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Ols S, Yang L, Thompson EA, Pushparaj P, Tran K, Liang F, Lin A, Eriksson B, Karlsson Hedestam GB, Wyatt RT, Loré K. Route of Vaccine Administration Alters Antigen Trafficking but Not Innate or Adaptive Immunity. Cell Rep 2021; 30:3964-3971.e7. [PMID: 32209459 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Although intramuscular (i.m.) administration is the most commonly used route for licensed vaccines, subcutaneous (s.c.) delivery is being explored for several new vaccines under development. Here, we use rhesus macaques, physiologically relevant to humans, to identify the anatomical compartments and early immune processes engaged in the response to immunization via the two routes. Administration of fluorescently labeled HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers displayed on liposomes enables visualization of targeted cells and tissues. Both s.c. and i.m. routes induce efficient immune cell infiltration, activation, and antigen uptake, functions that are tightly restricted to the skin and muscle, respectively. Antigen is also transported to different lymph nodes depending on route. However, these early differences do not translate into significant differences in the magnitude or quality of antigen-specific cellular and humoral responses over time. Thus, although some distinct immunological differences are noted, the choice of route may instead be motivated by clinical practicality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ols
- Department of Medicine Solna, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lifei Yang
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Thompson
- Department of Medicine Solna, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pradeepa Pushparaj
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karen Tran
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Frank Liang
- Department of Medicine Solna, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ang Lin
- Department of Medicine Solna, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bengt Eriksson
- Astrid Fagraeus Laboratory, Comparative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Richard T Wyatt
- IAVI Neutralizing Antibody Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Karin Loré
- Department of Medicine Solna, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Chaudhari R, Tandel N, Sahu K, Negi S, Bashir H, Rupareliya A, Mishra RPN, Dalai SK, Tyagi RK. Transdermal Immunization of Elastic Liposome-Laden Recombinant Chimeric Fusion Protein of P. falciparum ( PfMSP-Fu 24) Mounts Protective Immune Response. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:406. [PMID: 33562617 PMCID: PMC7914931 DOI: 10.3390/nano11020406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transdermal immunization exhibits poor immunogenic responses due to poor permeability of antigens through the skin. Elastic liposomes, the ultradeformable nanoscale lipid vesicles, overcome the permeability issues and prove a versatile nanocarrier for transcutaneous delivery of protein, peptide, and nucleic acid antigens. Elastic liposome-mediated subcutaneous delivery of chimeric fusion protein (PfMSP-Fu24) of Plasmodium falciparum exhibited improved immunogenic responses. Elastic liposomes-mediated immunization of PfMSP-Fu24 conferred immunity to the asexual blood-stage infection. Present study is an attempt to compare the protective immune response mounted by the PfMSP-Fu24 upon administered through transdermal and intramuscular routes. Humoral and cell-mediated immune (CMI) response elicited by topical and intramuscularly administered PfMSP-Fu24-laden elastic liposomes (EL-PfMSP-Fu24) were compared and normalized with the vehicle control. Sizeable immune responses were seen with the transcutaneously immunized EL-PfMSP-Fu24 and compared with those elicited with intramuscularly administered antigen. Our results show significant IgG isotype subclass (IgG1and IgG3) response of specific antibody levels as well as cell-mediated immunity (CMI) activating factor (IFN-γ), a crucial player in conferring resistance to blood-stage malaria in mice receiving EL-PfMSP-Fu24 through transdermal route as compared to the intramuscularly administered formulation. Heightened immune response obtained by the vaccination of EL-PfMSP-Fu24 was complemented by the quantification of the transcript (mRNA) levels cell-mediated (IFN-γ, IL-4), and regulatory immune response (IL-10) in the lymph nodes and spleen. Collectively, elastic liposomes prove their immune-adjuvant property as they evoke sizeable and perdurable immune response against PfMSP-Fu24 and justify its potential for the improved vaccine delivery to inducing both humoral and CM immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh Chaudhari
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India; (R.C.); (N.T.); (A.R.); (S.K.D.)
| | - Nikunj Tandel
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India; (R.C.); (N.T.); (A.R.); (S.K.D.)
| | - Kiran Sahu
- Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, Biomedical Parasitology and Nano-Immunology Lab., CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh 160036, India; (K.S.); (S.N.)
| | - Sushmita Negi
- Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, Biomedical Parasitology and Nano-Immunology Lab., CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh 160036, India; (K.S.); (S.N.)
| | - Hilal Bashir
- Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh 160036, India;
| | - Arzu Rupareliya
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India; (R.C.); (N.T.); (A.R.); (S.K.D.)
| | - Ravi PN Mishra
- BERPDC Department, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India;
| | - Sarat K. Dalai
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India; (R.C.); (N.T.); (A.R.); (S.K.D.)
| | - Rajeev K. Tyagi
- Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, Biomedical Parasitology and Nano-Immunology Lab., CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh 160036, India; (K.S.); (S.N.)
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Casey RM, Harris JB, Ahuka-Mundeke S, Dixon MG, Kizito GM, Nsele PM, Umutesi G, Laven J, Kosoy O, Paluku G, Gueye AS, Hyde TB, Ewetola R, Sheria GKM, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Staples JE. Immunogenicity of Fractional-Dose Vaccine during a Yellow Fever Outbreak - Final Report. N Engl J Med 2019; 381:444-454. [PMID: 29443626 PMCID: PMC7064153 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1710430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2016, the response to a yellow fever outbreak in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo led to a global shortage of yellow fever vaccine. As a result, a fractional dose of the 17DD yellow fever vaccine (containing one fifth [0.1 ml] of the standard dose) was offered to 7.6 million children 2 years of age or older and nonpregnant adults in a preemptive campaign in Kinshasa. The goal of this study was to assess the immune response to the fractional dose in a large-scale campaign. METHODS We recruited participants in four age strata at six vaccination sites. We assessed neutralizing antibody titers against yellow fever virus in blood samples obtained before vaccination and at 1 month and 1 year after vaccination, using a plaque reduction neutralization test with a 50% cutoff (PRNT50). Participants with a PRNT50 titer of 10 or higher were considered to be seropositive. Those with a baseline titer of less than 10 who became seropositive at follow-up were classified as having undergone seroconversion. Participants who were seropositive at baseline and who had an increase in the titer by a factor of 4 or more at follow-up were classified as having an immune response. RESULTS Among 716 participants who completed the 1-month follow-up, 705 (98%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 97 to 99) were seropositive after vaccination. Among 493 participants who were seronegative at baseline, 482 (98%; 95% CI, 96 to 99) underwent seroconversion. Among 223 participants who were seropositive at baseline, 148 (66%; 95% CI, 60 to 72) had an immune response. Lower baseline titers were associated with a higher probability of having an immune response (P<0.001). Among 684 participants who completed the 1-year follow-up, 666 (97%; 95% CI, 96 to 98) were seropositive for yellow fever antibody. The distribution of titers among the participants who were seronegative for yellow fever antibody at baseline varied significantly among age groups at 1 month and at 1 year (P<0.001 for both comparisons). CONCLUSIONS A fractional dose of the 17DD yellow fever vaccine was effective at inducing seroconversion in participants who were seronegative at baseline. Titers remained above the threshold for seropositivity at 1 year after vaccination in nearly all participants who were seropositive at 1 month after vaccination. These findings support the use of fractional-dose vaccination for outbreak control. (Funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Casey
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Jennifer B Harris
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Steve Ahuka-Mundeke
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Meredith G Dixon
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Gabriel M Kizito
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Pierre M Nsele
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Grace Umutesi
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Janeen Laven
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Olga Kosoy
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Gilson Paluku
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Abdou S Gueye
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Terri B Hyde
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Raimi Ewetola
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Guylain K M Sheria
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - Jean-Jacques Muyembe-Tamfum
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
| | - J Erin Staples
- From the Global Immunization Division (R.M.C., J.B.H., M.G.D., G.U., G.P., T.B.H.) and the Epidemic Intelligence Service (R.M.C.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale (S.A.-M., P.M.N., G.M.K., J.-J.M.-T.), Division of Global Health Protection (A.S.G.), Division of Global HIV and Tuberculosis (R.E.), CDC, and Programme Elargi de Vaccination, Ministère de la Santé (G.K.M.S.) - all in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, CO (J.L., O.K., J.E.S.)
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Klitting R, Fischer C, Drexler JF, Gould EA, Roiz D, Paupy C, de Lamballerie X. What Does the Future Hold for Yellow Fever Virus? (II). Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:E425. [PMID: 30134625 PMCID: PMC6162518 DOI: 10.3390/genes9090425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As revealed by the recent resurgence of yellow fever virus (YFV) activity in the tropical regions of Africa and South America, YFV control measures need urgent rethinking. Over the last decade, most reported outbreaks occurred in, or eventually reached, areas with low vaccination coverage but that are suitable for virus transmission, with an unprecedented risk of expansion to densely populated territories in Africa, South America and Asia. As reflected in the World Health Organization's initiative launched in 2017, it is high time to strengthen epidemiological surveillance to monitor accurately viral dissemination, and redefine vaccination recommendation areas. Vector-control and immunisation measures need to be adapted and vaccine manufacturing must be reconciled with an increasing demand. We will have to face more yellow fever (YF) cases in the upcoming years. Hence, improving disease management through the development of efficient treatments will prove most beneficial. Undoubtedly, these developments will require in-depth descriptions of YFV biology at molecular, physiological and ecological levels. This second section of a two-part review describes the current state of knowledge and gaps regarding the molecular biology of YFV, along with an overview of the tools that can be used to manage the disease at the individual, local and global levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaëlle Klitting
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ⁻IRD 190⁻Inserm 1207⁻IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13385 Marseille CEDEX 05, France.
| | - Carlo Fischer
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), 38124 Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Jan F Drexler
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), 38124 Braunschweig, Germany.
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Ernest A Gould
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ⁻IRD 190⁻Inserm 1207⁻IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13385 Marseille CEDEX 05, France.
| | - David Roiz
- UMR Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Écologie, Génétique Évolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC: IRD, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier), 34394 Montpellier, France.
| | - Christophe Paupy
- UMR Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Écologie, Génétique Évolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC: IRD, CNRS, Univ. Montpellier), 34394 Montpellier, France.
| | - Xavier de Lamballerie
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ⁻IRD 190⁻Inserm 1207⁻IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13385 Marseille CEDEX 05, France.
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