiological characteristics involved in photorespiration of intergeneric hybrids differing in genome constitution (DtDtR, DtDtRR, and DtRR) between the C(3)-C(4) intermediate species Diplotaxis tenuifolia (DtDt) and the C(3) species radish (Raphanus sativus; RR). The bundle sheath (BS) cells in D. tenuifolia included many centripetally located chloroplasts and mitochondria, but those of radish had only a few chloroplasts and mitochondria. In the hybrids, the numbers of chloroplasts and mitochondria, the ratio of centripetally located organelles to total organelles, and the mitochondrial size in the BS cells increased with an increase in the constitution ratio of the Dt:R genome. The P-protein of glycine decarboxylase (GDC) was confined to the BS mitochondria in D. tenuifolia, whereas in radish, it accumulated more densely in the mesophyll than in the BS mitochondria. In the hybrids, more intense accumulation of GDC in the BS relative to the mesophyll mitochondria occurred with an increase in the Dt:R ratio. These structural and biochemical features in the hybrids were reflected in the gas exchange characteristics of leaves, such as the CO(2) compensation point. Our data indicate that the leaf structure, the intercellular pattern of GDC expression, and the gas exchange characteristics of C(3)-C(4) intermediate photosynthesis are inherited in the hybrids depending on the constitution ratio of the parent genomes. Our findings also demonstrate that the apparent reduced photorespiration in C(3)-C(4) intermediate plants is mainly due to the structural differentiation of mitochondria and chloroplasts in the BS cells combined with the BS-dominant expression of GDC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Ueno
- Plant Physiology Department, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602,
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Leegood RC. C(4) photosynthesis: principles of CO(2) concentration and prospects for its introduction into C(3) plants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2002; 53:581-90. [PMID: 11886878 DOI: 10.1093/jexbot/53.369.581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
C(4) photosynthesis has a number of distinct properties that enable the capture of CO(2) and its concentration in the vicinity of Rubisco, so as to reduce the oxygenase activity of Rubisco, and hence the rate of photorespiration. The aim of this review is to discuss the properties of this CO(2)-concentrating mechanism, and thus to indicate the minimum requirements of any genetically-engineered system. In particular, the Kranz leaf anatomy of C(4) photosynthesis and the division of the C(4)-cycle between two cell types involves intercellular co-operation that requires modifications in regulation and transport to make C(4) photosynthesis work. Some examples of these modifications are discussed. Comparisons are made with the C(4)-type photosynthesis found in single-celled C(4)-type CO(2)-concentrating mechanisms, such as that found in the aquatic plant, Hydrilla verticillata and the single-celled C(4) system found in the terrestrial chenopod Borszczowia aralocaspica. The outcome of recent attempts to engineer C(4) enzymes into C(3) plants is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard C Leegood
- Robert Hill Institute and Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.
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