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Jory M, Donnarumma D, Blanc C, Bellouma K, Fort A, Vachier I, Casanellas L, Bourdin A, Massiera G. Mucus from human bronchial epithelial cultures: rheology and adhesion across length scales. Interface Focus 2022; 12:20220028. [PMID: 36330325 PMCID: PMC9560788 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2022.0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucus is a viscoelastic aqueous fluid that participates in the protective barrier of many mammals' epithelia. In the airways, together with cilia beating, mucus rheological properties are crucial for lung mucociliary function, and, when impaired, potentially participate in the onset and progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Samples of human mucus collected in vivo are inherently contaminated and are thus poorly characterized. Human bronchial epithelium (HBE) cultures, differentiated from primary cells at an air-liquid interface, are highly reliable models to assess non-contaminated mucus. In this paper, the viscoelastic properties of HBE mucus derived from healthy subjects, patients with COPD and from smokers are measured. Hallmarks of shear-thinning and elasticity are obtained at the macroscale, whereas at the microscale mucus appears as a heterogeneous medium showing an almost Newtonian behaviour in some extended regions and an elastic behaviour close to boundaries. In addition, we developed an original method to probe mucus adhesion at the microscopic scale using optical tweezers. The measured adhesion forces and the comparison with mucus-simulants rheology as well as mucus imaging collectively support a structure composed of a network of elastic adhesive filaments with a large mesh size, embedded in a very soft gel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Jory
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Dario Donnarumma
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Christophe Blanc
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Karim Bellouma
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Aurélie Fort
- Inserm U1046, Université de Montpellier, Respiratory Disease, CHU Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
- Médecine Biologie Méditerranée, Montpellier, France
| | - Isabelle Vachier
- Inserm U1046, Université de Montpellier, Respiratory Disease, CHU Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
- Médecine Biologie Méditerranée, Montpellier, France
| | - Laura Casanellas
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Arnaud Bourdin
- Inserm U1046, Université de Montpellier, Respiratory Disease, CHU Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Gladys Massiera
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb, Université de Montpellier and CNRS UMR 5221, 34095 Montpellier, France
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2
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de la Guerra PA, Corvera Poiré E. Pulsatile parallel flow of air and a viscoelastic fluid with multiple characteristic times. An application to mucus in the trachea and the frequency of cough. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2022; 34:314003. [PMID: 35561687 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ac6fa7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We study the dynamics of a binary fluid, where the two fluids are flowing parallel to each other in a cylindrical geometry, and driven by a pulsatile pressure gradient. One of the fluids is a low viscosity Newtonian fluid, the other one is viscoelastic. In order to be able to apply the model to different biofluids, we consider that the viscoelastic fluid has several characteristic times. We characterize the dynamics of the fluids as generalized Darcy's laws, with linear response functions to pulsatile pressure gradients, whose parameters are coupled for both fluids through the fluid-fluid boundary conditions. We apply our results to the dynamics of mucus and air in the trachea and find that the frequency that allows for a larger movement of the mucus, coincides with the experimental frequency of cough. This allows us to propose a plausible explanation for the frequency of cough in healthy individuals, a mechanical process to expel noxious substances from the respiratory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Alberto de la Guerra
- Departamento de Física y Química Teórica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
| | - E Corvera Poiré
- Departamento de Física y Química Teórica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
- UBICS Institute of Complex Systems, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1, Barcelona 08028, Spain
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3
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Enhanced microscopic dynamics in mucus gels under a mechanical load in the linear viscoelastic regime. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2103995118. [PMID: 34728565 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2103995118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucus is a biological gel covering the surface of several tissues and ensuring key biological functions, including as a protective barrier against dehydration, pathogen penetration, or gastric acids. Mucus biological functioning requires a finely tuned balance between solid-like and fluid-like mechanical response, ensured by reversible bonds between mucins, the glycoproteins that form the gel. In living organisms, mucus is subject to various kinds of mechanical stresses, e.g., due to osmosis, bacterial penetration, coughing, and gastric peristalsis. However, our knowledge of the effects of stress on mucus is still rudimentary and mostly limited to macroscopic rheological measurements, with no insight into the relevant microscopic mechanisms. Here, we run mechanical tests simultaneously to measurements of the microscopic dynamics of pig gastric mucus. Strikingly, we find that a modest shear stress, within the macroscopic rheological linear regime, dramatically enhances mucus reorganization at the microscopic level, as signaled by a transient acceleration of the microscopic dynamics, by up to 2 orders of magnitude. We rationalize these findings by proposing a simple, yet general, model for the dynamics of physical gels under strain and validate its assumptions through numerical simulations of spring networks. These results shed light on the rearrangement dynamics of mucus at the microscopic scale, with potential implications in phenomena ranging from mucus clearance to bacterial and drug penetration.
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4
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Ford AG, Cao XZ, Papanikolas MJ, Kato T, Boucher RC, Markovetz MR, Hill DB, Freeman R, Forest MG. Molecular Dynamics Simulations to Explore the Structure and Rheological Properties of Normal and Hyperconcentrated Airway Mucus. STUDIES IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2021; 147:1369-1387. [PMID: 35221375 PMCID: PMC8871504 DOI: 10.1111/sapm.12433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We develop the first molecular dynamics model of airway mucus based on the detailed physical properties and chemical structure of the predominant gel-forming mucin MUC5B. Our airway mucus model leverages the LAMMPS open-source code [https://lammps.sandia.gov], based on the statistical physics of polymers, from single molecules to networks. On top of the LAMMPS platform, the chemical structure of MUC5B is used to superimpose proximity-based, non-covalent, transient interactions within and between the specific domains of MUC5B polymers. We explore feasible ranges of hydrophobic and electrostatic interaction strengths between MUC5B domains with 9 nanometer spatial and 1 nanosecond temporal resolution. Our goal here is to propose and test a mechanistic hypothesis for a striking clinical observation with respect to airway mucus: a 10-fold increase in non-swellable, dense structures called flakes during progression of cystic fibrosis disease. Among the myriad possible effects that might promote self-organization of MUC5B networks into flake structures, we hypothesize and confirm that the clinically confirmed increase in mucin concentration, from 1.5 to 5 mg/mL, alone is sufficient to drive the structure changes observed with scanning electron microscopy images from experimental samples. We post-process the LAMMPS simulated datasets at 1.5 and 5 mg/mL, both to image the structure transition and compare with scanning electron micrographs and to show that the 3.33-fold increase in concentration induces closer proximity of interacting electrostatic and hydrophobic domains, thereby amplifying the proximity-based strength of the interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew G Ford
- Dept. of Mathematics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | | | - Micah J Papanikolas
- Dept. of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Takafumi Kato
- Marsico Lung Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | | | | | - David B Hill
- Marsico Lung Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Ronit Freeman
- Dept. of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - M Gregory Forest
- Dept. of Mathematics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Dept. of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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5
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Pedersoli L, Zhang S, Briatico-Vangosa F, Petrini P, Cardinaels R, den Toonder J, Peneda Pacheco D. Engineered modular microphysiological models of the human airway clearance phenomena. Biotechnol Bioeng 2021; 118:3898-3913. [PMID: 34143430 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mucociliary clearance is a crucial mechanism that supports the elimination of inhaled particles, bacteria, pollution, and hazardous agents from the human airways, and it also limits the diffusion of aerosolized drugs into the airway epithelium. In spite of its relevance, few in vitro models sufficiently address the cumulative effect of the steric and interactive barrier function of mucus on the one hand, and the dynamic mucus transport imposed by ciliary mucus propulsion on the other hand. Here, ad hoc mucus models of physiological and pathological mucus are combined with magnetic artificial cilia to model mucociliary transport in both physiological and pathological states. The modular concept adopted in this study enables the development of mucociliary clearance models with high versatility since these can be easily modified to reproduce phenomena characteristic of healthy and diseased human airways while allowing to determine the effect of each parameter and/or structure separately on the overall mucociliary transport. These modular airway models can be available off-the-shelf because they are exclusively made of readily available materials, thus ensuring reproducibility across different laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Pedersoli
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Shuaizhong Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.,Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Francesco Briatico-Vangosa
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Petrini
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Ruth Cardinaels
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.,Soft Matter Rheology and Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Jaap den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.,Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Daniela Peneda Pacheco
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
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6
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Yilbas BS, Hassan G, Yilbas AE, Abubakar AA, Al-Qahtani H. On the Mechanism of Human Saliva Interaction with Environmental Dust in Relation to Spreading of Viruses. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:4714-4726. [PMID: 33835806 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Environmental effects such as dust mitigation can amplify the spread of viruses via inhaling infected dust particles. Infusion and the spreading rate of human saliva over the dust particles can play a critical role in contiguous virus spread. In the present study, mechanical and chemical interactions of human saliva with environmental dust particles are considered. The saliva droplet impact on dust particles is examined while mimicking saliva droplet spreading during coughing in a dusty ambience. The mechanisms of saliva infusion and cloaking on the dust particles are explored. The characteristics of saliva droplet normal and oblique impacts on a dust particle are examined experimentally and numerically to evaluate the amount of saliva residues on the impacted particle surface. The findings reveal that the saliva liquid infuses and cloaks the dust particle surfaces. The saliva droplet impact on the dust particles leaves a considerable amount of saliva residues on the impacted surfaces, which remain undried for a prolonged period in indoor environments. Weak adhesion of the saliva-infected dust particles on surfaces, such as glass surfaces, enables saliva-infected dust particles to rejoin neighboring ambient air while possessing a high potential for virus spreading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bekir Sami Yilbas
- Mechanical Engineering Department, KFUPM, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
- Center of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy (CoRE-RE), KFUPM, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
- Senior Researcher at K.A.CARE Energy Research & Innovation Center, DTV, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ghassan Hassan
- Mechanical Engineering Department, KFUPM, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
- Researcher at K.A.CARE Energy Research & Innovation Center, DTV, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ayse Elif Yilbas
- University of Ottawa, General Surgery, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Abba A Abubakar
- Mechanical Engineering Department, KFUPM, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
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7
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Peters G, Wendler O, Böhringer D, Gostian AO, Müller SK, Canziani H, Hesse N, Semmler M, Berry DA, Kniesburges S, Peukert W, Döllinger M. Human Laryngeal Mucus from the Vocal Folds: Rheological Characterization by Particle Tracking Microrheology and Oscillatory Shear Rheology. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021; 11. [PMID: 33850630 PMCID: PMC8041056 DOI: 10.3390/app11073011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mucus consistency affects voice physiology and is connected to voice disorders. Nevertheless, the rheological characteristics of human laryngeal mucus from the vocal folds remain unknown. Knowledge about mucus viscoelasticity enables fabrication of artificial mucus with natural properties, more realistic ex-vivo experiments and promotes a better understanding and improved treatment of dysphonia with regard to mucus consistency. We studied human laryngeal mucus samples from the vocal folds with two complementary approaches: 19 samples were successfully applied to particle tracking microrheology (PTM) and five additional samples to oscillatory shear rheology (OSR). Mucus was collected by experienced laryngologists from patients together with demographic data. The analysis of the viscoelasticity revealed diversity among the investigated mucus samples according to their rigidity (absolute G′ and G″). Moreover some samples revealed throughout solid-like character (G′ > G″), whereas some underwent a change from solid-like to liquid-like (G′ < G″). This led to a subdivision into three groups. We assume that the reason for the differences is a variation in the hydration level of the mucus, which affects the mucin concentration and network formation factors of the mucin mesh. The demographic data could not be correlated to the differences, except for the smoking behavior. Mucus of predominant liquid-like character was associated with current smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Peters
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Div. of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Olaf Wendler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Div. of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - David Böhringer
- Biophysics Group, Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91052 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Antoniu-Oreste Gostian
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Sarina K Müller
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Herbert Canziani
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chair of Particle Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Nicolas Hesse
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chair of Particle Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marion Semmler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Div. of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - David A Berry
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA
| | - Stefan Kniesburges
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Div. of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Peukert
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chair of Particle Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Michael Döllinger
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Div. of Phoniatrics and Pediatric Audiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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8
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Paz C, Suárez E, Parga O, Vence J. Glottis effects on the cough clearance process simulated with a CFD dynamic mesh and Eulerian wall film model. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2017; 20:1326-1338. [PMID: 28782386 DOI: 10.1080/10255842.2017.1360872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we have reproduced the cough clearance process with an Eulerian wall film model. The simulated domain is based on realistic geometry from the literature, which has been improved by adding the glottis and epiglottis. The vocal fold movement has been included due to the dynamic mesh method, considering different abduction and adduction angles and velocities. The proposed methodology captures the deformation of the flexible tissue, considers non-Newtonian properties for the mucus, and enables us to reproduce a single cough or a cough epoch. The cough efficiency (CE) has been used to quantify the overall performance of the cough, considering many different boundary conditions, for the analysis of the glottis effect. It was observed that a viscous shear force is the main mechanism in the cough clearance process, while the glottis closure time and the epiglottis position do not have a significant effect on the CE. The cough assistance devices improve the CE, and the enhancement rate grows logarithmically with the operating pressure. The cough can achieve an effective mucus clearance process, even with a fixed glottis. Nevertheless, the glottis closure substantially improves the CE results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concepción Paz
- a School of Industrial Engineering , University of Vigo , Vigo , Spain.,b Biofluids Research Group , Galicia Sur Heath Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO , Vigo , Spain
| | - Eduardo Suárez
- a School of Industrial Engineering , University of Vigo , Vigo , Spain.,b Biofluids Research Group , Galicia Sur Heath Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO , Vigo , Spain
| | - Oscar Parga
- a School of Industrial Engineering , University of Vigo , Vigo , Spain
| | - Jesús Vence
- a School of Industrial Engineering , University of Vigo , Vigo , Spain
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9
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Abstract
While vocal fold dehydration is often considered an important factor contributing to vocal fatigue, it still remains unclear whether vocal fold vibration alone is able to induce severe dehydration that has a noticeable effect on phonation and perceived vocal effort. A three-dimensional model was developed to investigate vocal fold systemic dehydration and surface dehydration during phonation. Based on the linear poroelastic theory, the model considered water resupply from blood vessels through the lateral boundary, water movement within the vocal folds, water exchange between the vocal folds and the surface liquid layer through the epithelium, and surface fluid accumulation and discharge to the glottal airway. Parametric studies were conducted to investigate water loss within the vocal folds and from the surface after a 5-min sustained phonation under different permeability and vibration conditions. The results showed that the dehydration generally increased with increasing vibration amplitude, increasing epithelial permeability, and reduced water resupply. With adequate water resupply, a large-amplitude vibration can induce an overall systemic dehydration as high as 3%. The distribution of water loss within the vocal folds was non-uniform, and a local dehydration higher than 5% was observed even under conditions of a low overall systemic dehydration (<1%). Such high level of water loss may severely affect tissue properties, muscular functions, and phonations characteristics. In contrast, water loss of the surface liquid layer was generally an order of magnitude higher than water loss inside the vocal folds, indicating that the surface dehydration level is likely not a good indicator of the systemic dehydration.
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10
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Waigh TA. Advances in the microrheology of complex fluids. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2016; 79:074601. [PMID: 27245584 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/79/7/074601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
New developments in the microrheology of complex fluids are considered. Firstly the requirements for a simple modern particle tracking microrheology experiment are introduced, the error analysis methods associated with it and the mathematical techniques required to calculate the linear viscoelasticity. Progress in microrheology instrumentation is then described with respect to detectors, light sources, colloidal probes, magnetic tweezers, optical tweezers, diffusing wave spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, elastic- and quasi-elastic scattering techniques, 3D tracking, single molecule methods, modern microscopy methods and microfluidics. New theoretical techniques are also reviewed such as Bayesian analysis, oversampling, inversion techniques, alternative statistical tools for tracks (angular correlations, first passage probabilities, the kurtosis, motor protein step segmentation etc), issues in micro/macro rheological agreement and two particle methodologies. Applications where microrheology has begun to make some impact are also considered including semi-flexible polymers, gels, microorganism biofilms, intracellular methods, high frequency viscoelasticity, comb polymers, active motile fluids, blood clots, colloids, granular materials, polymers, liquid crystals and foods. Two large emergent areas of microrheology, non-linear microrheology and surface microrheology are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Andrew Waigh
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd., Manchester, M13 9PL, UK. Photon Science Institute, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd., Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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