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Navarro-López JD, Contreras A, Touyarot K, Herrero AI, Venero C, Cambon K, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM, Sandi C, Jiménez-Díaz L. Acquisition-dependent modulation of hippocampal neural cell adhesion molecules by associative motor learning. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:1082701. [PMID: 36620194 PMCID: PMC9811386 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.1082701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely accepted that some types of learning involve structural and functional changes of hippocampal synapses. Cell adhesion molecules neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), its polysialylated form polysialic acid to NCAM (PSA-NCAM), and L1 are prominent modulators of those changes. On the other hand, trace eyeblink conditioning, an associative motor learning task, requires the active participation of hippocampal circuits. However, the involvement of NCAM, PSA-NCAM, and L1 in this type of learning is not fully known. Here, we aimed to investigate the possible time sequence modifications of such neural cell adhesion molecules in the hippocampus during the acquisition of a trace eyeblink conditioning. To do so, the hippocampal expression of NCAM, PSA-NCAM, and L1 was assessed at three different time points during conditioning: after one (initial acquisition), three (partial acquisition), and six (complete acquisition) sessions of the conditioning paradigm. The conditioned stimulus (CS) was a weak electrical pulse separated by a 250-ms time interval from the unconditioned stimuli (US, a strong electrical pulse). An acquisition-dependent regulation of these adhesion molecules was found in the hippocampus. During the initial acquisition of the conditioning eyeblink paradigm (12 h after 1 and 3 days of training), synaptic expression of L1 and PSA-NCAM was transiently increased in the contralateral hippocampus to the paired CS-US presentations, whereas, when the associative learning was completed, such increase disappeared, but a marked and bilateral upregulation of NCAM was found. In conclusion, our findings show a specific temporal pattern of hippocampal CAMs expression during the acquisition process, highlighting the relevance of NCAM, PSA-NCAM, and L1 as learning-modulated molecules critically involved in remodeling processes underlying associative motor-memories formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan D. Navarro-López
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Behavior, Facultad de Medicina de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Ana Contreras
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Behavior, Facultad de Medicina de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Katia Touyarot
- INRAE, Bordeaux INP, NutriNeuro, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ana I. Herrero
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - César Venero
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Karine Cambon
- Direction de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Institut François Jacob, MIRCen, Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Agnés Gruart
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lydia Jiménez-Díaz
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Behavior, Facultad de Medicina de Ciudad Real, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain,*Correspondence: Lydia Jiménez-Díaz,
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2
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Wielgat P, Narejko K, Car H. SARS-CoV-2 Attacks in the Brain: Focus on the Sialome. Cells 2022; 11:1458. [PMID: 35563764 PMCID: PMC9104523 DOI: 10.3390/cells11091458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidemiological observations suggest that respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are accompanied by short- and long-term neurological manifestations. There is increasing evidence that the neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to its capacity to interact with cell membrane sialome. Given the wide expression of sialylated compounds of cell membranes in the brain, the interplay between cell membrane sialoglycans and the virus is crucial for its attachment and cell entry, transport, neuronal damage and brain immunity. Here, we focus on the significance of the brain sialome in the progress of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and SARS-CoV-2-induced neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemyslaw Wielgat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
| | - Karolina Narejko
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
| | - Halina Car
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland; (K.N.); (H.C.)
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Szpitalna 37, 15-265 Bialystok, Poland
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3
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Glycoproteomic measurement of site-specific polysialylation. Anal Biochem 2020; 596:113625. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2020.113625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Janesch B, Baumann L, Mark A, Thompson N, Rahmani S, Sim L, Withers SG, Wakarchuk WW. Directed evolution of bacterial polysialyltransferases. Glycobiology 2020; 29:588-598. [PMID: 30976781 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwz021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Polysialyltransferases (polySTs) are glycosyltransferases that synthesize polymers of sialic acid found in vertebrates and some bacterial pathogens. Bacterial polySTs have utility in the modification of therapeutic proteins to improve serum half-life, and the potential for tissue engineering. PolySTs are membrane-associated proteins and as recombinant proteins suffer from inherently low solubility, low expression levels and poor thermal stability. To improve their physicochemical and biochemical properties, we applied a directed evolution approach using a FACS-based ultrahigh-throughput assay as a simple, robust and reliable screening method. We were able to enrich a large mutant library and, in combination with plate-based high-throughput secondary screening, we discovered mutants with increased enzymatic activity and improved stability compared to the wildtype enzyme. This work presents a powerful strategy for the screening of directed evolution libraries of bacterial polySTs to identify better catalysts for in vitro polysialylation of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Janesch
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lars Baumann
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Michael Smith Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alison Mark
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nicole Thompson
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sadia Rahmani
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lyann Sim
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Michael Smith Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Stephen G Withers
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Michael Smith Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Warren W Wakarchuk
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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5
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Wang XJ, Peng CH, Zhang S, Xu XL, Shu GF, Qi J, Zhu YF, Xu DM, Kang XQ, Lu KJ, Jin FY, Yu RS, Ying XY, You J, Du YZ, Ji JS. Polysialic-Acid-Based Micelles Promote Neural Regeneration in Spinal Cord Injury Therapy. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:829-838. [PMID: 30605619 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) routinely causes the immediate loss and disruption of neurons followed by complicated secondary injuries, including inflammation, oxidative stress, and dense glial scar formation. Inhibitory factors in the lesion scar and poor intrinsic neural regeneration capacity restrict functional recovery after injury. Minocycline, which has neuroprotective activity, can alleviate secondary injury, but the long-term administration of this drug may cause toxicity. Polysialic acid (PSA) is a large cell-surface carbohydrate that is critical for central nervous system development and is capable of promoting precursor cell migration, axon path finding, and synaptic remodeling; thus, PSA plays a vital role in tissue repair and regeneration. Here, we developed a PSA-based minocycline-loaded nanodrug delivery system (PSM) for the synergistic therapy of spinal cord injury. The prepared PSM exerted marked anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities both in vitro and in vivo. The administration of PSM could significantly protect neurons and myelin sheaths from damage, reduce the formation of glial scar, recruit endogenous neural stem cells to the lesion site, and promote the regeneration of neurons and the extension of long axons throughout the glial scar, thereby largely improving the locomotor function of SCI rats and exerting a superior therapeutic effect. The findings might provide a novel strategy for SCI synergistic therapy and the utilization of PSA in other central nervous system diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Juan Wang
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Chen-Han Peng
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Xiao-Ling Xu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Gao-Feng Shu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
- Key Laboratory of Imaging Diagnosis and Minimally Invasive Intervention Research , Lishui Hospital of Zhejiang University , Lishui 323000 , China
| | - Jing Qi
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Ya-Fang Zhu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - De-Min Xu
- Department of Radiology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310009 , PR China
| | - Xu-Qi Kang
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Kong-Jun Lu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Fei-Yang Jin
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Ri-Sheng Yu
- Department of Radiology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310009 , PR China
| | - Xiao-Ying Ying
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Jian You
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Yong-Zhong Du
- Institute of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310058 , PR China
| | - Jian-Song Ji
- Key Laboratory of Imaging Diagnosis and Minimally Invasive Intervention Research , Lishui Hospital of Zhejiang University , Lishui 323000 , China
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6
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Westphal N, Theis T, Loers G, Schachner M, Kleene R. Nuclear fragments of the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM with or without polysialic acid differentially regulate gene expression. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13631. [PMID: 29051583 PMCID: PMC5648764 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14056-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) is the major carrier of polysialic acid (PSA) which modulates NCAM functions of neural cells at the cell surface. In previous studies, we have shown that stimulation of cultured neurons with surrogate NCAM ligands leads to the generation and nuclear import of PSA-lacking and -carrying NCAM fragments. Here, we show that the nuclear import of the PSA-carrying NCAM fragment is mediated by positive cofactor 4 and cofilin, which we identified as novel PSA-binding proteins. In the nucleus, the PSA-carrying NCAM fragment interacts via PSA with PC4 and cofilin, which are involved in RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription. Microarray analysis revealed that the nuclear PSA-carrying and -lacking NCAM fragments affect expression of different genes. By qPCR and immunoblot analysis we verified that the nuclear PSA-carrying NCAM fragment increases mRNA and protein expression of nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group F member 6, whereas the PSA-lacking NCAM fragment increases mRNA and protein expression of low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 2 and α-synuclein. Differential gene expression evoked by nuclear NCAM fragments without and with PSA indicates that PSA-carrying and -lacking NCAM play different functional roles in the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Westphal
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Theis
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Loers
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, 22 Xin Ling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, China.
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
| | - Ralf Kleene
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
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7
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Westphal N, Loers G, Lutz D, Theis T, Kleene R, Schachner M. Generation and intracellular trafficking of a polysialic acid-carrying fragment of the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM to the cell nucleus. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8622. [PMID: 28819302 PMCID: PMC5561184 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09468-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Polysialic acid (PSA) and its major protein carrier, the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM, play important roles in many nervous system functions during development and in adulthood. Here, we show that a PSA-carrying NCAM fragment is generated at the plasma membrane by matrix metalloproteases and transferred to the cell nucleus via endosomes and the cytoplasm. Generation and nuclear import of this fragment in cultured cerebellar neurons is induced by a function-triggering NCAM antibody and a peptide comprising the effector domain (ED) of myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS) which interacts with PSA within the plane of the plasma membrane. These treatments lead to activation of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor, phospholipase C (PLC), protein kinase C (PKC) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), and subsequently to phosphorylation of MARCKS. Moreover, the NCAM antibody triggers calmodulin-dependent activation of nitric oxide synthase, nitric oxide (NO) production, NO-dependent S-nitrosylation of matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9) as well as activation of matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP2) and MMP9, whereas the ED peptide activates phospholipase D (PLD) and MMP2, but not MMP9. These results indicate that the nuclear PSA-carrying NCAM fragment is generated by distinct and functionally defined signal transducing mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Westphal
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Loers
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - David Lutz
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Strukturelle Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Theis
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Kleene
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, 22 Xin Ling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, China.
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
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8
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Bhide GP, Colley KJ. Sialylation of N-glycans: mechanism, cellular compartmentalization and function. Histochem Cell Biol 2017; 147:149-174. [PMID: 27975143 PMCID: PMC7088086 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-016-1520-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Sialylated N-glycans play essential roles in the immune system, pathogen recognition and cancer. This review approaches the sialylation of N-glycans from three perspectives. The first section focuses on the sialyltransferases that add sialic acid to N-glycans. Included in the discussion is a description of these enzymes' glycan acceptors, conserved domain organization and sequences, molecular structure and catalytic mechanism. In addition, we discuss the protein interactions underlying the polysialylation of a select group of adhesion and signaling molecules. In the second section, the biosynthesis of sialic acid, CMP-sialic acid and sialylated N-glycans is discussed, with a special emphasis on the compartmentalization of these processes in the mammalian cell. The sequences and mechanisms maintaining the sialyltransferases and other glycosylation enzymes in the Golgi are also reviewed. In the final section, we have chosen to discuss processes in which sialylated glycans, both N- and O-linked, play a role. The first part of this section focuses on sialic acid-binding proteins including viral hemagglutinins, Siglecs and selectins. In the second half of this section, we comment on the role of sialylated N-glycans in cancer, including the roles of β1-integrin and Fas receptor N-glycan sialylation in cancer cell survival and drug resistance, and the role of these sialylated proteins and polysialic acid in cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurang P Bhide
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, College of Medicine, The University of Illinois at Chicago, 900 S. Ashland Avenue, MC669, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
| | - Karen J Colley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, College of Medicine, The University of Illinois at Chicago, 900 S. Ashland Avenue, MC669, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA.
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9
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Westphal N, Kleene R, Lutz D, Theis T, Schachner M. Polysialic acid enters the cell nucleus attached to a fragment of the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM to regulate the circadian rhythm in mouse brain. Mol Cell Neurosci 2016; 74:114-27. [PMID: 27236020 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In the mammalian nervous system, the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM is the major carrier of the glycan polymer polysialic acid (PSA) which confers important functions to NCAM's protein backbone. PSA attached to NCAM contributes not only to cell migration, neuritogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and behavior, but also to regulation of the circadian rhythm by yet unknown molecular mechanisms. Here, we show that a PSA-carrying transmembrane NCAM fragment enters the nucleus after stimulation of cultured neurons with surrogate NCAM ligands, a phenomenon that depends on the circadian rhythm. Enhanced nuclear import of the PSA-carrying NCAM fragment is associated with altered expression of clock-related genes, as shown by analysis of cultured neuronal cells deprived of PSA by specific enzymatic removal. In vivo, levels of nuclear PSA in different mouse brain regions depend on the circadian rhythm and clock-related gene expression in suprachiasmatic nucleus and cerebellum is affected by the presence of PSA-carrying NCAM in the cell nucleus. Our conceptually novel observations reveal that PSA attached to a transmembrane proteolytic NCAM fragment containing part of the extracellular domain enters the cell nucleus, where PSA-carrying NCAM contributes to the regulation of clock-related gene expression and of the circadian rhythm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Westphal
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Kleene
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - David Lutz
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; Institut für Strukturelle Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Theis
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, 22 Xin Ling Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China.
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10
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Christopher K, Makani V, Judy W, Lee E, Chiaia N, Kim DS, Park J. Use of fluorescent ANTS to examine the BBB-permeability of polysaccharide. MethodsX 2015; 2:174-181. [PMID: 25914873 PMCID: PMC4407278 DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, some polysaccharides showed therapeutic potentials for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases while the most important property, their permeability to the blood brain barrier (BBB) that sheathes the brain and spinal cord, is not yet determined. The determination has been delayed by the difficulty in tracking a target polysaccharide among endogenous polysaccharides in animal. We developed an easy way to examine the BBB-permeability and, possibly, tissue distribution of a target polysaccharide in animal. We tagged a polysaccharide with fluorescent 8-aminonaphthalene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid disodium salt (ANTS) for tracking. We also developed a simple method to separate ANTS-tagged polysaccharide from unconjugated free ANTS using 75% ethanol. After ANTS-polysaccharide was intra-nasally administered into animals, we could quantify the amounts of ANTS-polysaccharide in the brain and the serum by fluorocytometry. We could also separate free ANTS-polysaccharide from serum proteins using trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and 75% ethanol. Our method will help to track a polysaccharide in animal easily. ANTS-labeling is less tedious than but as powerful as radiolabeling for tracking a target polysaccharide in animal. Our simple method can separate structurally intact ANTS-polysaccharide from animal serum and tissues. This method is good for the fluorometry-based measurement of ANTS-conjugated macromolecules in tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Christopher
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Vishruti Makani
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Wesley Judy
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Erica Lee
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Nicolas Chiaia
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Dong Shik Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Toledo, College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43607, USA
| | - Joshua Park
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo, College of Medicine and Life Science, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 419 383 4085; fax: +1 419 383 3008.
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Colley KJ, Kitajima K, Sato C. Polysialic acid: biosynthesis, novel functions and applications. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 49:498-532. [PMID: 25373518 DOI: 10.3109/10409238.2014.976606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
As an anti-adhesive, a reservoir for key biological molecules, and a modulator of signaling, polysialic acid (polySia) is critical for nervous system development and maintenance, promotes cancer metastasis, tissue regeneration and repair, and is implicated in psychiatric diseases. In this review, we focus on the biosynthesis and functions of mammalian polySia, and the use of polySia in therapeutic applications. PolySia modifies a small subset of mammalian glycoproteins, with the neural cell adhesion molecule, NCAM, serving as its major carrier. Studies show that mammalian polysialyltransferases employ a unique recognition mechanism to limit the addition of polySia to a select group of proteins. PolySia has long been considered an anti-adhesive molecule, and its impact on cell adhesion and signaling attributed directly to this property. However, recent studies have shown that polySia specifically binds neurotrophins, growth factors, and neurotransmitters and that this binding depends on chain length. This work highlights the importance of considering polySia quality and quantity, and not simply its presence or absence, as its various roles are explored. The capsular polySia of neuroinvasive bacteria allows these organisms to evade the host immune response. While this "stealth" characteristic has made meningitis vaccine development difficult, it has also made polySia a worthy replacement for polyetheylene glycol in the generation of therapeutic proteins with low immunogenicity and improved circulating half-lives. Bacterial polysialyltransferases are more promiscuous than the protein-specific mammalian enzymes, and new studies suggest that these enzymes have tremendous therapeutic potential, especially for strategies aimed at neural regeneration and tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen J Colley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago, IL , USA and
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12
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Wędzony K, Chocyk A, Maćkowiak M. Potential roles of NCAM/PSA-NCAM proteins in depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 65:1471-8. [PMID: 24552994 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71507-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Recently, it has been proposed that abnormalities in neuronal structural plasticity may underlie the pathogenesis of major depression, resulting in changes in the volume of specific brain regions, including the hippocampus (HIP), the prefrontal cortex (PC), and the amygdala (AMY), as well as the morphology of individual neurons in these brain regions. In the present survey, we compile the data regarding the involvement of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) protein and its polysialylated form (PSA-NCAM) in the pathogenesis of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs (ADDs). Elevated expression of PSA-NCAM may reflect neuroplastic changes, whereas decreased expression implies a rigidification of neuronal morphology and an impedance of dynamic changes in synaptic structure. Special emphasis is placed on the clinical data, genetic models, and the effects of ADDs on NCAM/PSA-NCAM expression in the brain regions in which these proteins are constitutively expressed and neurogenesis is not a major factor; this emphasis is necessary to prevent cell proliferation and neurogenesis from obscuring the issue of brain plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Wędzony
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Department of Pharmacologcy, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland.
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Engineering the product profile of a polysialyltransferase. Nat Chem Biol 2014; 10:437-42. [PMID: 24727899 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Oligo- and polysaccharides have myriad applications as therapeutic reagents from glycoconjugate vaccines to matrices for tissue engineering. Polysaccharide length may vary over several orders of magnitude and is a critical determinant of both their physical properties and biological activities. Therefore, the tailored synthesis of oligo- and polysaccharides of defined size is a major goal for glycoengineering. By mutagenesis and screening of a bacterial polysialyltransferase (polyST), we identified a single-residue switch that controls the size distribution of polymeric products. Specific substitutions at this site yielded distributive enzymes that synthesize polysaccharides with narrow size distribution ideal for glycoengineering applications. Mechanistic investigation revealed that the wild-type enzyme has an extended binding site that accommodates at least 20 residues of the growing polymer; changes in affinity along this binding site allow fine-tuning of the enzyme's product distribution.
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El Maarouf A, Yaw DML, Rutishauser U. Improved stem cell-derived motoneuron survival, migration, sprouting, and innervation with enhanced expression of polysialic acid. Cell Transplant 2014; 24:797-809. [PMID: 24593882 DOI: 10.3727/096368914x679228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Motoneurons (MNs) derived from mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) begin to express low levels of polysialic acid (PSA) at the time when they acquire an ability to migrate and extend neurites. PSA is known to promote cell migration and process outgrowth/guidance in the developing nervous system. To test if experimentally enhanced expression of PSA would augment these cellular events, the PSA-synthesizing polysialyltransferase was introduced into ESCs. In culture, the resulting higher PSA expression specifically increased neurite outgrowth and cell migration from differentiated embryoid bodies. In addition, the MN population obtained after sorting for HB9::GFP expression showed enhanced survival as well as extensive neurite outgrowth. Following transplantation of ESC-derived MNs into an adult sciatic nerve devoid of endogenous axons, the PSA augmentation increased the numbers of axons growing toward the denervated muscles. Migration of some transplanted cells inside the nerve toward muscle was also enhanced. Moreover, higher PSA expression selectively affected target innervation. It produced greater numbers of neuromuscular junctions in a predominantly fast twitch muscle and had no effect in a slow twitch muscle. These findings suggest that engineering of PSA expression in ESC could serve as an enhancement for MN cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abderrahman El Maarouf
- Cellular and Developmental Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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Wolf S, Warnecke S, Ehrit J, Freiberger F, Gerardy-Schahn R, Meier C. Chemical synthesis and enzymatic testing of CMP-sialic acid derivatives. Chembiochem 2012; 13:2605-15. [PMID: 23129454 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The cycloSal approach has been used in the past for the synthesis of a range of phosphorylated bioconjugates. In those reports, cycloSal nucleotides were allowed to react with different phosphate nucleophiles. With glycopyranosyl phosphates as nucleophiles, diphosphate-linked sugar nucleotides were formed. Here, cycloSal-nucleotides were used to prepare monophosphate-linked sugar nucleotides successfully in high anomeric purity and high chemical yield. The method was successfully used for the synthesis of three nucleotide glycopyranoses as model compounds. The method was then applied to the syntheses of CMP-N-acetyl-neuraminic acids (CMP-Neu5NAc) and of four derivatives with different modifications at their amino functions (N-propanoyl, N-butanoyl, N-pentanoyl and N-cyclopropylcarbonyl). The compounds were used for initial enzymatic studies with a bacterial polysialyltransferase (polyST). Surprisingly, the enzyme showed marked differences in terms of utilisation of the four derivatives. The N-propanoyl, N-butanoyl, and N-pentanoyl derivatives were efficiently used in a first transfer with a fluorescently labelled trisialo-acceptor. However, elongation of the resulting tetrasialo-acceptors worsened progressively with the size of the N-acyl chain. The N-pentanoyl derivative allowed a single transfer, leading to a capped tetramer. The N-cyclopropylcarbonyl derivative was not transferred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Wolf
- Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
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El Maarouf A, Moyo-Lee Yaw D, Lindhout T, Pearse DD, Wakarchuk W, Rutishauser U. Enzymatic engineering of polysialic acid on cells in vitro and in vivo using a purified bacterial polysialyltransferase. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:32770-9. [PMID: 22851175 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.377614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In vertebrates, polysialic acid (PSA) is typically added to the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) in the Golgi by PST or STX polysialyltransferase. PSA promotes plasticity, and its enhanced expression by viral delivery of the PST or STX gene has been shown to promote cellular processes that are useful for repair of the injured adult nervous system. Here we demonstrate a new strategy for PSA induction on cells involving addition of a purified polysialyltransferase from Neisseria meningitidis (PST(Nm)) to the extracellular environment. In the presence of its donor substrate (CMP-Neu5Ac), PST(Nm) synthesized PSA directly on surfaces of various cell types in culture, including Chinese hamster ovary cells, chicken DF1 fibroblasts, primary rat Schwann cells, and mouse embryonic stem cells. Similarly, injection of PST(Nm) and donor in vivo was able to produce PSA in different adult brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, striatum, and spinal cord. PSA synthesis by PST(Nm) requires the presence of the donor CMP-Neu5Ac, and the product could be degraded by the PSA-specific endoneuraminidase-N. Although PST(Nm) was able to add PSA to NCAM, most of its product was attached to other cell surface proteins. Nevertheless, the PST(Nm)-induced PSA displayed the ability to attenuate cell adhesion, promote neurite outgrowth, and enhance cell migration as has been reported for endogenous PSA-NCAM. Polysialylation by PST(Nm) occurred in vivo in less than 2.5 h, persisted in tissues, and then decreased within a few weeks. Together these characteristics suggest that a PST(Nm)-based approach may provide a valuable alternative to PST gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abderrahman El Maarouf
- Department of Cell Biology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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Mouse brain PSA-NCAM levels are altered by graded-controlled cortical impact injury. Neural Plast 2012; 2012:378307. [PMID: 22848850 PMCID: PMC3403363 DOI: 10.1155/2012/378307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a worldwide endemic that results in unacceptably high morbidity and mortality. Secondary injury processes following primary injury are composed of intricate interactions between assorted molecules that ultimately dictate the degree of longer-term neurological deficits. One comparatively unexplored molecule that may contribute to exacerbation of injury or enhancement of recovery is the posttranslationally modified polysialic acid form of neural cell adhesion molecule, PSA-NCAM. This molecule is a critical modulator of central nervous system plasticity and reorganization after injury. In this study, we used controlled cortical impact (CCI) to produce moderate or severe TBI in the mouse. Immunoblotting and immunohistochemical analysis were used to track the early (2, 24, and 48 hour) and late (1 and 3 week) time course and location of changes in the levels of PSA-NCAM after TBI. Variable and heterogeneous short- and long-term increases or decreases in expression were found. In general, alterations in PSA-NCAM levels were seen in the cerebral cortex immediately after injury, and these reductions persisted in brain regions distal to the primary injury site, especially after severe injury. This information provides a starting point to dissect the role of PSA-NCAM in TBI-related pathology and recovery.
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Bonfanti L, Nacher J. New scenarios for neuronal structural plasticity in non-neurogenic brain parenchyma: the case of cortical layer II immature neurons. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 98:1-15. [PMID: 22609484 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system, due to its interaction with the environment, must be endowed with plasticity. Conversely, the nervous tissue must be substantially static to ensure connectional invariability. Structural plasticity can be viewed as a compromise between these requirements. In adult mammals, brain structural plasticity is strongly reduced with respect to other animal groups in the phylogenetic tree. It persists under different forms, which mainly consist of remodeling of neuronal shape and connectivity, and, to a lesser extent, the production of new neurons. Adult neurogenesis is mainly restricted within two neurogenic niches, yet some gliogenic and neurogenic processes also occur in the so-called non-neurogenic tissue, starting from parenchymal progenitors. In this review we focus on a population of immature, non-newly generated neurons in layer II of the cerebral cortex, which were previously thought to be newly generated since they heavily express the polysialylated form of the neural cell adhesion molecule and doublecortin. These unusual neurons exhibit characteristics defining an additional type of structural plasticity, different from either synaptic plasticity or adult neurogenesis. Evidences concerning their morphology, antigenic features, ultrastructure, phenotype, origin, fate, and reaction to different kind of stimulations are gathered and analyzed. Their possible role is discussed in the context of an enriched complexity and heterogeneity of mammalian brain structural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole 10, Orbassano (TO), and Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
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Tsuchiya A, Kamimura H, Tamura Y, Takamura M, Yamagiwa S, Suda T, Nomoto M, Aoyagi Y. Hepatocellular carcinoma with progenitor cell features distinguishable by the hepatic stem/progenitor cell marker NCAM. Cancer Lett 2011; 309:95-103. [PMID: 21669487 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2011.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2011] [Revised: 05/14/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) with progenitor cell features using hepatic stem/progenitor cell marker neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). Approximately 8.3% of the operated HCC cases expressed NCAM, and 22.3% of the HCC patients had soluble NCAM levels >1000ng/ml (the "highly soluble" NCAM group). Soluble NCAM status was a significant independent factor predictive of long-term survival in patients with HCC, and high levels of soluble NCAM were significantly related to intrahepatic metastasis. The 140-kDa NCAM isoform was specifically detected in the "highly soluble" NCAM group of HCC patients andits related signals are potential drug targets for NCAM+ HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsunori Tsuchiya
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Science, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi-dori, Chuo-ku, Niigata, Japan.
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Langhauser M, Ustinova J, Rivera-Milla E, Ivannikov D, Seidl C, Slomka C, Finne J, Yoshihara Y, Bastmeyer M, Bentrop J. Ncam1a and Ncam1b: Two carriers of polysialic acid with different functions in the developing zebrafish nervous system. Glycobiology 2011; 22:196-209. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwr129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Kraev I, Henneberger C, Rossetti C, Conboy L, Kohler LB, Fantin M, Jennings A, Venero C, Popov V, Rusakov D, Stewart MG, Bock E, Berezin V, Sandi C. A peptide mimetic targeting trans-homophilic NCAM binding sites promotes spatial learning and neural plasticity in the hippocampus. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23433. [PMID: 21887252 PMCID: PMC3160849 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The key roles played by the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) in plasticity and cognition underscore this membrane protein as a relevant target to develop cognitive-enhancing drugs. However, NCAM is a structurally and functionally complex molecule with multiple domains engaged in a variety of actions, which raise the question as to which NCAM fragment should be targeted. Synthetic NCAM mimetic peptides that mimic NCAM sequences relevant to specific interactions allow identification of the most promising targets within NCAM. Recently, a decapeptide ligand of NCAM—plannexin, which mimics a homophilic trans-binding site in Ig2 and binds to Ig3—was developed as a tool for studying NCAM's trans-interactions. In this study, we investigated plannexin's ability to affect neural plasticity and memory formation. We found that plannexin facilitates neurite outgrowth in primary hippocampal neuronal cultures and improves spatial learning in rats, both under basal conditions and under conditions involving a deficit in a key plasticity-promoting posttranslational modification of NCAM, its polysialylation. We also found that plannexin enhances excitatory synaptic transmission in hippocampal area CA1, where it also increases the number of mushroom spines and the synaptic expression of the AMPAR subunits GluA1 and GluA2. Altogether, these findings provide compelling evidence that plannexin is an important facilitator of synaptic functional, structural and molecular plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 region, highlighting the fragment in NCAM's Ig3 module where plannexin binds as a novel target for the development of cognition-enhancing drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Kraev
- Department of Life Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Henneberger
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
| | - Clara Rossetti
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Conboy
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lene B. Kohler
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martina Fantin
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alistair Jennings
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
| | - Cesar Venero
- Department of Psychobiology, UNED, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain
| | - Victor Popov
- Department of Life Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - Dmitri Rusakov
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael G. Stewart
- Department of Life Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (CS); (MGS)
| | - Elisabeth Bock
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vladimir Berezin
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (CS); (MGS)
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Køhler LB, Christensen C, Rossetti C, Fantin M, Sandi C, Bock E, Berezin V. Dennexin peptides modeled after the homophilic binding sites of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) promote neuronal survival, modify cell adhesion and impair spatial learning. Eur J Cell Biol 2010; 89:817-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2010.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
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