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Kolesov DE, Gaiamova EA, Orlova NA, Vorobiev II. Dimeric ACE2-FC Is Equivalent to Monomeric ACE2 in the Surrogate Virus Neutralization Test. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2023; 88:1274-1283. [PMID: 37770394 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297923090079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the main cellular receptor for the dangerous sarbecoviruses SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Its recombinant extracellular domain is used to monitor the level of protective humoral immune response to a viral infection or vaccine using the surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT). Soluble ACE2 is also considered as an option for antiviral therapy potentially insensitive to the changes in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Extensive testing of the samples of patient's serum by the sVNT method requires using preparations of ACE2 or ACE2 conjugates with constant properties. We have previously obtained a cell line that is a producer of a soluble monomeric ACE2 and showed that this ACE2 variant can be used in sVNT, preferably as a conjugate with horseradish peroxidase. A cell line that generates an ACE2-Fc fusion protein with high productivity, more than 150 mg/liter of the target protein when cultured in a stirred flask, was obtained for producing a stable and universally applicable form of soluble ACE2. The affinity-purified ACE2-Fc fusion contains a mixture of dimeric and tetrameric forms, but allows obtaining linear response curves for inhibition of binding with the receptor-binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by antibodies. The ACE2-Fc-HRP-based sVNT testing system can be used for practical measurements of the levels of virus-neutralizing antibodies against various circulating variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis E Kolesov
- Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Elizaveta A Gaiamova
- Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Nadezhda A Orlova
- Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Ivan I Vorobiev
- Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia.
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Castillo G, Mora-Díaz JC, Breuer M, Singh P, Nelli RK, Giménez-Lirola LG. Molecular mechanisms of human coronavirus NL63 infection and replication. Virus Res 2023; 327:199078. [PMID: 36813239 PMCID: PMC9944649 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) is spread globally, causing upper and lower respiratory tract infections mainly in young children. HCoV-NL63 shares a host receptor (ACE2) with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2 but, unlike them, HCoV-NL63 primarily develops into self-limiting mild to moderate respiratory disease. Although with different efficiency, both HCoV-NL63 and SARS-like CoVs infect ciliated respiratory cells using ACE2 as receptor for binding and cell entry. Working with SARS-like CoVs require access to BSL-3 facilities, while HCoV-NL63 research can be performed at BSL-2 laboratories. Thus, HCoV-NL63 could be used as a safer surrogate for comparative studies on receptor dynamics, infectivity and virus replication, disease mechanism, and potential therapeutic interventions against SARS-like CoVs. This prompted us to review the current knowledge on the infection mechanism and replication of HCoV-NL63. Specifically, after a brief overview on the taxonomy, genomic organization and virus structure, this review compiles the current HCoV-NL63-related research in virus entry and replication mechanism, including virus attachment, endocytosis, genome translation, and replication and transcription. Furthermore, we reviewed cumulative knowledge on the susceptibility of different cells to HCoV-NL63 infection in vitro, which is essential for successful virus isolation and propagation, and contribute to address different scientific questions from basic science to the development and assessment of diagnostic tools, and antiviral therapies. Finally, we discussed different antiviral strategies that have been explored to suppress replication of HCoV-NL63, and other related human coronaviruses, by either targeting the virus or enhancing host antiviral mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gino Castillo
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Juan Carlos Mora-Díaz
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Mary Breuer
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Pallavi Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA
| | - Rahul K Nelli
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Luis G Giménez-Lirola
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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Bonavia A, Dominguez SR, Dveksler G, Gagneten S, Howard M, Jeffers S, Qian Z, Smith MK, Thackray LB, Tresnan DB, Wentworth DE, Wessner DR, Williams RK, Miura TA. Kathryn V. Holmes: A Career of Contributions to the Coronavirus Field. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071573. [PMID: 35891553 PMCID: PMC9315735 DOI: 10.3390/v14071573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past two years, scientific research has moved at an unprecedented rate in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rapid development of effective vaccines and therapeutics would not have been possible without extensive background knowledge on coronaviruses developed over decades by researchers, including Kathryn (Kay) Holmes. Kay’s research team discovered the first coronavirus receptors for mouse hepatitis virus and human coronavirus 229E and contributed a wealth of information on coronaviral spike glycoproteins and receptor interactions that are critical determinants of host and tissue specificity. She collaborated with several research laboratories to contribute knowledge in additional areas, including coronaviral pathogenesis, epidemiology, and evolution. Throughout her career, Kay was an extremely dedicated and thoughtful mentor to numerous graduate students and post-doctoral fellows. This article provides a review of her contributions to the coronavirus field and her exemplary mentoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelio Bonavia
- Vaccine Development, Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA;
| | - Samuel R. Dominguez
- Department of Pediatrics-Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA;
| | - Gabriela Dveksler
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA;
| | - Sara Gagneten
- Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccines Research and Review, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA;
| | - Megan Howard
- Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH 43201, USA;
| | | | - Zhaohui Qian
- Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100050, China;
| | | | - Larissa B. Thackray
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA;
| | - Dina B. Tresnan
- Safety Surveillance and Risk Management, Worldwide Safety, Pfizer, Groton, CT 06340, USA;
| | - David E. Wentworth
- COVID-19 Emergency Response, Virology Surveillance and Diagnosis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329-4027, USA;
| | - David R. Wessner
- Departments of Biology and Public Health, Davidson College, Davidson, NC 28035, USA;
| | | | - Tanya A. Miura
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-208-885-4940
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Human Air-Liquid-Interface Organotypic Airway Cultures Express Significantly More ACE2 Receptor Protein and Are More Susceptible to HCoV-NL63 Infection than Monolayer Cultures of Primary Respiratory Epithelial Cells. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0163922. [PMID: 35863002 PMCID: PMC9431431 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01639-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) is commonly associated with mild respiratory tract infections in infants, being that the respiratory epithelial cells are the main target for infection and initial replication of this virus. Standard immortalized cells are highly permissive to HCoV-NL63, and they are routinely used for isolation and propagation of the virus from clinical specimens. However, these cell lines are not the natural cell target of the virus and lack sufficient complexity to mimic the natural infection process in vivo. This study comparatively evaluated the differences on the susceptibility to HCoV-NL63 infection and virus replication efficiency of submerged monolayer cultures of LLC-MK2 and primary human respiratory epithelial cells (HRECs) and organotypic airway cultures of respiratory cells (ALI-HRECs). Productive viral infection and growth kinetics were assessed by morphologic examination of cytopathic effects, immunofluorescence, reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR, and flow cytometry. Results from this study showed higher susceptibility to HCoV-NL63 infection and replication in LLC-MK2 cells followed by ALI-HRECs, with very low susceptibility and no significant virus replication in HRECs. This susceptibility was associated with the expression levels of angiontensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor protein in LLC-MK2, ALI-HRECs, and HRECs, respectively. Remarkably, organotypic ALI-HREC cultures expressed significantly more ACE2 receptor protein and were more susceptible to HCoV-NL63 infection than monolayer cultures of HREC. The ACE2 receptor is, therefore, a critical factor for susceptibility to HCoV-NL63 infection and replication, as is the type of culture used during infection studies. IMPORTANCE HCoV-NL63 is widespread globally, accounting for a significant number of respiratory infections in children and adults. HCoV-NL63 gains entrance into respiratory epithelial cells via the ACE2 receptor, the same cell receptor used by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2. Thus, HCoV-NL63 has been suggested as safe surrogate for studying disease mechanisms and therapeutic interventions against SARS-like CoVs, while working under BSL-2 conditions. The present study not only showed the critical role of ACE2 for effective HCoV-NL63 infection and replication, but also shed light on the need of more refined and complex in vitro organotypic models that recapitulate the proxy of air-liquid respiratory epithelia cell composition, structure, and functionality. These cultures have broaden virological studies toward improving our understanding of how coronaviruses cause disease and transmission not just within humans but also in animal populations.
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Abstract
Coronaviruses infect humans and a wide range of animals, causing predominantly respiratory and intestinal infections. This review provides background on the taxonomy of coronaviruses, the functions of viral proteins, and the life cycle of coronaviruses. In addition, the review focuses on coronaviral diseases in several agriculturally important, companion, and laboratory animal species (cats, cattle, chickens, dogs, mice, rats and swine) and briefly reviews human coronaviruses and their origins.
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Shojaee A, Vahedian-Azimi A, Faizi F, Rahimi-Bashar F, Shahriary A, Galeh HEG, Nehrir B, Guest PC, Sahebkar A. Relationship Between COVID-19 and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2: A Scoping Review. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1321:53-68. [PMID: 33656713 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-59261-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Following the outbreaks of SARS-CoV in 2002 and MERS-CoV in 2012, the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has become an increasing threat to human health around the world. Numerous studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 appears similar to the SARS-CoV as it uses angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a receptor to gain entry into cells. The main aims of this scoping review were to identify the primary hosts of coronaviruses, the relationship between the receptor binding domain of coronaviruses and ACE2, the organ specificity of ACE2 expression compared with clinical manifestations of the disease, and to determine if this information can be used in the development of novel treatment approaches for the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Shojaee
- Student Research Committee, Nursing Faculty, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Vahedian-Azimi
- Trauma Research Center, Nursing Faculty, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fakhrudin Faizi
- Atherosclerosis research center, Nursing Faculty, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farshid Rahimi-Bashar
- Anesthesia and Critical Care Department, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Alireza Shahriary
- Chemical Injuries Research Center, Systems Biology and Poisonings Institute, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Batool Nehrir
- Health Management Research Center, Nursing Faculty, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Paul C Guest
- Laboratory of Neuroproteomics, Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Polish Mother's Memorial Hospital Research Institute (PMMHRI), Lodz, Poland. .,Halal Research Center of IRI, FDA, Tehran, Iran.
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Xu H, Liu B, Xiao Z, Zhou M, Ge L, Jia F, Liu Y, Jin H, Zhu X, Gao J, Akhtar J, Xiang B, Tan K, Wang G. Computational and Experimental Studies Reveal That Thymoquinone Blocks the Entry of Coronaviruses Into In Vitro Cells. Infect Dis Ther 2021; 10:483-494. [PMID: 33532909 PMCID: PMC7853165 DOI: 10.1007/s40121-021-00400-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Since December 2019, severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China and worldwide. New drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 are in urgent need. Considering the long development time for new drugs, the identification of promising inhibitors from FDA-approved drugs is an imperative and valuable strategy. Recent studies have shown that the S1 and S2 subunits of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 utilize human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) as the receptor to infect human cells. METHODS We combined molecular docking and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to identify potential inhibitors for ACE2 from available commercial medicines. We also designed coronavirus pseudoparticles that contain the spike protein assembled onto green fluorescent protein or luciferase reporter gene-carrying vesicular stomatitis virus core particles. RESULTS We found that thymoquinone, a phytochemical compound obtained from the plant Nigella sativa, is a potential drug candidate. SPR analysis confirmed the binding of thymoquinone to ACE2. We found that thymoquinone can inhibit SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and NL63 pseudoparticles infecting HEK293-ACE2 cells, with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of 4.999, 7.598, and 6.019 μM, respectively. The SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticle inhibition had half-maximal cytotoxic concentration of 35.100 μM and selection index = 7.020. CONCLUSION Thymoquinone is a potential broad-spectrum inhibitor for the treatment of coronavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Xu
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China.,Shenzhen Bay Laboratories, Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen, 518132, China
| | - Bing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Zhen Xiao
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Computational Science and Material Design, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Meiling Zhou
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China
| | - Lin Ge
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China
| | - Fan Jia
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen, 518055, China.,Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China.,Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yanling Liu
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China
| | - Hongshan Jin
- Nanjing Gemni Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Xiuliang Zhu
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China
| | - Jian Gao
- New Drug R&D Center, North China Pharmaceutical Corporation, Shijiazhuang, 050015, China
| | - Javed Akhtar
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Computational Science and Material Design, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Bai Xiang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, China.
| | - Ke Tan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China.
| | - Guanyu Wang
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China. .,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Computational Science and Material Design, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China.
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Stone NE, Jaramillo SA, Jones AN, Vazquez AJ, Martz M, Versluis LM, Raniere MO, Nunnally HE, Zarn KE, Nottingham R, Ng KR, Sahl JW, Wagner DM, Knudsen S, Settles EW, Keim P, French CT. Stenoparib, an Inhibitor of Cellular Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase, Blocks Replication of the SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV-NL63 Human Coronaviruses In Vitro. mBio 2021; 12:e03495-20. [PMID: 33468703 PMCID: PMC7845641 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03495-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
By late 2020, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), had caused tens of millions of infections and over 1 million deaths worldwide. A protective vaccine and more effective therapeutics are urgently needed. We evaluated a new poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, stenoparib, that recently advanced to phase II clinical trials for treatment of ovarian cancer, for activity against human respiratory coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, in vitro Stenoparib exhibits dose-dependent suppression of SARS-CoV-2 multiplication and spread in Vero E6 monkey kidney and Calu-3 human lung adenocarcinoma cells. Stenoparib was also strongly inhibitory to the human seasonal respiratory coronavirus HCoV-NL63. Compared to remdesivir, which inhibits viral replication downstream of cell entry, stenoparib impedes entry and postentry processes, as determined by time-of-addition (TOA) experiments. Moreover, a 10 μM dosage of stenoparib-below the approximated 25.5 μM half-maximally effective concentration (EC50)-combined with 0.5 μM remdesivir suppressed coronavirus growth by more than 90%, indicating a potentially synergistic effect for this drug combination. Stenoparib as a stand-alone or as part of combinatorial therapy with remdesivir should be a valuable addition to the arsenal against COVID-19.IMPORTANCE New therapeutics are urgently needed in the fight against COVID-19. Repurposing drugs that are either already approved for human use or are in advanced stages of the approval process can facilitate more rapid advances toward this goal. The PARP inhibitor stenoparib may be such a drug, as it is currently in phase II clinical trials for the treatment of ovarian cancer and its safety and dosage in humans have already been established. Our results indicate that stenoparib possesses strong antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses in vitro. This activity appears to be based on multiple modes of action, where both pre-entry and postentry viral replication processes are impeded. This may provide a therapeutic advantage over many current options that have a narrower target range. Moreover, our results suggest that stenoparib and remdesivir in combination may be especially potent against coronavirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan E Stone
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Sierra A Jaramillo
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Ashley N Jones
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Adam J Vazquez
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Madison Martz
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Lora M Versluis
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Marlee O Raniere
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Haley E Nunnally
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Katherine E Zarn
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Roxanne Nottingham
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Ken R Ng
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Jason W Sahl
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - David M Wagner
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | | | - Erik W Settles
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Paul Keim
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
| | - Christopher T French
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
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9
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Ferrario CM, Ahmad S, Groban L. Twenty years of progress in angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and its link to SARS-CoV-2 disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 2020; 134:2645-2664. [PMID: 33063823 PMCID: PMC9055624 DOI: 10.1042/cs20200901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The virulence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and the aggressive nature of the disease has transformed the universal pace of research in the desperate attempt to seek effective therapies to halt the morbidity and mortality of this pandemic. The rapid sequencing of the SARS-CoV-2 virus facilitated identification of the receptor for angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the high affinity binding site that allows virus endocytosis. Parallel evidence that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease evolution shows greater lethality in patients with antecedent cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or even obesity questioned the potential unfavorable contribution of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin II (Ang II) receptor blockers as facilitators of adverse outcomes due to the ability of these therapies to augment the transcription of Ace2 with consequent increase in protein formation and enzymatic activity. We review, here, the specific studies that support a role of these agents in altering the expression and activity of ACE2 and underscore that the robustness of the experimental data is associated with weak clinical long-term studies of the existence of a similar regulation of tissue or plasma ACE2 in human subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos M. Ferrario
- Departments of Surgery and Physiology-Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, U.S.A
| | - Sarfaraz Ahmad
- Department of Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, U.S.A
| | - Leanne Groban
- Department of Anesthesiology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, U.S.A
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10
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Wong ACP, Li X, Lau SKP, Woo PCY. Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020174. [PMID: 30791586 PMCID: PMC6409556 DOI: 10.3390/v11020174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats are a unique group of mammals of the order Chiroptera. They are highly diversified and are the group of mammals with the second largest number of species. Such highly diversified cell types and receptors facilitate them to be potential hosts of a large variety of viruses. Bats are the only group of mammals capable of sustained flight, which enables them to disseminate the viruses they harbor and enhance the chance of interspecies transmission. This article aims at reviewing the various aspects of the global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses (CoVs). Before the SARS epidemic, bats were not known to be hosts for CoVs. In the last 15 years, bats have been found to be hosts of >30 CoVs with complete genomes sequenced, and many more if those without genome sequences are included. Among the four CoV genera, only alphaCoVs and betaCoVs have been found in bats. As a whole, both alphaCoVs and betaCoVs have been detected from bats in Asia, Europe, Africa, North and South America and Australasia; but alphaCoVs seem to be more widespread than betaCoVs, and their detection rate is also higher. For betaCoVs, only those from subgenera Sarbecovirus, Merbecovirus, Nobecovirus and Hibecovirus have been detected in bats. Most notably, horseshoe bats are the reservoir of SARS-CoV, and several betaCoVs from subgenus Merbecovirus are closely related to MERS-CoV. In addition to the interactions among various bat species themselves, bat⁻animal and bat⁻human interactions, such as the presence of live bats in wildlife wet markets and restaurants in Southern China, are important for interspecies transmission of CoVs and may lead to devastating global outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio C P Wong
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
| | - Susanna K P Lau
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
| | - Patrick C Y Woo
- Department of Microbiology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
- Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Reguera J, Mudgal G, Santiago C, Casasnovas JM. A structural view of coronavirus-receptor interactions. Virus Res 2014; 194:3-15. [PMID: 25451063 PMCID: PMC7114462 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
In the coronavirus (CoV), the envelope spike (S) glycoprotein is responsible for CoV cell entry and host-to-host transmission. The S is a multifunctional glycoprotein that mediates both attachment of CoV particles to cell surface receptor molecules as well as membrane penetration by fusion. Receptor-binding domains (RBD) have been identified in the S of diverse CoV; they usually contain antigenic determinants targeted by antibodies that neutralize CoV infections. To penetrate host cells, the CoV can use various cell surface molecules, although they preferentially bind to ectoenzymes. Several crystal structures have determined the folding of CoV RBD and the mode by which they recognize cell entry receptors. Here we review the CoV-receptor complex structures reported to date, and highlight the distinct receptor recognition modes, common features, and key determinants of the binding specificity. Structural studies have established the basis for understanding receptor recognition diversity in CoV, its evolution and the adaptation of this virus family to different hosts. CoV responsible for recent outbreaks have extraordinary potential for cross-species transmission; their RBD bear large platforms specialized in recognition of receptors from different species, which facilitates host-to-host circulation and adaptation to man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Reguera
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble Outstation, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Gaurav Mudgal
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma, Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - César Santiago
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma, Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - José M Casasnovas
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma, Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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12
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Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63. J Virol 2012; 86:12816-25. [PMID: 22993147 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00906-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between bats and coronaviruses (CoVs) has received considerable attention since the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like CoV was identified in the Chinese horseshoe bat (Rhinolophidae) in 2005. Since then, several bats throughout the world have been shown to shed CoV sequences, and presumably CoVs, in the feces; however, no bat CoVs have been isolated from nature. Moreover, there are very few bat cell lines or reagents available for investigating CoV replication in bat cells or for isolating bat CoVs adapted to specific bat species. Here, we show by molecular clock analysis that alphacoronavirus (α-CoV) sequences derived from the North American tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus) are predicted to share common ancestry with human CoV (HCoV)-NL63, with the most recent common ancestor between these viruses occurring approximately 563 to 822 years ago. Further, we developed immortalized bat cell lines from the lungs of this bat species to determine if these cells were capable of supporting infection with HCoVs. While SARS-CoV, mouse-adapted SARS-CoV (MA15), and chimeric SARS-CoVs bearing the spike genes of early human strains replicated inefficiently, HCoV-NL63 replicated for multiple passages in the immortalized lung cells from this bat species. These observations support the hypothesis that human CoVs are capable of establishing zoonotic-reverse zoonotic transmission cycles that may allow some CoVs to readily circulate and exchange genetic material between strains found in bats and other mammals, including humans.
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Dijkman R, Jebbink MF, Deijs M, Milewska A, Pyrc K, Buelow E, van der Bijl A, van der Hoek L. Replication-dependent downregulation of cellular angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protein expression by human coronavirus NL63. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:1924-1929. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.043919-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Like severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), human coronavirus (HCoV)-NL63 employs angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a receptor for cellular entry. SARS-CoV infection causes robust downregulation of cellular ACE2 expression levels and it has been suggested that the SARS-CoV effect on ACE2 is involved in the severity of disease. We investigated whether cellular ACE2 downregulation occurs at optimal replication conditions of HCoV-NL63 infection. The expression of the homologue of ACE2, the ACE protein not used as a receptor by HCoV-NL63, was measured as a control. A specific decrease for ACE2 protein level was observed when HCoV-NL63 was cultured at 34 °C. Culturing the virus at the suboptimal temperature of 37 °C resulted in low replication of the virus and the effect on ACE2 expression was lost. We conclude that the decline of ACE2 expression is dependent on the efficiency of HCoV-NL63 replication, and that HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV both affect cellular ACE2 expression during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Dijkman
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten F. Jebbink
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Deijs
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aleksandra Milewska
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Krzysztof Pyrc
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Elena Buelow
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anna van der Bijl
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lia van der Hoek
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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Molecular determinants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus pathogenesis and virulence in young and aged mouse models of human disease. J Virol 2011; 86:884-97. [PMID: 22072787 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05957-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) causes severe acute respiratory tract disease characterized by diffuse alveolar damage and hyaline membrane formation. This pathology often progresses to acute respiratory distress (such as acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS]) and atypical pneumonia in humans, with characteristic age-related mortality rates approaching 50% or more in immunosenescent populations. The molecular basis for the extreme virulence of SARS-CoV remains elusive. Since young and aged (1-year-old) mice do not develop severe clinical disease following infection with wild-type SARS-CoV, a mouse-adapted strain of SARS-CoV (called MA15) was developed and was shown to cause lethal infection in these animals. To understand the genetic contributions to the increased pathogenesis of MA15 in rodents, we used reverse genetics and evaluated the virulence of panels of derivative viruses encoding various combinations of mouse-adapted mutations. We found that mutations in the viral spike (S) glycoprotein and, to a much less rigorous extent, in the nsp9 nonstructural protein, were primarily associated with the acquisition of virulence in young animals. The mutations in S likely increase recognition of the mouse angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor not only in MA15 but also in two additional, independently isolated mouse-adapted SARS-CoVs. In contrast to the findings for young animals, mutations to revert to the wild-type sequence in nsp9 and the S glycoprotein were not sufficient to significantly attenuate the virus compared to other combinations of mouse-adapted mutations in 12-month-old mice. This panel of SARS-CoVs provides novel reagents that we have used to further our understanding of differential, age-related pathogenic mechanisms in mouse models of human disease.
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Abstract
HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E are two of the four human coronaviruses that circulate worldwide. These two viruses are unique in their relationship towards each other. Phylogenetically, the viruses are more closely related to each other than to any other human coronavirus, yet they only share 65% sequence identity. Moreover, the viruses use different receptors to enter their target cell. HCoV-NL63 is associated with croup in children, whereas all signs suggest that the virus probably causes the common cold in healthy adults. HCoV-229E is a proven common cold virus in healthy adults, so it is probable that both viruses induce comparable symptoms in adults, even though their mode of infection differs. Here, we present an overview of the current knowledge on both human coronaviruses, focusing on similarities and differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Dijkman
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Systematic assembly of a full-length infectious clone of human coronavirus NL63. J Virol 2008; 82:11948-57. [PMID: 18818320 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01804-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Historically, coronaviruses were predominantly associated with mild upper respiratory disease in humans. More recently, three novel coronaviruses associated with severe human respiratory disease were found, including (i) the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, associated with a significant atypical pneumonia and 10% mortality; (ii) HKU-1, associated with chronic pulmonary disease; and (iii) NL63, associated with both upper and lower respiratory tract disease in children and adults worldwide. These discoveries establish coronaviruses as important human pathogens and underscore the need for continued research toward the development of platforms that will enable genetic manipulation of the viral genome, allowing for rapid and rational development and testing of candidate vaccines, vaccine vectors, and therapeutics. In this report, we describe a reverse genetics system for NL63, whereby five contiguous cDNAs that span the entire genome were used to generate a full-length cDNA. Recombinant NL63 viruses which contained the expected marker mutations replicated as efficiently as the wild-type NL63 virus. In addition, we engineered the heterologous green fluorescent protein gene in place of open reading frame 3 (ORF3) of the NL63 clone, simultaneously creating a unique marker for NL63 infection and demonstrating that the ORF3 protein product is nonessential for the replication of NL63 in cell culture. The availability of the NL63 and NL63gfp clones and recombinant viruses provides powerful tools that will help advance our understanding of this important human pathogen.
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Li W, Sui J, Huang IC, Kuhn JH, Radoshitzky SR, Marasco WA, Choe H, Farzan M. The S proteins of human coronavirus NL63 and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus bind overlapping regions of ACE2. Virology 2007; 367:367-74. [PMID: 17631932 PMCID: PMC2693060 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2007] [Revised: 04/18/2007] [Accepted: 04/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The cellular receptor for human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63), a group I coronavirus, is angiotensin-converting enzyme2 (ACE2). ACE2 is also the receptor for the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), a group II coronavirus. Here we describe the ability of HCoV-NL63 to utilize a number of ACE2 variants previously characterized as SARS-CoV receptors. Several ACE2 variants that reduced SARS-CoV S-protein association similarly reduced that of HCoV-NL63, whereas alteration of a number of solvent-exposed ACE2 residues did not interfere with binding by either S protein. One notable exception is ACE2 residue 354, at the boundary of the SARS-CoV binding site, whose alteration markedly inhibited utilization by the HCoV-NL63 but not SARS-CoV S proteins. In addition, the SARS-CoV S-protein receptor-binding domain inhibited entry mediated by the HCoV-NL63 S protein. These studies indicate that HCoV-NL63, like SARS-CoV, associates region of human ACE2 that includes a key loop formed by β-strands 4 and 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jianhua Sui
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, USA
| | - I-Chueh Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jens H. Kuhn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sheli R. Radoshitzky
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Wayne A. Marasco
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, USA
| | - Hyeryun Choe
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School and Perlmutter Laboratory, Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael Farzan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
- Corresponding author. Mailing address: 1 Pine Hill Drive, Southborough, MA 01772-9102, USA. Fax: +1 508 786 3317.
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Kuhn JH, Li W, Radoshitzky SR, Choe H, Farzan M. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Entry as a Target of Antiviral Therapies. Antivir Ther 2007. [DOI: 10.1177/135965350701200s05.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The identification in 2003 of a coronavirus as the aetiological agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) intensified efforts to understand the biology of corona-viruses in general and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in particular. Rapid progress was made in describing the SARS-CoV genome, evolution and lifecycle. Identification of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as an obligate cellular receptor for SARS-CoV contributed to understanding of the SARS-CoV entry process, and helped to characterize two targets of antiviral therapeutics: the SARS-CoV spike protein and ACE2. Here we describe the role of these proteins in SARS-CoV replication and potential therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing entry of SARS-CoV into target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens H Kuhn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Wenhui Li
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
| | - Sheli R Radoshitzky
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
| | - Hyeryun Choe
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael Farzan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA, USA
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Tusell SM, Schittone SA, Holmes KV. Mutational analysis of aminopeptidase N, a receptor for several group 1 coronaviruses, identifies key determinants of viral host range. J Virol 2006; 81:1261-73. [PMID: 17093189 PMCID: PMC1797531 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01510-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline coronavirus (FCoV), porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV), canine coronavirus (CCoV), and human coronavirus HCoV-229E, which belong to the group 1 coronavirus, use aminopeptidase N (APN) of their natural host and feline APN (fAPN) as receptors. Using mouse-feline APN chimeras, we identified three small, discontinuous regions, amino acids (aa) 288 to 290, aa 732 to 746 (called R1), and aa 764 to 788 (called R2) in fAPN that determined the host ranges of these coronaviruses. Blockade of infection with anti-fAPN monoclonal antibody RG4 suggested that these three regions lie close together on the fAPN surface. Different residues in fAPN were required for infection with each coronavirus. HCoV-229E infection was blocked by an N-glycosylation sequon present between aa 288 to 290 in murine APN. TGEV required R1 of fAPN, while FCoV and CCoV required both R1 and R2 for entry. N740 and T742 in fAPN and the homologous R741 in human APN (hAPN) were key determinants of host range for FCoV, TGEV, and CCoV. Residue N740 in fAPN was essential only for CCoV receptor activity. A conservative T742V substitution or a T742R substitution in fAPN destroyed receptor activity for the pig, dog, and cat coronaviruses, while a T742S substitution retained these receptor activities. Thus, the hydroxyl on T742 is required for the coronavirus receptor activity of fAPN. In hAPN an R741T substitution caused a gain of receptor activity for TGEV but not for FCoV or CCoV. Therefore, entry and host range of these group 1 coronaviruses depend on the ability of the viral spike glycoproteins to recognize small, species-specific amino acid differences in the APN proteins of different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia M Tusell
- Molecular Biology Program, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
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